THE POLYNESIANS AND THE SEA

THE POLYNESIANS AND THE SEA

CATALOGUE OF AN EXHIBITION

by A. LAVONDES

Translated by M. KELLUM - OTTINO and E. SAHORES

DBJECTS OF THE PAPEETE MUSEUM

Photographied by SYLVAIN

SOCIETE DES ETUDES OCEAI~IENNES

OFFICE DE LA RECHERCHE SCIENTIFIOUE ET TECHI~IOLIE OUTRE -MERCentre 0RSTOM de PAPEETE

PA PEET E- 1971

(:(J\'l'r. View of Iluahine. (:ook's ,\tlas.

2

(:(J\'l'r. View of Iluahine. (:ook's ,\tlas.

2

3

The exhibition "The Polynesians and theSea" has been organised by O.R.S. T.O.M. andthe Société de s Etude s Océanienne s.

General and technical organization : AnneLAVONDES, ethnologist of the O.R.S:r.O.M.

In charge of display and decoration : GérardGUYOT.

Photographs : Erwin CHRISTIAN, Cinephot,Etudes et Travaus Sous-Marins de Polynésie,Bernard GORSKY, Axel POIGNANT, WilliamREED, Service Mixte de Contrôle Biologique,SYLVAIN.

The Société des Etudes Océaniennes and theOR5TOM Center of Papeete wish ro thank thefollowing organizations and persons who havecollaborated in the planning of this exhibition:

- the Governor of French Polynesia. \lrPierre ANGE LI, who accepted to patroni~c theexhibition and enabled it ro benefit from hiskind support,

- the British Museum of London, whichauthorized the reproduction of objects and ofdocuments taken from its collections,

- the Office of Tourist Development and itsdirector, Mr Alec ATA for having put at theirdisposaI its exposition room and for having fi­nanced the purchase of show cases,

_. the Service de la Pêche, its director, MrSTEIN, and his collaboraror s Mrs. DARIUS, Mr.W. REED and Mr. J. TAPUfortheircontributionto the written and photographic documentationon pearl - shell and shrimp culture and on fish,

- and amongst the per sonnalities :Mrs. BONNEFOND, Mr Gilles ARTUR, Mr.FOURNANOIR, ML GARANGER, Mr and Mrs.Bertrand GERARD, Mrs M. KELLUM-OTTINO,Mr. LEGAND, Mrs. LE PELLEY, Mr. LEQUER­RF, J. MARTIN, the Rev. père O'RE ILLY,Mr. Tihoti RUSSEL, Mrs SA HORES, ML Tu­tah:1 SALMON, Dr. Y.H. SINOTO, Mr. VERNAU­IJOi':, The Pasror VERNIER, Mr. Rodo WIL­l fA.\IS, for thcir contribution ro the documenta­tion, to the drawings and for the translations.

fheir thanks go out particular ly to\1r. ItA. L. CRANSTONE and to Mr. and Mr~

POIGNANT who accepred with much kindness tu

L'hoose from the objects and the manuscriptspreserved in the British Museum and to havethem photographed.

Their recognition goes also to ML Yves deSAINT-FRONT, a weIl known artist in Tahiti,who was willing to contribute, by his talent,to the success of this exhibition.

3

The exhibition "The Polynesians and theSea" has been organised by O.R.S. T.O.M. andthe Société de s Etude s Océanienne s.

General and technical organization : AnneLAVONDES, ethnologist of the O.R.S:r.O.M.

In charge of display and decoration : GérardGUYOT.

Photographs : Erwin CHRISTIAN, Cinephot,Etudes et Travaus Sous-Marins de Polynésie,Bernard GORSKY, Axel POIGNANT, WilliamREED, Service Mixte de Contrôle Biologique,SYLVAIN.

The Société des Etudes Océaniennes and theOR5TOM Center of Papeete wish ro thank thefollowing organizations and persons who havecollaborated in the planning of this exhibition:

- the Governor of French Polynesia. \lrPierre ANGE LI, who accepted to patroni~c theexhibition and enabled it ro benefit from hiskind support,

- the British Museum of London, whichauthorized the reproduction of objects and ofdocuments taken from its collections,

- the Office of Tourist Development and itsdirector, Mr Alec ATA for having put at theirdisposaI its exposition room and for having fi­nanced the purchase of show cases,

_. the Service de la Pêche, its director, MrSTEIN, and his collaboraror s Mrs. DARIUS, Mr.W. REED and Mr. J. TAPUfortheircontributionto the written and photographic documentationon pearl - shell and shrimp culture and on fish,

- and amongst the per sonnalities :Mrs. BONNEFOND, Mr Gilles ARTUR, Mr.FOURNANOIR, ML GARANGER, Mr and Mrs.Bertrand GERARD, Mrs M. KELLUM-OTTINO,Mr. LEGAND, Mrs. LE PELLEY, Mr. LEQUER­RF, J. MARTIN, the Rev. père O'RE ILLY,Mr. Tihoti RUSSEL, Mrs SA HORES, ML Tu­tah:1 SALMON, Dr. Y.H. SINOTO, Mr. VERNAU­IJOi':, The Pasror VERNIER, Mr. Rodo WIL­l fA.\IS, for thcir contribution ro the documenta­tion, to the drawings and for the translations.

fheir thanks go out particular ly to\1r. ItA. L. CRANSTONE and to Mr. and Mr~

POIGNANT who accepred with much kindness tu

L'hoose from the objects and the manuscriptspreserved in the British Museum and to havethem photographed.

Their recognition goes also to ML Yves deSAINT-FRONT, a weIl known artist in Tahiti,who was willing to contribute, by his talent,to the success of this exhibition.

44

INTRODUCTION

This exhibition nccded a themc which 1S ofprcscnt-day intercst, and yet serves as a link\\'ill1 the pa st. Now thL' l'ulynesians have alwa~,..

'j\c·d very close tu llw sea. Even if thcy 11<1\"~'1l.1nged in many \\'n~ s since they undcnol,k'''L'ir great migratiulis far back in their hislOry,lhcy are still the same men of the sca, actingin that confidence which grows from many yearsof close companionship and wide experience.

When, upright on a surf-board they glideon a wave, or when in their narrow canoes theylose sight of their islands, or whcn they dive,spear-gun in hand, and lie in wait for a passingfish, they still amaze strangers by their easeand agility in face of the elements, revealing theattitude of people not trying to dominare naturebut rather to become part of it.

When lost at sea as still happensinour days,the Polynesians l'an survive for a very longtime by living on fish that they have caught 80­metimes by very precarious methods, whenthey have forgotten to leave a permanent supply.of hooks in sorne corner of their l'raft. Theyknow how to avoid wearing themselves out inuseless battles and if necessary, they can paddleand bail, paddle and bail for hours, even dayswhilc anyone else would have given up in fearand ils fatal consequences.

It must certainly have been this way when,in the past, they made the long voyages on theircanoes that were so low in the water that one

,could touch the sea with one' s hand.

By making use of their empirical, but oftenuseful knowledge of the different faces of thesea, the Winds,the swell, the cloud s, the cur­rents, the birds, the nature of the sea-bed, thedifferences in water temperature, the seasons,the days, the nights, the moon, the stars, thePolynesians have lived for centuries by takingfrom the ocean an important part of their food,ornamental and utilitarian ressources.

On the atolls where the ocean can be sensedand heard from every spot, the Polynesians de­pended upon it exclusively. And it wasn't sucha long time ago that he was plunged into it atbinh and returned there when he died.

11 is therefore easy to understand why therel<llionships between man and the sea had sucha great importance in Polynesian mythology andancient rituals ; chants and narrations concer­ning the sea, invocations before fishing, sacredcanoes ; stone image s in the form of fish or

5

turtles. Constructed with sacred rite s, the canoetransported the represemations of gods and, incertain circumstances, a stone coming from thehomeland marae of its occupants.

While being deeply roored to the land wherethey are bol' n, the Polynesians are equally at­tached to the sen which surrounds them. Morethan any other people in the world, they belongas much to one as to the other.

INTRODUCTION

This exhibition nccded a themc which 1S ofprcscnt-day intercst, and yet serves as a link\\'ill1 the pa st. Now thL' l'olynesians have alwa~,..

'j\c·d very close tu llw sea. Even if thcy 11<1\"~'1l.1nged in many \\'n~ s since they undcnollk,"L'ir great migratiulis far back in their hislOry,lhcy are still the same men of the sca, actingin that confidence which grows from many yearsof close companionship and wide experience.

When, upright on a surf-board they glideon a wave, or when in their narrow canoes theylose sight of their islands, or whcn they dive,spear-gun in hand, and lie in wait for a passingfish, they still amaze strangers by their easeand agility in face of the elements, revealing theattitude of people not trying to dominate naturebut rather to become part of it.

When lost at sea as still happensinour days,the Polynesians l'an survive for a very longtime by living on fish that they have caught 80­metimes by very precarious methods, whenthey have forgotten to leave a permanent supply.of hooks in sorne corner of their l'raft. Theyknow how to avoid wearing themselves out inuseless battles and if necessary, they can paddleand bail, paddle and bail for hours, even dayswhilc anyone else would have given up in fearand ils fatal consequences.

It must certainly have been this way when,in the past, they made the long voyages on theircanoes that were so low in the water that one

,could touch the sea with one' s hand.

By making use of their empirical, but oftenuseful knowledge of the different faces of thesea, the winds,the swell, the cloud s, the cur­rents, the birds, the nature of the sea-bed, thedifferences in water temperature, the seasons,the days, the nights, the moon, the stars, thePolynesians have lived for centuries by takingfrom the ocean an important part of their food,ornamental and utilitarian ressources.

On the atolls where the ocean can be sensedand heard from every spot, the Polynesians de­pended upon it exclusively. And it wasn't sucha long time ago that he was plunged into it atbinh and returned there when he died.

11 is therefore easy to understand why therel<llionships between man and the sea had sucha great importance in Polynesian mythology andancient rituals ; chants and narrations concer­ning the sea, invocations before fishing, sacredcanoes ; stone image s in the form of fish or

5

turtles. Constructed with sacred rite s, the canoetransported the represemations of gods and, incertain circumstances, a stone coming from thehomeland marae of its occupants.

While being deeply rooted to the land wherethey are bol' n, the Polynesians are equally at­tached to the sea which surrounds them. Morethan any other people in the world, they belongas much to one as to the other.

2

2. The oldest anifacts found in French Polynesia.They come from the coasta1 dune site of Hanc,on Uahuka in the Marquesas and were excavatedby Y. H. Sinoto of the Bishop Museum.Top : perforated bone harpoon head, the origi­nal of which is at the Bishop Museum.Be1ow; from 1eft ta right : a fragment of non­decorated ponery. Pottery wa s found in very

6

small quantitics in rlll' c;uliest leve1 which da­tes from befon:: 850 :\.1). A pear1-shel1 harpoonhead. A worked spcrm wha1e tooth pcndanr.iRone and pear1-shl'll points and shank of ;)trolling hook for bonito fishing. Pear1-shellhooks and an incomD1eLC circu1ar hook in bonc.Bone hooks are found only in the carlil'r 1eve1s.

2

2. The oldest anifacts found in French Polynesia.They come from the coasta1 dune site of Hanc,on Uahuka in the Marquesas and were excavatedby Y. H. Sinoto of the Bishop Museum.Top : perforated bone harpoon head, the origi­nal of which is at the Bishop Museum.Be1ow; from 1eft ta right : a fragment of non­decorated ponery. Pottery wa s found in very

6

small quantitics in rlll' c;uliest leve1 which da­tes from befon:: 850 :\.1). A pear1-shel1 harpoonhead. A worked spcrm wha1e tooth pcndanr.iRone and pear1-shl'll points and shank of ;)trolling hook for bonito fishing. Pear1-shellhooks and an incomD1eLC circu1ar hook in bonc.Bone hooks are found only in the carlil'r 1eve1s.

THE MIGRATIONS

Pierre Adolphe LESSON, doctar, naturalistand philologist, 1880-1889, thought that aIl ofthe Polynesians originated from New Zealand.

2) THE PARTISANS 0 FAN AMERICAN ORIGIN

Several authors considered' that the Polyne.,.sians were not good enough navigatars ta havecome from the West agains the contrary windsand currents.

Who are the Polynesians ? Wherc do theycome from ? Ever since Oceania has bcenknown ta the western world thesc questions ha­ve been debated continously in many books andarticles. Travellers, writers and scholars havegiven varied answers, many of which are pure1.lnw,.,y.liowever, sorne of these, and not neces­.-.)" i 1 \ the most modern, can be regarded as"C:IïOUS hypothescs and are often confirmed bypresent research. But because the sCientificknowledge in the fields of anthropology, linguis­tics and archeology was still taorudimentary,not one of these theories was based on suffi­dent facto Often just custams, words or isola­ted objects were selected for comparison wit­hout taking into suffide nt consideration the chro­nology and the histarical and cultural Contextsfrom which they were taken. Custams, whichwere not studied sy srematically, could be inter­preted differently and often the clements com­pared had nothing in common. There was alsothe rcndency ta forget that people far apan inspace and without contact with one anothercould come up with the same inventions andrealizations.

THE MOST IMPORTANT THEORlliS.

'With the information now available, it hasbecome possible ta separate these authorsaccording ta their convictions on the origin ofthe Polynesians.

Evidentally, this attempt ta classify becomesmore complicated as one approaches the pre­sent day authors, as the problems presentedbecome more and more complex.

Only a· certain number of those who havewritten on the question of the settle~ent ofPolynesia will be considered here, with thehelp of an anicle by Alan Howard (1967).

One can distinguish :

1) THE PARTISANS OF AN AUTOCHTHONOUSORIGIN OF THE, POLYNESIANS. .

J.A. MOERENHOUT, trader and writer, in1837 believed that there once existed a largeocea'nic continent of which the islands are theremains. He thought the Polynesians did notcome from elsewhere by migrations, but areautachthonous. This theory never became papu­lar since the geological evidence did not sup­pon the idea of a lost continent.

7

Sorne like the missionary William ELLIS,1830, suppose the Polynesians had a' distantAsiatic origin, that they had crossed ta Ameri­ca through the Bering Straits, and thence setforth into the Pacifie.

ln 1947, Thor HEYERDAHL tried ta prov~

to the world by his spectacular Kon Tiki raftexpcdition that the Polynesianscame from Am2-'rica. According ta him, a first migration leftthe nonh-west coast of America to settle inHawaii and in New Zealand. A second migrationtaok plaèe from the Peruvian coast: a pre-Inca,Caucasian-like population with a great techno­logical knowledge had civilized the Indians, thenoccupied East and Central Polynesia.

Heyerdahl's hypotheses arc based primarilyon the nature of the winds and currents of thePacific and cven though he also used archaelo­gical and botanical arguments as weIl as navi­gational techniques, his proofs remain veryweak and his whole the sis is tainted with anethnocentrism which renders it suspiciousfromthe stan. Its lack of constraint with regard ta,lny sort of chronnlogy is also the cause of nu­merous L'n'Urs .Inti gaps.

Many weIl known anthropologists and ar­chaeologists have taken a vigourous positionagainst Heyerdahl' s the sis. There still remains,however, the problem of the sweet potata. Inspite of the work of the ethnobotanists, in pani­cular D. YEN, it has not yet bcen solved. Known4000 years ago on the Peruvian coast, the sweetpatata constitues one of Heyerdahl 's argumentsin favor 0 a settlement of Polynesia from Ame­rica. How did the Polynesians obtain the sweetpotata and why did they not at the same timeadopt· corn which the Peruvians had bcen culti­vating for a long time ? If the Peruvians hadcome ta Polynesia, they would have cenainlybrought corn with them. If, on the other hand,it were the Polynesians who landed on thecoast of Peru, for cultural reasons they mayhave only taken the sweet patata since theywere traditionally root eaters and did not cul­tivate cereals. In the end nothing is know aboutthe contacts that might have taken place bct­ween Polynesia and America before the voya­ges of the first Spanish saHors (Mendana, Qui­ros 1595).

3) THOSE WHO FAVOR A WEST PACIFieORIGIN OF THE POLYNESIANS.

THE MIGRATIONS

Pierre Adolphe LESSON, doctar, naturalistand philologist, 1880-1889, thought that aIl ofthe Polynesians originated from New Zealand.

2) THE PARTISANS 0 FAN AMERICAN ORIGIN

Several authors considered' that the Polyne.,.sians were not good enough navigatars ta havecome from the West agains the contrary windsand currents.

Who are the Polynesians ? Wherc do theycome from ? Ever since Oceania has bcenknown ta the western world thesc questions ha­ve been debated continously in many books andarticles. Travellers, writers and scholars havegiven varied answers, many of which are pure1.lnw,.,y.liowever, sorne of these, and not neces­.-.)" i 1 \ the most modern, can be regarded as"C:IïOUS hypothescs and are often confirmed bypresent research. But because the sCientificknowledge in the fields of anthropology, linguis­tics and archeology was still taorudimentary,not one of these theories was based on suffi­dent facto Often just custams, words or isola­ted objects were selected for comparison wit­hout taking into suffide nt consideration the chro­nology and the histarical and cultural Contextsfrom which they were taken. Custams, whichwere not studied sy srematically, could be inter­preted differently and often the clements com­pared had nothing in common. There was alsothe rcndency ta forget that people far apan inspace and without contact with one anothercould come up with the same inventions andrealizations.

THE MOST IMPORTANT THEORlliS.

'With the information now available, it hasbecome possible ta separate these authorsaccording ta their convictions on the origin ofthe Polynesians.

Evidentally, this attempt ta classify becomesmore complicated as one approaches the pre­sent day authors, as the problems presentedbecome more and more complex.

Only a· certain number of those who havewritten on the question of the settle~ent ofPolynesia will be considered here, with thehelp of an anicle by Alan Howard (1967).

One can distinguish :

1) THE PARTISANS OF AN AUTOCHTHONOUSORIGIN OF THE, POLYNESIANS. .

J.A. MOERENHOUT, trader and writer, in1837 believed that there once existed a largeocea'nic continent of which the islands are theremains. He thought the Polynesians did notcome from elsewhere by migrations, but areautachthonous. This theory never became papu­lar since the geological evidence did not sup­pon the idea of a lost continent.

7

Sorne like the missionary William ELLIS,1830, suppose the Polynesians had a' distantAsiatic origin, that they had crossed ta Ameri­ca through the Bering Straits, and thence setforth into the Pacifie.

ln 1947, Thor HEYERDAHL tried ta prov~

to the world by his spectacular Kon Tiki raftexpcdition that the Polynesianscame from Am2-'rica. According ta him, a first migration leftthe nonh-west coast of America to settle inHawaii and in New Zealand. A second migrationtaok plaèe from the Peruvian coast: a pre-Inca,Caucasian-like population with a great techno­logical knowledge had civilized the Indians, thenoccupied East and Central Polynesia.

Heyerdahl's hypotheses arc based primarilyon the nature of the winds and currents of thePacific and cven though he also used archaelo­gical and botanical arguments as weIl as navi­gational techniques, his proofs remain veryweak and his whole the sis is tainted with anethnocentrism which renders it suspiciousfromthe stan. Its lack of constraint with regard ta,lny sort of chronnlogy is also the cause of nu­merous L'n'Urs .Inti gaps.

Many weIl known anthropologists and ar­chaeologists have taken a vigourous positionagainst Heyerdahl' s the sis. There still remains,however, the problem of the sweet potata. Inspite of the work of the ethnobotanists, in pani­cular D. YEN, it has not yet bcen solved. Known4000 years ago on the Peruvian coast, the sweetpatata constitues one of Heyerdahl 's argumentsin favor 0 a settlement of Polynesia from Ame­rica. How did the Polynesians obtain the sweetpotata and why did they not at the same timeadopt· corn which the Peruvians had bcen culti­vating for a long time ? If the Peruvians hadcome ta Polynesia, they would have cenainlybrought corn with them. If, on the other hand,it were the Polynesians who landed on thecoast of Peru, for cultural reasons they mayhave only taken the sweet patata since theywere traditionally root eaters and did not cul­tivate cereals. In the end nothing is know aboutthe contacts that might have taken place bct­ween Polynesia and America before the voya­ges of the first Spanish saHors (Mendana, Qui­ros 1595).

3) THOSE WHO FAVOR A WEST PACIFieORIGIN OF THE POLYNESIANS.

The supporter s of this theory are more nu­merous and they start with James COOK, navi­gator, 1784, and Horatio HALE, linguist; 1846 :the Polynesians are of the same race as theEast Indians. Eastern Polynesia would have been

. settled from Tonga and Samoa. Armand deQUATREFAGES, naturalist and anthropologist,1866 : the Polynesians are descendants of theMalays. Like Hale, Quatrefages used geneolo­gies to date the migrations. Basing himself onthe average length of a European ruler'sreign,he counted about twenty one years per genera­tion and in this way arrived at dates very closeto those presently accepted for the settlementof Polynesia. Abraham FORNANDER, 1878, ba­sed his argument for a western origin on thelegends and cosmogonies.

.Towards the end of the 19thcentury, thereappeared the theories of successive wave mi­'grations from the west, sometimes along dif­ferent routes.

Scholar s~ and in particular linguists, havetried to specify the origin 0 f ,the populationsthat took part in these different migrations.

E.S. CRAIGHILL HANDY, ethnologist, 1930,added considerable support to the theory inwhich Polynesia hact been settled by two suc­cessive waves. He gives as proof the two dif­ferent elements that existed in Tahiti, the mana­hune or tenants who represented the first waveand the arii or chiefs, a more recent and evol­ved .population. But more than purposeful mi­grations, it was the accidentaI voyages exten­ding over thousands of year s that explainedthe peopling of Polynesia:

This theory, based on conjectural ethnology,has since been almost completely abandoned.

The first studies of the cultural differencesexisting within Polynesia and on the relations­ships between the islands groups were madeby Peter BUCK, Kenneth P. EMORy and H.D.SKINNER.

H.D. SKINNER, archeologist and museumo­logist, 1933; distinguished two cultural areas :western Polynesia consisting of Samoa and Ton­ga and "marginal Polynesia" incl udin~ NewZealand and the other islands groups. His 8UP­porting evidence for Chis distinction came fromethnographic ançl archaeological documents andhe thought that Samoa and Tahiti were occupiedat the same time by weIl equipedœttlerswho hadleft Indonesia and the Phillipines around A.D.700 or 800. After having given up' pottery andmetal as a result of their great distance fromthe homeland, the Tahitians distinguished them­selves from the eastern Polynesians by theirelaborate art and craftsmanship.

. Peter H. BUCK, the ethnologist whose Poly­nesian name was Te Rangi Hiroa, was Maorion his mother's side. For a long time he was

8

the director of the Bernice P. Bishop Museumof Honolulu. Distressed to see the Polynesiantraditions disappearing so rapidly he spent hislife time accumulating a great mass of ethno­graphic material. on Polynesia. After havingselected from this documentation what he con­sidered reliable, and adding ta it his ownthoughts, he built his theory on the origin ofhis people (1938).

He believed that the Polynesians came fromIndia, and after having passed through Indone sia,they continued their route via the atolls of Microne sia until they reached the Gilberts. Fromthere, a f{rst wave settled Samoa, Tonga, theSociety Islands and Hawaii. The manahune werethe descendants of these first settlers. Thena second wave left Micronesia and installeditself in Raiatea. Between the 12th and 14thcenturie s smaIler scale expeditions left forthe unknown froin the Society Islands wherelite had become difficult as a result of the in­crease in population and local wars.

The Marquesas were settled, then Manga­reva and Easter Island, and subsequently theCook Islands, Hawaii and New Zealand.

K. P. EMORY, archaeologist, 1959, announ­ced the direction in which research duringthe last ten year s was to take place. He thinksthat it is not necessary to seek for the Poly­nesians very far to the west since these peopledid not necessarily have the same physical as­pect, the same language and the same civiliza­tion as today. "What now appears most likely",

. he writes, "is that people of somewhat diverseorigins came together in a western archipelagoin the Polynesian area about B C 1500, and incomparative isolation, their descendants, theirlanguage and their culture took on the featureswhich Polynesians now share in common andwhich give them distinctive characteristics".

Robert C. SUGGS, archaeologist, 1957-1961,as a result of his archeological excavations onNukuhiva, Marquesas, puts back the Polynesiansmigrations to around B C 2.200. After havingleft southern China, Malayo- Polyne sian popula­tions passed through the Philippines and pro­gressively made their way into Melanesia andPapua. Tonga and Samoa would have been set­tled from Fiji. Around 200 B C the Marquesasand Tahiti were occupied. From the Marquesas,the Polynesians settled Easter Island, Manga­reva and the Eastern Tuamotus. The Hawaiianislands were reached around A D 100, and NewZealand around A D 1000, both from Tahiti, asweIl as the Austral Islands and the desternTuamotus.

This hypothesis, which like the preceedingones q,efinately puts aside Buck's thesis of asettlement through Micronesia, is the last bigtheory suggesting the displacemems of the Po­lynesians from their presumed origin in South­East Asia across to the islands of eastern Po­lynesia.

The supporter s of this theory are more nu­merous and they start with James COOK, navi­gator, 1784, and Horatio HALE, linguist; 1846 :the Polynesians are of the same race as theEast Indians. Eastern Polynesia would have been

. settled from Tonga and Samoa. Armand deQUATREFAGES, naturalist and anthropologist,1866 : the Polynesians are descendants of theMalays. Like Hale, Quatrefages used geneolo­gies to date the migrations. Basing himself onthe average length of a European ruler'sreign,he counted about twenty one years per genera­tion and in this way arrived at dates very closeto those presently accepted for the settlementof Polynesia. Abraham FORNANDER, 1878, ba­sed his argument for a western origin on thelegends and cosmogonies.

.Towards the end of the 19thcentury, thereappeared the theories of successive wave mi­'grations from the west, sometimes along dif­ferent routes.

Scholar s~ and in particular linguists, havetried to specify the origin 0 f ,the populationsthat took part in these different migrations.

E.S. CRAIGHILL HANDY, ethnologist, 1930,added considerable support to the theory inwhich Polynesia hact been settled by two suc­cessive waves. He gives as proof the two dif­ferent elements that existed in Tahiti, the mana­hune or tenants who represented the first waveand the arii or chiefs, a more recent and evol­ved .population. But more than purposeful mi­grations, it was the accidentaI voyages exten­ding over thousands of year s that explainedthe peopling of Polynesia:

This theory, based on conjectural ethnology,has since been almost completely abandoned.

The first studies of the cultural differencesexisting within Polynesia and on the relations­ships between the islands groups were madeby Peter BUCK, Kenneth P. EMORy and H.D.SKINNER.

H.D. SKINNER, archeologist and museumo­logist, 1933; distinguished two cultural areas :western Polynesia consisting of Samoa and Ton­ga and "marginal Polynesia" incl udin~ NewZealand and the other islands groups. His 8UP­porting evidence for Chis distinction came fromethnographic ançl archaeological documents andhe thought that Samoa and Tahiti were occupiedat the same time by weIl equipedœttlerswho hadleft Indonesia and the Phillipines around A.D.700 or 800. After having given up' pottery andmetal as a result of their great distance fromthe homeland, the Tahitians distinguished them­selves from the eastern Polynesians by theirelaborate art and craftsmanship.

. Peter H. BUCK, the ethnologist whose Poly­nesian name was Te Rangi Hiroa, was Maorion his mother's side. For a long time he was

8

the director of the Bernice P. Bishop Museumof Honolulu. Distressed to see the Polynesiantraditions disappearing so rapidly he spent hislife time accumulating a great mass of ethno­graphic material. on Polynesia. After havingselected from this documentation what he con­sidered reliable, and adding ta it his ownthoughts, he built his theory on the origin ofhis people (1938).

He believed that the Polynesians came fromIndia, and after having passed through Indone sia,they continued their route via the atolls of Microne sia until they reached the Gilberts. Fromthere, a f{rst wave settled Samoa, Tonga, theSociety Islands and Hawaii. The manahune werethe descendants of these first settlers. Thena second wave left Micronesia and installeditself in Raiatea. Between the 12th and 14thcenturie s smaIler scale expeditions left forthe unknown froin the Society Islands wherelite had become difficult as a result of the in­crease in population and local wars.

The Marquesas were settled, then Manga­reva and Easter Island, and subsequently theCook Islands, Hawaii and New Zealand.

K. P. EMORY, archaeologist, 1959, announ­ced the direction in which research duringthe last ten year s was to take place. He thinksthat it is not necessary to seek for the Poly­nesians very far to the west since these peopledid not necessarily have the same physical as­pect, the same language and the same civiliza­tion as today. "What now appears most likely",

. he writes, "is that people of somewhat diverseorigins came together in a western archipelagoin the Polynesian area about B C 1500, and incomparative isolation, their descendants, theirlanguage and their culture took on the featureswhich Polynesians now share in common andwhich give them distinctive characteristics".

Robert C. SUGGS, archaeologist, 1957-1961,as a result of his archeological excavations onNukuhiva, Marquesas, puts back the Polynesiansmigrations to around B C 2.200. After havingleft southern China, Malayo- Polyne sian popula­tions passed through the Philippines and pro­gressively made their way into Melanesia andPapua. Tonga and Samoa would have been set­tled from Fiji. Around 200 B C the Marquesasand Tahiti were occupied. From the Marquesas,the Polynesians settled Easter Island, Manga­reva and the Eastern Tuamotus. The Hawaiianislands were reached around A D 100, and NewZealand around A D 1000, both from Tahiti, asweIl as the Austral Islands and the desternTuamotus.

This hypothesis, which like the preceedingones q,efinately puts aside Buck's thesis of asettlement through Micronesia, is the last bigtheory suggesting the displacemems of the Po­lynesians from their presumed origin in South­East Asia across to the islands of eastern Po­lynesia.

The question of whether or not the Polyne­sians were great navigators has raised nearlyas much controver sy as that of their Asiaticversus American origine In 1956, Andrew SHARPwrote that the Polyne siansdid not have sufficientknowledge of navigation to undertake long, oceanvoyages. Hawaii and New Zealand coul~ only h~ve

been settled by accidentaI voyages. ThIS questionwas la ter debated among specialists of the Pa­cifie research scholars and navigators (1962­1963). Even though they demonstrated the empi­rical and rudimentary character of the ancientPolynesian knowledge in navigation, this did notexclude purposeful voyaging over relatively longdistances. This only makes them seem aU themore extraordinary and fascinating.

THE PRESENT STATE OF THE QUESTION.

Ethnology, and in particular the study ofgeneologies and legends have now pro,:ed t~eir

weakness in resolving the problem of mIgratiOn, .so it is the turn of phy sical anthropology, ethno­botany and most of aIl linguistics and archaeo­logy to take over.

But the investigators in these fields who nolonger have the rather ambiguous de sire ta con­dliate the observed facts and the mythologies ofthe great Polynesian odyssee could appea.r to thenon iniated rather discouraging b y thelr pro­sa-ism and their modesty. They have renouncedthe long arrows traced across the Pacific, andproceeding step by step, they only compare whatis immediately comparable, such as word lists,dates and identical objects. If they do find tracesof big migrations, they only reveal short distan­ces.

In linguistics, the similarity between the lan­guages spoken in the different Polynesian islandgroups had already been remarked upon Cook andhis companions. Scholarsalsorealized very ear­ly that a relationship existed between the Malayand Polynesian languages. They deduced theexistence of a large malayo-polynesian linguis­tic area which al so incl uded Madaga scar.

Today, the linguists are working- at recons­tituing the language that would have beenances­toral to the present day Polynesian languages.These languages are compared by refined phone­tical analysis, semantics and grammar and asearch is made for the similaritie sand diffe­rences between them. The linguists have shownthe relationship that exists between the Mela­nesian languages - in particular those of Rotu­ma, Fiji, S.E. Salomons, and central New He­bredies - and the Polynesian languages. One ofthem, Bruce BIGGS, even goes as far as statingthat linguistically there is no proof what soever that the Polynesian migrations came fromregions situated any furrher west than Melane­sia. For him, Polynesia is a branch of Melanc­sia.

9

As will be seen later, this opinion is not incontradiction with the latest archaeological evi­dence.

The archaeological work of the se past fewyears is characterized most of aU by stratigra­phical excavations in which the principal cultu­ral layers can generally be dated by carbon 14.This method used in a wide range of site sandat great depths offers the possibilityof situa­ting fairly accurately in time the period.s of thefirst human occupation of these respective re­gions. It can immediately be seen after a quickchecking of sorne of the dates from the ancientlevels that the theory of a settlement from Ame­rica has no archaeological basis. Actually, themore one goes towards the east, the more re­cent are the dates.

The following dates are the most ancientreliable dates for a given site, but they do notnecessarily indicate the date of the first humanoccupation, which in certain cases could be evenfurfher back in time.

:\1arianna Islands, Saipan

(Spoehr) 1527 B.C.Marianna Islands,_Guam

B.C.(Reinman) 270New Britain, Watom Island,

500 B.C.(Specht)New-Hebredies, Makura

590 B.C.(Garanger)New-Hebredies, Tongoa

B.C.(Garanger) 510New Caledonia (Gifford) 850 B.C.Fiji, Sigatoka (Birks) 510 B. C.Tonga, Tongatapu

500 B.C.(Poulsen) aroundSamoa, Upolu (Green and

70 B.C.Davidson)Level of the fir St potterydiscovered in toSamoa A.D. 70

Marquesas, Uahuka850(Sinoto) A.D.

Easter Island(Mulloy) A.D. 857Society Islands, Mau-piti (E mory & Sinoto) A.D. 860

and 1190Society Islands, Moorea(E m:>ry & Sinoto) A.D. 1000

(around)Hawaii, Oahy (E mory) A.D. 957New Zealand, WairauBar (Ouf[) A.D. 1150

The artifacts such as pottery, adzes, shelllOols, fish hooks, net weights, ornaments, poun­dérs, etc, found by the archaeologists duringthe excavations differ and evolve from one pe­riod to another, and in this way they also cha­racterize the different cultural levels. And be­cause identical objects are found in fairly far

The question of whether or not the Polyne­sians were great navigators has raised nearlyas much controver sy as that of their Asiaticversus American origine In 1956, Andrew SHARPwrote that the Polyne siansdid not have sufficientknowledge of navigation to undertake long, oceanvoyages. Hawaii and New Zealand coul~ only h~ve

been settled by accidentaI voyages. ThIS questionwas la ter debated among specialists of the Pa­cifie research scholars and navigators (1962­1963). Even though they demonstrated the empi­rical and rudimentary character of the ancientPolynesian knowledge in navigation, this did notexclude purposeful voyaging over relatively longdistances. This only makes them seem aU themore extraordinary and fascinating.

THE PRESENT STATE OF THE QUESTION.

Ethnology, and in particular the study ofgeneologies and legends have now pro,:ed t~eir

weakness in resolving the problem of mIgratiOn, .so it is the turn of phy sical anthropology, ethno­botany and most of aIl linguistics and archaeo­logy to take over.

But the investigators in these fields who nolonger have the rather ambiguous de sire ta con­dliate the observed facts and the mythologies ofthe great Polynesian odyssee could appea.r to thenon iniated rather discouraging b y thelr pro­sa-ism and their modesty. They have renouncedthe long arrows traced across the Pacific, andproceeding step by step, they only compare whatis immediately comparable, such as word lists,dates and identical objects. If they do find tracesof big migrations, they only reveal short distan­ces.

In linguistics, the similarity between the lan­guages spoken in the different Polynesian islandgroups had already been remarked upon Cook andhis companions. Scholarsalsorealized very ear­ly that a relationship existed between the Malayand Polynesian languages. They deduced theexistence of a large malayo-polynesian linguis­tic area which al so incl uded Madaga scar.

Today, the linguists are working- at recons­tituing the language that would have beenances­toral to the present day Polynesian languages.These languages are compared by refined phone­tical analysis, semantics and grammar and asearch is made for the similaritie sand diffe­rences between them. The linguists have shownthe relationship that exists between the Mela­nesian languages - in particular those of Rotu­ma, Fiji, S.E. Salomons, and central New He­bredies - and the Polynesian languages. One ofthem, Bruce BIGGS, even goes as far as statingthat linguistically there is no proof what soever that the Polynesian migrations came fromregions situated any furrher west than Melane­sia. For him, Polynesia is a branch of Melanc­sia.

9

As will be seen later, this opinion is not incontradiction with the latest archaeological evi­dence.

The archaeological work of the se past fewyears is characterized most of aU by stratigra­phical excavations in which the principal cultu­ral layers can generally be dated by carbon 14.This method used in a wide range of site sandat great depths offers the possibilityof situa­ting fairly accurately in time the period.s of thefirst human occupation of these respective re­gions. It can immediately be seen after a quickchecking of sorne of the dates from the ancientlevels that the theory of a settlement from Ame­rica has no archaeological basis. Actually, themore one goes towards the east, the more re­cent are the dates.

The following dates are the most ancientreliable dates for a given site, but they do notnecessarily indicate the date of the first humanoccupation, which in certain cases could be evenfurfher back in time.

:\1arianna Islands, Saipan

(Spoehr) 1527 B.C.Marianna Islands,_Guam

B.C.(Reinman) 270New Britain, Watom Island,

500 B.C.(Specht)New-Hebredies, Makura

590 B.C.(Garanger)New-Hebredies, Tongoa

B.C.(Garanger) 510New Caledonia (Gifford) 850 B.C.Fiji, Sigatoka (Birks) 510 B. C.Tonga, Tongatapu

500 B.C.(Poulsen) aroundSamoa, Upolu (Green and

70 B.C.Davidson)Level of the fir St potterydiscovered in toSamoa A.D. 70

Marquesas, Uahuka850(Sinoto) A.D.

Easter Island(Mulloy) A.D. 857Society Islands, Mau-piti (E mory & Sinoto) A.D. 860

and 1190Society Islands, Moorea(E m:>ry & Sinoto) A.D. 1000

(around)Hawaii, Oahy (E mory) A.D. 957New Zealand, WairauBar (Ouf[) A.D. 1150

The artifacts such as pottery, adzes, shelllOols, fish hooks, net weights, ornaments, poun­dérs, etc, found by the archaeologists duringthe excavations differ and evolve from one pe­riod to another, and in this way they also cha­racterize the different cultural levels. And be­cause identical objects are found in fairly far

3

-1

3. Voyaging ean(l('~ at the island ofl nh<.1a. Wac;h­draw ing caJour by Sydney Parkinson. llritishMuseum. 23921 f. 17

-1. Top : two auze . found in n burial site daringbnek ta nboui A.D, lOCH). One auzl' is recran­gul;}r in cross-section, Lht:' orher is trinngulJe1·: xcnvation' wc!" earricu oUlon iVlaupiti, in theSociety Islands by Y.H. ~inolo and K.P. Lm::>yyof the Bishop Mu ·eum.Bclow, From left t right:- a coniea! sinkcr for an oetopus lure ; thisform has only b en found in the carlic,'t1evclsbut in Sam'la ir exists ~h <'ln orcheological s\\'l.' 11 as nn cthna rraphiGll uhJl.'C:t.- an ad:œ wilh a quaur.ln!1u1,lf cr ss-=c i nand an adzc WiLh J Lriangular 'ross-section.lhl.'. ancient artifacls com:.: from Hanc, ~nr-

que sas.

10

3

-1

3. Voyaging ean(l('~ at the island ofl nh<.1a. Wac;h­draw ing ca10ur by Sydney Parkinson. llritishMuseum. 23921 f. 17

-1. Top : two auze . found in n burial site daringbnek ta nboui A.D, lOCH). One auzl' is recran­gul;}r in cross-section, Lht:' orher is trinngulJe1·: xcnvation' wc!" earricu oUlon iVlaupiti, in theSociety Islands by Y.H. ~inolo and K.P. Lm::>yyof the Bishop Mu ·eum.Bclow, From left t right:- a coniea! sinkcr for an oetopus lure ; thisform has only b en found in the carlic,'t1evclsbut in Sam'la ir exists ~h <'ln orcheological s\\'l.' 11 as nn C'thna rraphiGll uhJl.'C:t.- an ad:œ wilh a quaur.ln!1Ul.lr cr ss-=c i nand an adzc WiLh J Lriangular 'ross-section.lhl.'. ancient artifacls com:.: from Hanc, ~nr-

que sas.

10

remuved sites, it becommes possible ta make,:omoarif:)()ns, to define the cultural levels in~'om~non, and to situate in time the contactsbetween island groups.

Thus the discovery of a similar type of de­corated pottery in Melanesia (Watom Island inNew Britain, central New-Hebredies, New Ca­ledonia, Fiji) and in Tonga takes on a verygreat importance in archaeology. lt ;.;ceOlS thatthe more one goes back in time, the less the Me­lanesian and Polynesian cultures are dif­ferèntiated. Some investigators think that theorigin of the Polynesian culture must be soughtin an ancestral oeeanic culture which existedaround 500 B. C. in Mclanesia and eastern Poly­nesia.

Other arehaeologists, without sceing it asthe origin of the Polynesian culture, do howeverconsider this area as "one of the principal stop­ping places for the Polynesianpopulationsduringtheir slow and complex journeys to the extremelimits of the Polynesian triangle" (Garanger1966). The arehaeologists prescntly at workarenumerous : J. Davidson, J. Garanger, J. Golson,R. Green, B. Palmer, J. Poul;.;cn, R. and M.F.Shutler, J. Specht, etc...

Recent re seareh ha 15 shown that in the pa,.,1Tonga and Samoa were more different from oneanother that they were later on as a rcsult ofmore numerous contacts. Shcrds of undecoratedpottery, different from the deeorated potteryof Tonga, have been found in Samoa and prima­rily in the lower levels. This discovery is ofdireet interest regarding our knowledge of thesettlement of easrern Polynesian sincc R. SUGGSin 1957 and Y. SINüTO in 1964- J965 found pot­tery in the Marquesas, the former on Nukuhiva,and the latter on Uahuka. Thisdiscovery of unde­corated pottery sherd 15 in the lower level s oftwo sites in the northern Marquesas wasa reve­lation because it had always been thought thatthe Polynesians had ccased using of potterybefore settling in ea stern Polyne sia. This find,assoeiated with other comparative clements(adzes, oetopus lure sinkers), reveals close re­lations bctween Samaa and the i\larquesas. Irhas now become possible ta al lirm that Samoais the homeland of the Marque,.;<ls settlemenl.

Otherexcavations have alf:)() proved very im­portant for our knowledge of Polynesianprehis­tory. On the Island of Maupiti in the Society Is­lands, in 1963, Y. SINOTO and K.P. EMORY ofthe Bishop Museum brought ta light fifteen bu­rial s accompanied with objects such adze Si

hooks, ornaments, aIl of a rather archaie typeand very close to what had beenpreviously foundby R. DUFF in New Zealand.

The results of these investigations havebrought a new light ta the manner in which eas­tern and marginal Polynesia was populated. Y.SINOTO considers the Marquesas Islands as the

11

principal dispersal center for this region of thePacifie. The Polynesians who had establishetlthemselvcH in the Marquesas would later havejoined the Society Islands, thcn l\1angareva andEaster Island. Hawaii and New Zealand wouldhave becn settlcd from the l\1arquesas and Ta­hiti.

lt ean be said that the problems prescntedby the scttlement of Polynesia are on their wayta being solvcd. Archaeology in the Pacifie isonly at its beginning, and subsequent studieswill eom~ ta confirm or infirm present views,and most of al! will cnrieh our knowledge onrhis fa scinating subject.

remuved sites, it becommes possible ta make,:omoarif:)()ns, to define the cultural levels in~'om~non, and to situate in time the contactsbetween island groups.

Thus the discovery of a similar type of de­corated pottery in Melanesia (Watom Island inNew Britain, central New-Hebredies, New Ca­ledonia, Fiji) and in Tonga takes on a verygreat importance in archaeology. lt ;.;ceOlS thatthe more one goes back in time, the less the Me­lanesian and Polynesian cultures are dif­ferèntiated. Some investigators think that theorigin of the Polynesian culture must be soughtin an ancestral oeeanic culture which existedaround 500 B. C. in Mclanesia and eastern Poly­nesia.

Other arehaeologists, without sceing it asthe origin of the Polynesian culture, do howeverconsider this area as "one of the principal stop­ping places for the Polynesianpopulationsduringtheir slow and complex journeys to the extremelimits of the Polynesian triangle" (Garanger1966). The arehaeologists prescntly at workarenumerous : J. Davidson, J. Garanger, J. Golson,R. Green, B. Palmer, J. Poul;.;cn, R. and M.F.Shutler, J. Specht, etc...

Recent re seareh ha 15 shown that in the pa,.,1Tonga and Samoa were more different from oneanother that they were later on as a rcsult ofmore numerous contacts. Shcrds of undecoratedpottery, different from the deeorated potteryof Tonga, have been found in Samoa and prima­rily in the lower levels. This discovery is ofdireet interest regarding our knowledge of thesettlement of easrern Polynesian sincc R. SUGGSin 1957 and Y. SINüTO in 1964- J965 found pot­tery in the Marquesas, the former on Nukuhiva,and the latter on Uahuka. Thisdiscovery of unde­corated pottery sherd 15 in the lower level s oftwo sites in the northern Marquesas wasa reve­lation because it had always been thought thatthe Polynesians had ccased using of potterybefore settling in ea stern Polyne sia. This find,assoeiated with other comparative clements(adzes, oetopus lure sinkers), reveals close re­lations bctween Samaa and the i\larquesas. Irhas now become possible ta al lirm that Samoais the homeland of the Marque,.;<ls settlemenl.

Otherexcavations have alf:)() proved very im­portant for our knowledge of Polynesianprehis­tory. On the Island of Maupiti in the Society Is­lands, in 1963, Y. SINOTO and K.P. EMORY ofthe Bishop Museum brought ta light fifteen bu­rial s accompanied with objects such adze Si

hooks, ornaments, aIl of a rather archaie typeand very close to what had beenpreviously foundby R. DUFF in New Zealand.

The results of these investigations havebrought a new light ta the manner in which eas­tern and marginal Polynesia was populated. Y.SINOTO considers the Marquesas Islands as the

11

principal dispersal center for this region of thePacifie. The Polynesians who had establishetlthemselvcH in the Marquesas would later havejoined the Society Islands, thcn l\1angareva andEaster Island. Hawaii and New Zealand wouldhave becn settlcd from the l\1arquesas and Ta­hiti.

lt ean be said that the problems prescntedby the scttlement of Polynesia are on their wayta being solvcd. Archaeology in the Pacifie isonly at its beginning, and subsequent studieswill eom~ ta confirm or infirm present views,and most of al! will cnrieh our knowledge onrhis fa scinating subject.

5

6. No 112. Reduced m :xie1 of a M3.rquesan canoe,155 cm.

:J. :\11Upiti exclvations, Society Islands : honilohook shank Jnd point. Sperm wha1e rootl1 pen­dant. These pendants arc very ancient. Onesof a very similar form have been found in LlwMarquesas, M8upiti 8nd aL W8irau Bar in NewZcaland at the Moa-Huntcr site cxcavarcd byR. Duff.

6

12

5

6. No 112. Reduced m :xie1 of a M3.rquesan canoe,155 cm.

:J. :\11Upiti exclvations, Society Islands : honilohook shank Jnd point. Sperm wha1e rootl1 pen­dant. These pendants arc very ancient. Onesof a very similar form have been found in LlwMarquesas, M8upiti 8nd aL W8irau Bar in NewZcaland at the Moa-Huntcr site cxcavarcd byR. Duff.

6

12

NAVIGATION

l'HE CANüES

Unfortunately we know nothing regarding thenature, the form and the construction of thecrafts that enabled the ancient Polynesians toaccomplish their long voyages across the Paci­fic. Complete canocs, hundreds of years old,have never been unburied in Polyne sia a sin otherparts of the world, in northern Europe in parti­cular.

We can only suppose that the ancient Polyne­sians navigated, as do their descendants, in ca­noes built from one or .several hollowed-outtree-trunks and balanced by an outrigger, or ondouble canoes.

On the other hand, we have a fair amount ofinformation about the crafts used by the Polyne­sians at the time of European contact in the Pa­cific. The western navigators became almost im­mediately interested in the canoes as it wasoneof the Polynesian cultural features which theycould be st observe. At each of their stops, theships were surrounded by many canoes of whichthe artists of Bougainville and Cook have left usreliable drawings. We also know them from thered uced model s seen in museums, but few of the­se were built ta scale.

There were two sons of Polynesian canoes:the large double canoes and the outrigger ca­noes.

In the Marquesas double canoes used fortravelling between the islands seem ta have beenvery rare even at the beginning of the historicalperiod. On the other hand, it is known that thewar .canoe sand fishing canoe s had outrigger s.

The war canoes measuring between 12 and15 meters long, were formed of a hull extendedat the bow and stern by projection::> decorntedWIth carvings of tikis and tiki-heads. The hulLwas raised by boards lashed on with coconULscnnit. The seam was covered with a long hori­zontally placed piece of wood to which bunche sof feather s were attached. If non-figurative ear­ved motifs sometimes did appear on the canoes,they were limited to the stern and bow and tohe outside of the washstrakes. Ir is only themore reeent m,odels that are entirely decorated.

The sail, probably made of plaited pandanusleaves, was triangular and fixed between twomasts.

13

The larger fishing canoes were wide anddeep with raiscd sides. The ordinary canoesforfishing near the coa st consisted of a single hulldug out of a tree trunk.

ln the Society Islands, there were numeroustypes of embarcations which probably variedaccording ta the island.

The double canoes had different functionsdepending upon their form : the large canoesfor long journey s were buil t of several hull sjoined end ta end, as a single dug out tree trunkwould have been too short. The sterns of twojoined hulls were very much raiscd and eachwas surmounted by a post carved with decorati­ve motifs ilnd on top of whichwasa ti'i. The si­de:-; of the hulls were raised by adding two planksone on top of the other and lashing th~m togetherwith coconut sennit. The two canoe-hulls werejoined by crosspieces and a platform on whicha small thatched shelter could be erected. A sailof plaited pandanus was fastened ta the mastplaced near the bow thecanoe.

The double war canoes were rather similarbut both extremities were very much higher andmore decorated. These canoes had no sails, butpaddle s were used.

The canoes for ocean fishing, in panicularfor large tuna, were built along the same lines,but the front of each canoe was drawn OUt to aplatform on which the fishermen could stand.The stern, very characteristic of this type ofcanoes, ended obliquely, hence their Tahitianname va'a no'o. These canoes were providedwith a movable mast which also served as anoutrigger to hold the fishing Unes, and with twolarge oars near the bow which could be used asbrakes. The canoes were manoeuvred by pad­dlers.

The outrigger canoes ranged from the smallones manoeuvred by paddle ta mueh larger canoescapable of carrying a sail and thus permittingta navigate from one island to another or tofish funher out at sea. This latter type, calledva'a moru did not disappear from the SocietyIslands until the beginning of the 20th century.

The hull, often raiscd by sewn planks, wa scurved· towards the stern and ended in a verti­cal plank. The bow was extended by a horizontalprojection. One of the characteristicsof this ca­noe was a platform situated transversally at thefoot of the mast thus "permitting the crew t 0act as counter-weight if the canoe heeled toomuch". In "Ancient Tahitian Canoes" by theCommandant P. JOURDAIN eited here, can befound a description of how the sails were hand­led on these canoes, as well as more completenotes on the different types of canoes used inTahiti years ago.

For the Austral Islands, we know of no printsrepre senting these canoes at the time of Cook.

NAVIGATION

l'HE CANüES

Unfortunately we know nothing regarding thenature, the form and the construction of thecrafts that enabled the ancient Polynesians toaccomplish their long voyages across the Paci­fic. Complete canocs, hundreds of years old,have never been unburied in Polyne sia a sin otherparts of the world, in northern Europe in parti­cular.

We can only suppose that the ancient Polyne­sians navigated, as do their descendants, in ca­noes built from one or .several hollowed-outtree-trunks and balanced by an outrigger, or ondouble canoes.

On the other hand, we have a fair amount ofinformation about the crafts used by the Polyne­sians at the time of European contact in the Pa­cific. The western navigators became almost im­mediately interested in the canoes as it wasoneof the Polynesian cultural features which theycould be st observe. At each of their stops, theships were surrounded by many canoes of whichthe artists of Bougainville and Cook have left usreliable drawings. We also know them from thered uced model s seen in museums, but few of the­se were built ta scale.

There were two sons of Polynesian canoes:the large double canoes and the outrigger ca­noes.

In the Marquesas double canoes used fortravelling between the islands seem ta have beenvery rare even at the beginning of the historicalperiod. On the other hand, it is known that thewar .canoe sand fishing canoe s had outrigger s.

The war canoes measuring between 12 and15 meters long, were formed of a hull extendedat the bow and stern by projection::> decorntedWIth carvings of tikis and tiki-heads. The hulLwas raised by boards lashed on with coconULscnnit. The seam was covered with a long hori­zontally placed piece of wood to which bunche sof feather s were attached. If non-figurative ear­ved motifs sometimes did appear on the canoes,they were limited to the stern and bow and tohe outside of the washstrakes. Ir is only themore reeent m,odels that are entirely decorated.

The sail, probably made of plaited pandanusleaves, was triangular and fixed between twomasts.

13

The larger fishing canoes were wide anddeep with raiscd sides. The ordinary canoesforfishing near the coa st consisted of a single hulldug out of a tree trunk.

ln the Society Islands, there were numeroustypes of embarcations which probably variedaccording ta the island.

The double canoes had different functionsdepending upon their form : the large canoesfor long journey s were buil t of several hull sjoined end ta end, as a single dug out tree trunkwould have been too short. The sterns of twojoined hulls were very much raiscd and eachwas surmounted by a post carved with decorati­ve motifs ilnd on top of whichwasa ti'i. The si­de:-; of the hulls were raised by adding two planksone on top of the other and lashing th~m togetherwith coconut sennit. The two canoe-hulls werejoined by crosspieces and a platform on whicha small thatched shelter could be erected. A sailof plaited pandanus was fastened ta the mastplaced near the bow thecanoe.

The double war canoes were rather similarbut both extremities were very much higher andmore decorated. These canoes had no sails, butpaddle s were used.

The canoes for ocean fishing, in panicularfor large tuna, were built along the same lines,but the front of each canoe was drawn OUt to aplatform on which the fishermen could stand.The stern, very characteristic of this type ofcanoes, ended obliquely, hence their Tahitianname va'a no'o. These canoes were providedwith a movable mast which also served as anoutrigger to hold the fishing Unes, and with twolarge oars near the bow which could be used asbrakes. The canoes were manoeuvred by pad­dlers.

The outrigger canoes ranged from the smallones manoeuvred by paddle ta mueh larger canoescapable of carrying a sail and thus permittingta navigate from one island to another or tofish funher out at sea. This latter type, calledva'a moru did not disappear from the SocietyIslands until the beginning of the 20th century.

The hull, often raiscd by sewn planks, wa scurved· towards the stern and ended in a verti­cal plank. The bow was extended by a horizontalprojection. One of the characteristicsof this ca­noe was a platform situated transversally at thefoot of the mast thus "permitting the crew t 0act as counter-weight if the canoe heeled toomuch". In "Ancient Tahitian Canoes" by theCommandant P. JOURDAIN eited here, can befound a description of how the sails were hand­led on these canoes, as well as more completenotes on the different types of canoes used inTahiti years ago.

For the Austral Islands, we know of no printsrepre senting these canoes at the time of Cook.

7

7. The boat ,;hcd <.'It the Papeete Mu. eum,Top ; No 7.'10, outdgg;er c;)n00 from 2wkol.O

-1 uam')tu, -t,:~-t m.èrcrs,I~eft ; No 7:'2, s(wn canaL: from Ra'ivavuc,AuslTals, 8,70 mGottom : No 7:)1, Tahilian c:.lnoe that helongcdta the royal Pom:Lfc famUy . nd named Pua'<.l­ta'a'ino, 7.06 melerCenter; 10 799, large >-.3ilin" craft of Vaitahi,

Tua motu, 7,94 m2LCr::;.

14

7

7. The boat ,;hcd <.'It the Papeete Mu. eum,Top ; No 7.'10, outdgg;er c;)n00 from 2wkol.O

-1 uam')tu, -t,:~-t m.èrcrs,I~eft ; No 7:'2, s(wn canaL: from Ra'ivavuc,AuslTals, 8,70 mGottom : No 7:)1, Tahilian c:.lnoe that helongcdta the royal Pom:Lfc famUy . nd named Pua'<.l­ta'a'ino, 7.06 melerCenter; 10 799, large >-.3ilin" craft of Vaitahi,

Tua motu, 7,94 m2LCr::;.

14

8. The front end of a Marquesan canoe. Cook'::;ArIa s.

J 5

8. The front end of a Marquesan canoe. Cook'::;ArIa s.

J 5

/1

}11

)1

/)

)'\'\"\"; ~~".",/' \ \ ,', .. ',/. \'. ::\

1 " " :'. . "1 \ li \,1 ~ \,

/ \:'.. '

\.

9

9. The first engraving of a va 'a-méltu canoe fromthe Society Islands. Voyage of Bougainville,1771.

16

/1

}11

)1

/)

)'\'\"\"; ~~".",/' \ \ ,', .. ',/. \'. ::\

1 " " :'. . "1 \ li \,1 ~ \,

/ \:'.. '

\.

9

9. The first engraving of a va 'a-méltu canoe fromthe Society Islands. Voyage of Bougainville,1771.

16

!(). No 4.50. Stern of a canoe, Rapa, 91 cm

JI. No 753. Flow of the va'a-mOlu canoeHuahinc, Society Islands, :2 m~ter:-;.

17

Il

!(). No 4.50. Stern of a canoe, Rapa, 91 cm

JI. No 753. Flow of the va'a-mOlu canoeHuahinc, Society Islands, :2 m~ter:-;.

17

Il

IL'

12. No 113. Madel of a canoe, Tuamotu, 134 cm.

1:1. Cano' from rhe Tuam:ltus. /)etail ofrhe la;-;l1in<2>w ith CQconut sc nnir.

14

14. Stern of an üutri g<:r canoE:'. TatakoLO. TU8m'llLl.DClail showing how rhe Stern, keel and side:;;were faSlcned la one anorh r.

18

IL'

12. No 113. Madel of a canoe, Tuamotu, 134 cm.

1:1. Cano' from rhe Tuam:ltus. /)etail ofrhe la;-;l1in<2>w ith CQconut sc nnir.

14

14. Stern of an üutri g<:r canoE:'. TatakoLO. TU8m'llLl.DClail showing how rhe Stern, keel and side:;;were faSlcned la one anorh r.

18

15

16

15. The stern section of a sailing craft, Vahirahi,Tuamotu. The transversal bar visible on thephorograph has a hole in its center whl're avertical spar wa s fixed. A very hea vy oar, tha [sen··~r1 '1S a rudder, pivoted around lhis axi:-;.

16. No 640. and 138. Marquesan bailers. 25 and26 cm.

Il)

15

16

15. The stern section of a sailing craft, Vahirahi,Tuamotu. The transversal bar visible on thephorograph has a hole in its center whl're avertical spar wa s fixed. A very hea vy oar, tha [sen··~r1 '1S a rudder, pivoted around lhis axi:-;.

16. No 640. and 138. Marquesan bailers. 25 and26 cm.

Il)

According to the carly voyager s, they were no tgreatly different from the canoes seen in Tahiri.The sewn canoe of Raivavae has even survivedto the present day ; one may be seen at the Pa­peete Museum It is an outrigger canac, 8.70m ..~ters long ; the hull is made of two dug-outtrunks put end to end and surmounted by a sewnplank and a narrow gunwale. The bow is prolon­ged by a horizontal board which extends 80 cm.over the hull whilst the stern projection is muchshorter (12 cm).

ln Rapa the canoes were built from manyplanks sewn together but we only know them fromfragments which have been found in caves or inthe swampy taro patches.

ln the Tuamotus there were many local va­r,ations but since large trees are rare in the a­tolls, aIl the canoes were made of small plankssewn together. As opposed to the canoes from

the high islands, the Tuamotu canoes had no dugout hull but only a keel that extended upward atbath ends and to which the plankings that madl

up the hull were fa stened by sennir. The largecanoes needed several rows of planks. Asin Ta­hiri the canoes either had an outrigger or weredouble. It is only as a result of European in­fluence that larger crafts, of a whalehoat typehaving no need for an outrigger, wer2 buil t butstill along tbe same lines as the canoes. Theboat sbell was consolited by a series of rib::;.These boats navigated by sail from one islnndto the other. A very heavy oar served as a rud­der. A boat of this type can be seen at the />.)-peete Muse UJl1. •

ln Mangareva, the canoes were of differentsizes. "Sorne were simple with an outrigger,others were also simple but without an outrig­ger, but the most beautiful and the largest werethe double canoes... Usually a human figure wascarved at the twoextremiriesofthebowand sternand 1 never heard it said that this was done in ho­nour of sorne guardian divinity or other. Ir wa spurely ornemental. .. It isclear thatthese canoeswere for large-scale operations. In the ordinaryservice simple rafts were used, composed of se­veral beams placed side by side and fastenedwith transversals and cords". This is how thePere LAVAL described the crnftsofMangareva.Ilut the Mangarevans had al re'ldy ahandoned rlll'use of thL' canoc at thL' timL' of Furopean COmal'land they only used rafts.

It would be too long to describe here aIl thecanoes found in Polynesia. Let it suffice to saythat the most sumptuously decorated were theNew Zealand canoes whose bow and stern wereformed of large pieces of intricately sculpruredwood. Like the Marquesan canoes, the New Zea­land canoes were decorated with tufts of sca­bird feathers. The ourrigger canoesdisappearedsaon after the arrivaI of Europeans, and by themiddle of the 19th century, there were no longerany double canoes in New Zealand.

20

THE PADDLES.

The paddles were of different forms de~n­

dill~ upon [hL' island grl-UIXlnd whL'lher they WL'rl'plain padd1L's or o~lrs u~d as rudlkrs.

The paddles were light and, eitber round, ovalor sometimes diamond-shaped in form. 'l'hl'Marquesan paddles were characterized by a sortof spur sculptured on the base and this can alsobe found on the ceremonial paddles from EasterIsland. The ancient Marquasan paddles were notdecorated.

The SQ-called "ceremonial" paddles thatcan be seen in aIl the museums are remarkablyand finely decorated. They come from the Aus­tral islands, probably from Raivavae, but werenever used for paddling. They were probablymade after European contact, with the aid of me­tal tools.

The Mangarevan paddles are recognizable bythe large 'size and shape of the hase, which endsin a short point.

THE BAILERS.

The Polynesian bailer was made in wood andweIl characterized by the handle placed in theaxis of the object. In Tahiti, the end of the hand­le is not free, but joined by a transversal piece.Except in New Zealand, the bailers were notdecorated.

IHE ANCHORS.

The se were made from volcanic rock; large'oval stones with a protuberance at the top forthe simple canoes, and very large pierced sto­nes for the long-distance canocs.

CA~OE CONSTRUCTION

This is how WALLIS, the disc.over of Tahiti,described the construction of canoes :

"They first fell the tree with a kind of hat­chet, or adze, made of a tough greenish kind ofstone, very dexterously fitted into a handle ; itis then cut into such lengths as are requiredfor the plank, one end of which is heated till itbegins to crack, and then with wedges of hardwood they spilt it down : sorne of these planksare two feet broad, and from 15 to 20 feet long.The sides are smoothed with adzes of the samemawrials and construction but of a sm'llIer si­ze. Six or eight menare som'2timesatwork uponthe same plank together, and, as their toolspresently lose their edge, every man hasby him

a coconut-shell filled with water, and flat stone,\Vith which he sharpens his adze almost everyminute. 1 hese planks arc generally brought 1Olhe thickness of about an inch, and are after-

According to the carly voyager s, they were no tgreatly different from the canoes seen in Tahiri.The sewn canoe of Raivavae has even survivedto the present day ; one may be seen at the Pa­peete Museum It is an outrigger canac, 8.70m ..~ters long ; the hull is made of two dug-outtrunks put end to end and surmounted by a sewnplank and a narrow gunwale. The bow is prolon­ged by a horizontal board which extends 80 cm.over the hull whilst the stern projection is muchshorter (12 cm).

ln Rapa the canoes were built from manyplanks sewn together but wc only know them fromfragments which have been found in caves or inthe swampy taro patches.

ln the Tuamotus there were many local va­r,ations but since large trees are rare in the a­tolls, aIl the canoes were made of small plankssewn together. As opposed to the canoes from

the high islands, the Tuamotu canoes had no dugout hull but only a keel that extended upward atbath ends and to which the plankings that madl

up the hull were fa stened by sennir. The largecanoes needed several rows of planks. Asin Ta­hiri the canoes either had an outrigger or weredouble. It is only as a result of European in­fluence that larger crafts, of a whalehoat typehaving no need for an outrigger, wer2 buil t butstill along tbe same lines as the canoes. Theboat sbell was consolited by a series of rib::;.These boats navigated by sail from one islnndto the other. A very heavy oar served as a rud­der. A boat of this type can be seen at the />.)-peete Muse UJl1. •

ln Mangareva, the canoes were of differentsizes. "Sorne were simple with an outrigger,others were also simple but without an outrig­ger, but the most beautiful and the largest werethe double canoes... Usually a human figure wascarved at the twoextremiriesofthebowand sternand 1 never heard it said that this was done in ho­nour of sorne guardian divinity or other. Ir wa spurely ornemental. .. It isclear thatthese canoeswere for large-scale operations. In the ordinaryservice simple rafts were used, composed of se­veral beams placed side by side and fastenedwith transversals and cords". This is how thePere LAVAL described the crnftsofMangareva.Ilut the Mangarevans had al rL"ldy ahandoned rlll'use of thL' canoc at thL' timL' of FuropL'an COmal'land they only used rafts.

It would be too long to describe here aIl thecanoes found in Polynesia. Let it suffice to saythat the most sumptuously decorated were theNew Zealand canoes whose bow and stern wereformed of large piecL's of intricately sculpruredwood. Like the Marquesan canoes, the New Zea­land canoes were decorated with tufts of sca­bird feathers. The ourrigger canoesdisappearedsaon after the arrivaI of Europeans, and by themiddle of the 19th century, there were no longerany double canoes in New Zealand.

20

THE PADDLES.

The paddles were of different forms de~n­

dill~ upon [hL' island grl-UIXlnd whL'lhL'r thL'Y WL'rl'plain padd1L's or o~lrs used as rudlkrs.

The paddles were light and, eitber round, ovalor sometimes diamond-shaped in form. TheMarquesan paddles were characterized by a sortof spur sculptured on the base and this can alsobe found on the ceremonial paddles from EasterIsland. The ancient Marquasan paddles were notdecorated.

The SQ-called "ceremonial" paddles thatcan be seen in aIl the museums are remarkablyand finely decorated. They come from the Aus­tral islands, probably from Raivavae, but werenever used for paddling. They were probablymade after European contact, with the aid of me­tal tools.

The Mangarevan paddles are recognizable bythe large 'size and shape of the hase, which endsin a short point.

THE BAILERS.

The Polynesian bailer was made in wood andweIl characterized by the handle placed in theaxis of the object. In Tahiti, the end of the hand­le is not free, but joined by a transversal piece.Except in New Zealand, the bailers were notdecorated.

IHE ANCHORS.

The se were made from volcanic rock; large'oval stones with a protuberance at the top forthe simple canoes, and very large pierced sto­nes for the long-distance canocs.

CA~OE CONSTRUCTION

This is how WALLIS, the disc.over of Tahiti,described the construction of canoes :

"They first fell the tree with a kind of hat­chet, or adze, made of a tough greenish kind ofstone, very dexterously fitted into a handle ; itis then cut into such lengths as are requiredfor the plank, one end of which is heated till itbegins to crack, and then with wedges of hardwood they spilt it down : sorne of these planksare two feet broad, and from 15 to 20 feet long.The sides are smoothed with adzes of the samemawrials and construction but of a sm'llIer si­ze. Six or eight menare som'2timesatwork uponthe same plank together, and, as their toolspresently lose their edge, every man hasby him

a coconut-shell filled with water, and flat stone,\Vith which he sharpens his adze almost everyminute. 1 hese planks arc generally brought 1Olhe thickness of about an inch, and are after-

1ï

18

21

17. Canoes of New Zealand. Atlas of Dumont d'Ur­ville 1841-1846.

1H. No 1227. Anchor mJde of volc<lnic stone. MJn­gareva, 60 cm.

1ï

18

21

17. Canoes of New Zealand. Atlas of Dumont d'Ur­ville 1841-1846.

1H. No 1227. Anchor mJde of volc<lnic stone. MJn­gareva, 60 cm.

19. "Ceremonial" paddle from Ra'iva\'ae, AustralIslands. Details of the handle anu of blade.113 cm.

20

20. No 106. Marquesan paddle. Details of the hancHeand the blade. 158 cm.

19

22

19. "Ceremonial" paddle from Ra'iva\'ae, AustralIslands. Details of the handle anu of blade.113 cm.

20

20. No 106. Marquesan paddle. Details of the hancHeand the blade. 158 cm.

19

22

wards fitted ta the boat with the same exactnesl->lhat would hL' expected from an expert joiner.la fal->ten thL's\? planks togcther, hales are ba­r cd with a piece of bone that is fixed into aflick for that purpose, a use ta which ournails were afterwards applied with great ad­vantage, and through these hales a kind of plai-

. ted cordage is passed, sa as ta hold the planksstrongly tagether".

The braided cord was made from coconut(nape). It is this same material that was usedfor caulking the seams and the hales. Bread­fruit sap was also used. But it goes withoutsaying that the canoes were never perfectlywater tight and that constant bailing was neces­sary. In addition ta the paddlers, there were menspecially appointed for this ta sk. It is often won­dered how many people one of these canocscould transport. ln Tahiti, according ta JamesMORRISOi'\. thl' small outrigger canoes werehandléd by lWU ln five paddlers. The canoes ·u­sed by the chiers and their familiesfor journeysby sea were handled by 20 ta 30 paddler s. A s forthe large war canoe s, they could carry up ta300 men.

(This chapter was in part based on The canoesof Polyne sia, Fiji and Micronesia by James HOR­NELL, in Canoes of Oceania, 1936).

23

wards fitted ta the boat with the same exactnesl->that would hL' expected from an expert joiner.la fal->ten thL's\? planks togcther, hales are ba­r cd with a piece of bone that is fixed into aflick for that purpose, a use ta which ournails were afterwards applied with great ad­vantage, and through these hales a kind of plai-

. ted cordage is passed, sa as ta hold the planksstrongly tagether".

The braided cord was made from coconut(nape). It is this same material that was usedfor caulking the seams and the hales. Bread­fruit sap was also used. But it goes withoutsaying that the canoes were never perfectlywater tight and that constant bailing was neces­sary. In addition ta the paddlers, there were menspecially appointed for this ta sk. It is often won­dered how many people one of these canocscould transport. ln Tahiti, according ta JamesMORRISOi'\. thl' small outrigger canoes werehandléd by lWU ln five paddlers. The canoes ·u­sed by the chiers and their familiesfor journeysby sea were handled by 20 ta 30 paddler s. A s forthe large war canoe s, they could carry up ta300 men.

(This chapter was in part based on The canoesof Polyne sia, Fiji and Micronesia by James HOR­NELL, in Canoes of Oceania, 1936).

23

21

21. Anciem hooks from "he Marqucsas.llane, Uahu­ka. Pearl-shel!. ,-,,--:avaLions by Y.H. Sinoto.

24

21

21. Anciem hooks from "he Marqucsas.llane, Uahu­ka. Pearl-shel!. ,-,,-.:avaLions by Y.H. Sinoto.

24

FISHING

ARCHEOLOGICAL DATA;

The fishing methods used by the fir st settler sin Polynesia were not very different from thoseobserved by the European navigator s when theydiscovered the Pacific. Archeologists have expo­sed coastal dwelling sites that at one time wereoccupied by fishermen ; these sites are espe­cially numerous and interesting ineastern Poly­nesia.

So far, the most important ones that havebeen excavarcd are those of Hane on the islandof Uahuka in the Marquesas (Y. Sinoto and M .Kellum-Ottino), on Oahu and Hawai in the Ha­waiian islands (Bishop Museum) and in Afareai­tu, on the island of Moorea in the Society Is­lands (Bishop Museum - ORSTOM).

During these excavations m'ariy fish hookshave bcen recovered : most of them are made ofmother-of-pearl, others of shell or bone. Many ofthem are only roughly made or unfinished hookswhich enable experts to reconstruct the diffe­rent stages in the manufacture of a fish hook. Ge­nerally, they are accompanied with the manufac­turing and shaping tools : coral or stone saws,coral or 'pencïl sea-urchin spin files, shelldrills (Mitra) and, though very rarely, the diseweight used on the pump drills.

The areheologists distinguish several typesof hooks ; .- the simple or one-piece hooks of which theshank and point are a singlL' pÎl'll'. They can ha­ve the form of an almost CIOl--l'd'(); of a U or ofa V. The point can either Ile ,...IJ,lll"ter or longerthan the shank. It is often direcled backtowardsthe shank thus forming a hook. Ir can have oneor two barbs like certain Hawaiian hooks. Thecircular hook which rotates in the mouth of thefish to assure it is well caught is a remarkabletechnical achievement found only in the Pacific.

- composite hooks or two-piece hooks : theshank and the point are made separately andbound together. Many of the bone hooksfromHa­waii are of this type.

- trolling hooks : the se are weIl known as theyare still used today for bonito fishing. .

The lure or shank is cut out from a piece ofpearl-shell and the line is lashed to a holepierced at the top. At one time a pearl-shellpoint was fastened to the base of the lure. ThearcheologiSts can dis! inguish two type s of points;

2S

1) a West Polyne sia n type is found in Samoa~s weIl as in the early sites of the Marquesas,Society Islands, Hawaii and New Zealand. Thebase of this point is large and perforated withtwo holes.

2) an East Polynesian type, that appears inthe same island groups. It is a more recent typeidentifiable by a less wide base and only onehole.

On the modern honito hooks, the pearl shellpoint is replaced by a strip of metal bent backto form the point.

For aIl the hooks, and especially the simplehooks, the form of the head is very importantas it determines the method of attaching the lï­ne, but most·of a11 it enables experts to distin­guish different types, to compare them, classifythem and date them. In this way Y.H. Sinoto hasbeen able to classify the Marquesas and SocietyIsland hooks into eleven principal types, basedon head form.

One of these types is characteristic of theearliest cultural levels in the Marque sa s, whilstothers did not appear and spread in the archipe­lago until the 14th century.

Dur ing the excavations, besides the hooksandthe tools necessary for their manufacture, ra­ther crudely worked stones used by the ancientPolynesian as net weights, line weights or asoctopus lure sinkers are found. These fishingweights are of several type s but the most com­mon is one made from an undercrmincs sizedstone, genera11y irrcgularly shapcd, and havinga knob at the top for easy attachement of a lïne.A more elaborate type, in the shape of a "coffeebean", made up part of a special device for oc­topus fishing.

In the Society Islands dough-nut shaped stoneweights are found which were probably used asline weights.

F ISHING ME THODS :

UNES AND HOOKS

"Evry Fisherman", writes James MORRI­SON in his Journal of 1792, "makes his ownho~ks lines twines and evry article of his geer,WhlCh are not be equald by any thing but theirskill in using them." In Tahiti the lines weremade from the roa bark (Pipturus argenteus,Wedell), a bush that grew in the cool va11eysand whose fibre s were much more re sistantthan flax or hemp. The se fibre s were twistedinto two or three strands and thence into fis­hing-lines of such fine quality that the first Eu­ropean voyagers were most impTL' s:-;ed. Othermaterials of inferior quality as purau bark (Hi­biscus tiliaceus) could also be IWÎ:-;ted to m':l.kelines. ..

.,

FISHING

ARCHEOLOGICAL DATA;

The fishing methods used by the fir st settler sin Polynesia were not very different from thoseobserved by the European navigator s when theydiscovered the Pacific. Archeologists have expo­sed coastal dwelling sites that at one time wereoccupied by fishermen ; these sites are espe­cially numerous and interesting ineastern Poly­nesia.

So far, the most important ones that havebeen excavarcd are those of Hane on the islandof Uahuka in the Marquesas (Y. Sinoto and M .Kellum-Ottino), on Oahu and Hawai in the Ha­waiian islands (Bishop Museum) and in Afareai­tu, on the island of Moorea in the Society Is­lands (Bishop Museum - ORSTOM).

During these excavations m'ariy fish hookshave bcen recovered : most of them are made ofmother-of-pearl, others of shell or bone. Many ofthem are only roughly made or unfinished hookswhich enable experts to reconstruct the diffe­rent stages in the manufacture of a fish hook. Ge­nerally, they are accompanied with the manufac­turing and shaping tools : coral or stone saws,coral or 'pencil sea-urchin spin files, shelldrills (Mitra) and, though very rarely, the diseweight used on the pump drills.

The areheologists distinguish several typesof hooks ; .- the simple or one-piece hooks of which theshank and point are a singlL' pÎl'll'. They can ha­ve the form of an almost CIOl--l'd'(); of a U or ofa V. The point can either Ile ,...IJ,lll"ter or longerthan the shank. It is often direcled backtowardsthe shank thus forming a hook. Ir can have oneor two barbs like certain Hawaiian hooks. Thecircular hook which rotates in the mouth of thefish to assure it is well caught is a remarkabletechnical achievement found only in the Pacific.

- composite hooks or two-piece hooks : theshank and the point are made separately andbound together. Many of the bone hooksfromHa­waii are of this type.

- trolling hooks : the se are weIl known as theyare still used today for bonito fishing. .

The lure or shank is cut out from a piece ofpearl-shell and the line is lashed to a holepierced at the top. At one time a pearl-shellpoint was fastened to the base of the lure. ThearcheologiSts can dis! inguish two type s of points;

2S

1) a West Polyne sia n type is found in Samoa~s weIl as in the early sites of the Marquesas,Society Islands, Hawaii and New Zealand. Thebase of this point is large and perforated withtwo holes.

2) an East Polynesian type, that appears inthe same island groups. It is a more recent typeidentifiable by a less wide base and only onehole.

On the modern honito hooks, the pearl shellpoint is replaced by a strip of metal bent backto form the point.

For aIl the hooks, and especially the simplehooks, the form of the head is very importantas it determines the method of attaching the lï­ne, but most·of a11 it enables experts to distin­guish different types, to compare them, classifythem and date them. In this way Y.H. Sinoto hasbeen able to classify the Marquesas and SocietyIsland hooks into eleven principal types, basedon head form.

One of these types is characteristic of theearliest cultural levels in the Marque sa s, whilstothers did not appear and spread in the archipe­lago until the 14th century.

Dur ing the excavations, besides the hooksandthe tools necessary for their manufacture, ra­ther crudely worked stones used by the ancientPolynesian as net weights, line weights or asoctopus lure sinkers are found. These fishingweights are of several type s but the most com­mon is one made from an undercrmincs sizedstone, genera11y irrcgularly shapcd, and havinga knob at the top for easy attachement of a lïne.A more elaborate type, in the shape of a "coffeebean", made up part of a special device for oc­topus fishing.

In the Society Islands dough-nut shaped stoneweights are found which were probably used asline weights.

F ISHING ME THODS :

UNES AND HOOKS

"Evry Fisherman", writes James MORRI­SON in his Journal of 1792, "makes his ownho~ks lines twines and evry article of his geer,WhlCh are not be equald by any thing but theirskill in using them." In Tahiti the lines weremade from the roa bark (Pipturus argenteus,Wedell), a bush that grew in the cool va11eysand whose fibre s were much more re sistantthan flax or hemp. The se fibre s were twistedinto two or three strands and thence into fis­hing-lines of such fine quality that the first Eu­ropean voyagers were most impTL' s:-iCd. Othermaterials of inferior quality as purau bark (Hi­biscus tiliaceus) could also be IWÎ:-;ted to m':l.kelines. ..

.,

22

22. The m'lnufacture of pearl-shell hooks, Marquesas. Excavations by Y.H. Sinoto.Top: coral and sea-urchin spine files.Center : blanks of one-piccc of siml:Jle fishhooks at different stages.Bottom : Bonito hook lure and point of an carl)type.

23. No 384. Paddle from Mangareva, 189 cm.

24. No 456. Bonito hook lure. Point in pearl-shell15,3 cm. Tahiti.

26

23

22

22. The m'lnufacture of pearl-shell hooks, Marquesas. Excavations by Y.H. Sinoto.Top: coral and sea-urchin spine files.Center : blanks of one-piccc of siml:Jle fishhooks at different stages.Bottom : Bonito hook lure and point of an carl)type.

23. No 384. Paddle from Mangareva, 189 cm.

24. No 456. Bonito hook lure. Point in pearl-shell15,3 cm. Tahiti.

26

23

25

26

27

25. No 457 and 458. Modern type with metal point.13,7 and Il,5 cm. Tahiti.

26. Sinkers of vesicular volcanic rock.Top: sinkers for octopuS lures.Center net weights and sinker for bait.-Bottom : pierced stones for nets or fish lincs.

27. Manufacture of fish hooks in the Society Islands:shell and coral files. Hook blanks at differentstages showing the use of the drill for the sha­ping of the inner part.

27

25

26

27

25. No 457 and 458. Modern type with metal point.13,7 and Il,5 cm. Tahiti.

26. Sinkers of vesicular volcanic rock.Top: sinkers for octopuS lures.Center net weights and sinker for bait.-Bottom : pierced stones for nets or fish lincs.

27. Manufacture of fish hooks in the Society Islands:shell and coral files. Hook blanks at differentstages showing the use of the drill for the sha­ping of the inner part.

27

28

2\)

28. In the Tuamo(u aroILs tbe shaping was donc bycutting aWaY the inncr part betw en the shankand the point. Above. snl'olll hasalr-flakL' saw.

30

2\). No 800. Piercer of a nl-Jdcrn pump-driII usedfor the manufacture of bonito hook Iures ; St eldrills tend ta split the pearl-shel!. Rangiroa,Tuamotu.

30. Hooks made of Turbo shell arc comme>n in theSociety Islands and especially in Moorea.

28

28

2\)

28. In the Tuamo(u aroILs tbe shaping was donc bycutting aWaY the inncr part betw en the shankand the point. Above. snl'olll hasalr-flakL' saw.

30

2\). No 800. Piercer of a nl-Jdcrn pump-driII usedfor the manufacture of bonito hook Iures ; St eldrills tend ta split the pearl-shel!. Rangiroa,Tuamotu.

30. Hooks made of Turbo shell arc comme>n in theSociety Islands and especially in Moorea.

28

31

33

31. No 452. Shark hook in wood (Pemphis acidula)Tuamoru. 16,6 cm.

32. No 645 and 644. Wooden hooks of PemDhis aci­dula for fishing the Ruvettus prcciosus at greatdepths. Rururu, Austral Islands.

32

33. Tahitian trolling hooks

29

31

33

31. No 452. Shark hook in wood (Pemphis acidula)Tuamoru. 16,6 cm.

32. No 645 and 644. Wooden hooks of PemDhis aci­dula for fishing the Ruvettus prcciosus at greatdepths. Rururu, Austral Islands.

32

33. Tahitian trolling hooks

29

FisAin -_,..oe.

3.+

35

34. Canoes for tuna fishing with movable m3stsor tira. Engraving taken from Polynesian Re­searches bV William Ellis.

35. Metal fish hooks of local m3nufacrure and oftraditional form. Society fslands.Top : at left, two hooks for tuna fishing. Themetal cam-= from bronze nails or from coppersheeting taken from :>ld sailing vessels.

30

FisAin -_,..oe.

3.+

35

34. Canoes for tuna fishing with movable m3stsor tira. Engraving taken from Polynesian Re­searches bV William Ellis.

35. Metal fish hooks of local m3nufacrure and oftraditional form. Society fslands.Top : at left, two hooks for tuna fishing. Themetal cam-= from bronze nails or from coppersheeting taken from :>ld sailing vessels.

30

James MORRISON, an English sailor whospenr from 1788 to 1791 in Polyne sia, de scribedhow the Tahitians made their hooks : .

"The ir hooks are made of Pearl shell, bone,W()(ll! L'IC "', of different constructions for thedifferl'nl fish, sorne being made to answer thedoublL- purpose of hook and bait ; they make theirhooks by grinding them inro form on a stone withwarer and sand and with a drill made of a sharkstooth ; they make a hole into which they inrrodu­ce a sprig of the coral as a file and work outthe inside part; and as they have no beard theymake the point to round toward the back of thehook, inclining downward and scldom loose afish after they get it once hookd."

The small pearl-shell or shell hooks werereserved for lagoon or shallow water fishing.Lines were ballasted with small grooved stonesor stone s with a hole. Small pearl- shell lureswith a point, re sembling the large lure s for bo­nito fishing were used to catch 'i'ihi (Myripris­tis sp.), or squirrel fish that conceal themsel­ves in the intricacies of the coral.

Sharks were fished with large wooden hooksthat had a point turning inwards. A special hookis still used in sorne islands to catch fish - the'uravena (Ruvettus preciosus C) and the mana(Promethicthys prometheus C) - at very greatdepths. The hook which is attached to a line200 to 400 meters long is baited and a stone at­ached in such a way that when it touches thebottom, it can be detached by a quick jerk; thehook then cornes slowly back up.

One of the most interesting methods of fis­hing practised in the Society Islands took placein the open sea for the purpose of cUtchinglarge fish, especiallybig tuna ingreat numbers.

Two special types of canoes with an obliquerear board (va'a 'no'o) were tied together withtwo beams ; the front beam was very solid asit also served as a support for a long pole (ti­ra) about 30 feet long. This movable mast wasmade of purau wood (Hibiscus tiliaceus) andconsisted of several elements joined one to theother. Its base was square in cross-section andwas engaged between the forward beam and ano­ther partially mobile beam (rio). To its forkedexrremity were fastened tWO lines and a bunch offeathers destined to attrack the fish when themast was lowered in a fishing position. A largefloating basket (ha'ape'ouma) containing quanti­ties of 'ouma fish (Mulloidichtys auriflamma F.)that served as live bait, was hung between thetwo canoes.

The head of the fishermen (rahua), who ob­served the movement of birds above the shoalsof fish, direcred the double canoe by giving or­der s to the paddlers. When the moment had come,he threw sorne live bait into the warer, then bai­red the hook. This is how James MORRISONde scribe s this method of fishing :

31

"When they see any fish, they paddle towarc~

them till they come round the canae and th(;nthey keep the stern of the canoe to windwardand paddle from them ; a man is then placedto throw water with a scoop, and make a conti­nuaI spray like rain, and the hooks beeing bai­re,d the crane is lowered so as to let them JUStunder the surface. The man on the bow whoattends to bait the hooks keeps throwing nowand then a small fish while the other with thescoop keeps a constant shower about the hooks;the fish soon fly at their prey and get hookdwhen the men who attend the crane rope, havingnotice given them, haul up and the fish swingin to the man who attends to receive them andbait the hooks afresh."

The pole was then raised almont verticalby means of a rope pulled from the srern andw Jth the help of the men who were on the for­ward plattorm of the canoe. While the fish slidto one side and was immediately knocked out,the hook of the other line was baired and tossedinto the water. In this way the two lines wereworked alrcrnatively at a very rapid rhythm.

1'0 catch smaller tuna, other methods wereusee! : hand line fishing from a simple canoe andlure fishing. But this last method was mostly forcatching bonito.

Bonita fishing was the most important of theopen sea fishing and it was practised in all ofPolynesia. ln the Society Islands fishermen usea bamboo pole with a short line holding a pearl­shell lure in the form of a small fish. At thebase of the shank there is sorne pig hairs and apoint. Nowadays, trolling is done from a motorboat, but in earlier days it was done from alight canoe which could be rapidly manoeuvredby two or three men. Flights of sea birds enablefishermen to locarc the shoals of fish. Oncehaving arrived in the fishing area, the boat iskept going at a reduced speed. The two fisher­men searcd in the rear of the boat L'ach seize alarge bamboo pole and carefully chose the lurethat they will use. A very great importance isgiven ta the cleanliness of the lure, its finish,its palish, its colour, its brilliance as weIl asto the behaviour of the pig-hairs in the warer.The lure must he manipulared with care andwith very clean hands. The fisherman throwsthe appropriaw hook inro the water, and witha back and forth movement of hispole, he main-"tains the lure in nearly a horizontal position onthe surface of the water, and deplaces it veryrapidly in a zig-zag movement. Thefish is cata­pulted on board with a movement of the hipwhich make s the pole pivot without lifting itcompletely. The bonita which is caught on abarble.ss hook easily slips off and falls intothe boat. The hook is thrown back into the .wa­rer and the fishing continues very rapidly aslong as there are fish left.

Bonito fishing is done throughout Polynesia

James MORRISON, an English sailor whospenr from 1788 to 1791 in Polyne sia, de scribedhow the Tahitians made their hooks : .

"The ir hooks are made of Pearl shell, bone,W()(ll! L'IC "', of different constructions for thedifferl'nl fish, sorne being made to answer thedoublL- purpose of hook and bait ; they make theirhooks by grinding them inro form on a stone withwarer and sand and with a drill made of a sharkstooth ; they make a hole into which they inrrodu­ce a sprig of the coral as a file and work outthe inside part; and as they have no beard theymake the point to round toward the back of thehook, inclining downward and scldom loose afish after they get it once hookd."

The small pearl-shell or shell hooks werereserved for lagoon or shallow water fishing.Lines were ballasted with small grooved stonesor stone s with a hole. Small pearl- shell lureswith a point, re sembling the large lure s for bo­nito fishing were used to catch 'i'ihi (Myripris­tis sp.), or squirrel fish that conceal themsel­ves in the intricacies of the coral.

Sharks were fished with large wooden hooksthat had a point turning inwards. A special hookis still used in sorne islands to catch fish - the'uravena (Ruvettus preciosus C) and the mana(Promethicthys prometheus C) - at very greatdepths. The hook which is attached to a line200 to 400 meters long is baited and a stone at­ached in such a way that when it touches thebottom, it can be detached by a quick jerk; thehook then cornes slowly back up.

One of the most interesting methods of fis­hing practised in the Society Islands took placein the open sea for the purpose of cUtchinglarge fish, especiallybig tuna ingreat numbers.

Two special types of canoes with an obliquerear board (va'a 'no'o) were tied together withtwo beams ; the front beam was very solid asit also served as a support for a long pole (ti­ra) about 30 feet long. This movable mast wasmade of purau wood (Hibiscus tiliaceus) andconsisted of several elements joined one to theother. Its base was square in cross-section andwas engaged between the forward beam and ano­ther partially mobile beam (rio). To its forkedexrremity were fastened tWO lines and a bunch offeathers destined to attrack the fish when themast was lowered in a fishing position. A largefloating basket (ha'ape'ouma) containing quanti­ties of 'ouma fish (Mulloidichtys auriflamma F.)that served as live bait, was hung between thetwo canoes.

The head of the fishermen (rahua), who ob­served the movement of birds above the shoalsof fish, direcred the double canoe by giving or­der s to the paddlers. When the moment had come,he threw sorne live bait into the warer, then bai­red the hook. This is how James MORRISONde scribe s this method of fishing :

31

"When they see any fish, they paddle towarc~

them till they come round the canae and th(;nthey keep the stern of the canoe to windwardand paddle from them ; a man is then placedto throw water with a scoop, and make a conti­nuaI spray like rain, and the hooks beeing bai­re,d the crane is lowered so as to let them JUStunder the surface. The man on the bow whoattends to bait the hooks keeps throwing nowand then a small fish while the other with thescoop keeps a constant shower about the hooks;the fish soon fly at their prey and get hookdwhen the men who attend the crane rope, havingnotice given them, haul up and the fish swingin to the man who attends to receive them andbait the hooks afresh."

The pole was then raised almont verticalby means of a rope pulled from the srern andw Jth the help of the men who were on the for­ward plattorm of the canoe. While the fish slidto one side and was immediately knocked out,the hook of the other line was baired and tossedinto the water. In this way the two lines wereworked alrcrnatively at a very rapid rhythm.

1'0 catch smaller tuna, other methods wereusee! : hand line fishing from a simple canoe andlure fishing. But this last method was mostly forcatching bonito.

Bonita fishing was the most important of theopen sea fishing and it was practised in all ofPolynesia. ln the Society Islands fishermen usea bamboo pole with a short line holding a pearl­shell lure in the form of a small fish. At thebase of the shank there is sorne pig hairs and apoint. Nowadays, trolling is done from a motorboat, but in earlier days it was done from alight canoe which could be rapidly manoeuvredby two or three men. Flights of sea birds enablefishermen to locarc the shoals of fish. Oncehaving arrived in the fishing area, the boat iskept going at a reduced speed. The two fisher­men searcd in the rear of the boat L'ach seize alarge bamboo pole and carefully chose the lurethat they will use. A very great importance isgiven ta the cleanliness of the lure, its finish,its palish, its colour, its brilliance as weIl asto the behaviour of the pig-hairs in the warer.The lure must he manipulared with care andwith very clean hands. The fisherman throwsthe appropriaw hook inro the water, and witha back and forth movement of hispole, he main-"tains the lure in nearly a horizontal position onthe surface of the water, and deplaces it veryrapidly in a zig-zag movement. Thefish is cata­pulted on board with a movement of the hipwhich make s the pole pivot without lifting itcompletely. The bonita which is caught on abarble.ss hook easily slips off and falls intothe boat. The hook is thrown back into the .wa­rer and the fishing continues very rapidly aslong as there are fish left.

Bonito fishing is done throughout Polynesia

37. No 796. Trolling hook. Bonc point. Uapou, Mar­que sas, 8 cm

:\S. 0 :\82, ~6() . ~lnd ~61. l-)L'~HI-s!lefl !looks of [IlL'IUélmoru, J 1,5 :'>,6 ,-lnLi 3,1) cm.

:~h \." 1'):2~. 1 III l, htJ(Ji-:\'jriHIIH)flL' \Jin\' JO,:) "I~. 1.. Ille 1U

32

37. No 796. Trolling hook. Bonc point. Uapou, Mar­que sas, 8 cm

:\S. 0 :\82, ~6() . ~lnd ~61. l-)L'~HI-s!lefl !looks of [IlL'IUélmoru, J 1,5 :'>,6 ,-lnLi 3,1) cm.

:~h \." 1'):2~. 1 III l, htJ(Ji-:\'jriHIIH)flL' \Jin\' JO,:) "I~. 1.. Ille 1U

32

<.lnd the same characteristic hook is found a~,

far away as the Ellice Islands and even in ClT­tain Melanesian islands. In New Zealand, wherL'pcarl-shell was absent, sh<.lnks Were made ofabalone shell (Haliotis). However this shell wasvery thin so it had to be reinforccd by a woodensupport to which it was bound.

Throughout Polynesia, the generic term forthe bonito hook was pa exccpt in the Society Is­lands where it was called 'aviti, pcrhaps becauseof a linguistic tapu which we do not know about.

Mahimahi (Coryphaena) fishing was donefrom sailing canoes and mostlv lx:tween Tahitiand Tetiaroa. Flying fish weré used for bait.

, Ther~ were still other method s of fishingWIth a hne ; fIoat fishing (poito) consistl'd incatching mullet by throwing purau-wood fIoatsfitted with a short line and a hook baited withbreadfruit pastl'. A rather similar fishing tech­nique was used in the open sea, with a largefIoat and a weight for catching big fish andsharks. '

ln the Ll'eward Islands one can still observl'fi~hing with a pole in slwlJow W~lll'r. Thefishl'r­man, in water up ta his waist, casts his linl'into the surf.

NETS:

Nets, in various forms were to be foundthroughout Polynesia.

ln the Society Islands, large seine nets 10 ta120 meters long and 2 to 24 meters deep Wereused. The largest ones had a pocket in the mid­die which was emptied from time to time whenit was full. The fish were transported to theshore by canoe.

The fIoats were made of short cylindricalpieccs of weIl dried purau wood, pierced lcnght­wise. They were placed along the upper edge ofthe net at 30 cm intervals. The lower l'dge ofthe nets were weighed down with stoneswrappcdin the coconut fibre which is found at the base ofthe palms.

The material s used to make net s were thl'fibres from ro'a and purau bark. 1'0 make thenet meshes, bamboo meshingneedles and gaugeswere used.

Flying fish were caught with smaller netsthan 30 to 40 meters long by about 3 metersdeep ; this fishing was donc at night with twomen to a canoe.

At the time ,of Jarne s MORRISON, Tahitiansalso used round or square cast nets "which theythrew very skillfully."

There also exisll'd several sons of scoopnets, used for rl'l'f fishing, for the large net

33

lï.~hin!! or just for drawing fish from the fish1t',i l'.~ (Ir fish enclosun.'s.

It .seems that a sort of dip net, weigheddown In the middle by a stone, ha s bccn certi­fkd in several Polyne sian island groups. In thel\1arquesas it was used to catch the tatue alarge blue parrot fish, by using a method' ofdecoy. fishing W~ich ha s only recently disappea­red SInce certaIn l\1,uquesans rem~nber havingseen it donc. The Latue is a coral nibbler al­ways in movement but having solitary hallits,and will att~1ck fil'rccly any individual of hiskind that will trespass into his "territory". Sawhc:n the Marquesans of not longago had speareda lIve tatue, they attached it in the center of aheavily ballasted square net, the four cornersofwhich were held taut by two arcs of flexiblewood bent crosswise over the diagonals. As soonas another tatue had been located this net con­traption wa s lowered. When the f;ee tarue cameto a ttack the intruder, the line tied to the be ntcross piece s was pulled which then releascd themand emprisoned the fish in the bottom of thepocket. A few live specimens were kept for thenext fishing in one of the narutal fish enclosuresabundant along the rocky ~'oa ~l of the Marque sasand kept replenished by the spray. The taponymy~eep? the Se in mind through place name s calledoto Latue : the basin for Latue. In the present

day, this same taetic has been adapted to spear­gun fishing ; a swimmer tows a tatue at the endof a line and his companion follows the fishwithin spearing range. As soon as another Latuea.pl?roaches.the decoy, it is speared ingood con­dmons as It is a timid fish, generally difficultta approach.

ln the Australs and SOciety Islands, in shal­low areas the fish 'ouma (Mulloidichtys auri­fIamma Forsk) was fished for bait by means oflong garlands of coconut palms tied together(ra'o'ere) so as to form a sort of net. The fa­m:Jus "stone fishing" practised in the LeewardIslands is but a variant of this. A large pan ofthe population gathers round in canoes andfril!htens till' fi ,.,h by hitting the water with sto­l1e::-. l:ncirckd lly the coconut palms which ma­ny of the fishl'rm~n guide and pull in the waterthe fish arL' slowly pushed in towards shore:

Another form of "stone fishing" was prac­tised on Uapou in the Marquesas. It is a collec­tive type of fishing, sometime s calling for aIlthe able-bodied m?n of several valleys, and con­sisted of chasing in to shore a school of dol­phins without any thing l'Ise other than a greatnumber of canoes, and stones which werL'knocked against one another under water. Whena school wa s sighted in a bay, the canoe s formeda semi-circle between the dolphins and the opensea. Sometimes paddling, sometimes hitting thestones together, the semi-circle got progres­sivcly closer to shore where the dolphins, com­plercly mad, l'nded up by throwing themsdvcs

<.lnd the same characteristic hook is found a~,

far away as the Ellice Islands and even in ClT­tain Melanesian islands. In New Zealand, wherL'pcarl-shell was absent, sh<.lnks Were made ofabalone shell (Haliotis). However this shell wasvery thin so it had to be reinforccd by a woodensupport to which it was bound.

Throughout Polynesia, the generic term forthe bonito hook was pa exccpt in the Society Is­lands where it was called 'aviti, pcrhaps becauseof a linguistic tapu which we do not know about.

Mahimahi (Coryphaena) fishing was donefrom sailing canoes and mostlv lx:tween Tahitiand Tetiaroa. Flying fish weré used for bait.

, Ther~ were still other method s of fishingWIth a hne ; fIoat fishing (poito) consistl'd incatching mullet by throwing purau-wood fIoatsfitted with a short line and a hook baited withbreadfruit pastl'. A rather similar fishing tech­nique was used in the open sea, with a largefIoat and a weight for catching big fish andsharks. '

ln the Ll'eward Islands one can still observl'fi~hing with a pole in slwlJow W~lll'r. Thefishl'r­man, in water up ta his waist, casts his linl'into the surf.

NETS:

Nets, in various forms were to be foundthroughout Polynesia.

ln the Society Islands, large seine nets 10 ta120 meters long and 2 to 24 meters deep Wereused. The largest ones had a pocket in the mid­die which was emptied from time to time whenit was full. The fish were transported to theshore by canoe.

The fIoats were made of short cylindricalpieccs of weIl dried purau wood, pierced lcnght­wise. They were placed along the upper edge ofthe net at 30 cm intervals. The lower l'dge ofthe nets were weighed down with stoneswrappcdin the coconut fibre which is found at the base ofthe palms.

The material s used to make net s were thl'fibres from ro'a and purau bark. 1'0 make thenet meshes, bamboo meshingneedles and gaugeswere used.

Flying fish were caught with smaller netsthan 30 to 40 meters long by about 3 metersdeep ; this fishing was donc at night with twomen to a canoe.

At the time ,of Jarne s MORRISON, Tahitiansalso used round or square cast nets "which theythrew very skillfully."

There also exisll'd several sons of scoopnets, used for rl'l'f fishing, for the large net

33

lï.~hin!! or just for drawing fish from the fish1t',i l'.~ (Ir fish enclosun.'s.

It .seems that a sort of dip net, weigheddown In the middle by a stone, ha s bccn certi­fkd in several Polyne sian island groups. In thel\1arquesas it was used to catch the tatue alarge blue parrot fish, by using a method' ofdecoy. fishing W~ich ha s only recently disappea­red SInce certaIn l\1,uquesans rem~nber havingseen it donc. The Latue is a coral nibbler al­ways in movement but having solitary hallits,and will att~1ck fil'rccly any individual of hiskind that will trespass into his "territory". Sawhc:n the Marquesans of not longago had speareda lIve tatue, they attached it in the center of aheavily ballasted square net, the four cornersofwhich were held taut by two arcs of flexiblewood bent crosswise over the diagonals. As soonas another tatue had been located this net con­traption wa s lowered. When the f;ee tarue cameto a ttack the intruder, the line tied to the be ntcross piece s was pulled which then releascd themand emprisoned the fish in the bottom of thepocket. A few live specimens were kept for thenext fishing in one of the narutal fish enclosuresabundant along the rocky ~'oa ~l of the Marque sasand kept replenished by the spray. The taponymy~eep? the Se in mind through place name s calledoto Latue : the basin for Latue. In the present

day, this same taetic has been adapted to spear­gun fishing ; a swimmer tows a tatue at the endof a line and his companion follows the fishwithin spearing range. As soon as another Latuea.pl?roaches.the decoy, it is speared ingood con­dmons as It is a timid fish, generally difficultta approach.

ln the Australs and SOciety Islands, in shal­low areas the fish 'ouma (Mulloidichtys auri­fIamma Forsk) was fished for bait by means oflong garlands of coconut palms tied together(ra'o'ere) so as to form a sort of net. The fa­m:Jus "stone fishing" practised in the LeewardIslands is but a variant of this. A large pan ofthe population gathers round in canoes andfril!htens till' fi ,.,h by hitting the water with sto­l1e::-. l:ncirckd lly the coconut palms which ma­ny of the fishl'rm~n guide and pull in the waterthe fish arL' slowly pushed in towards shore:

Another form of "stone fishing" was prac­tised on Uapou in the Marquesas. It is a collec­tive type of fishing, sometime s calling for aIlthe able-bodied m?n of several valleys, and con­sisted of chasing in to shore a school of dol­phins without any thing l'Ise other than a greatnumber of canoes, and stones which werL'knocked against one another under water. Whena school wa s sighted in a bay, the canoe s formeda semi-circle between the dolphins and the opensea. Sometimes paddling, sometimes hitting thestones together, the semi-circle got progres­sivcly closer to shore where the dolphins, com­plercly mad, l'nded up by throwing themsdvcs

40

39. Trolling hook. Whaie bone iure covered witha piece of pearl-shell and a barbed point m3.dl'of tunie shell. 18 cm. Tonga.

40. No 508. Bone harpoon head. Marquesas.

34

40

39. Trolling hook. Whaie bone iure covered witha piece of pearl-shell and a barbed point m3.dl'of tunie shell. 18 cm. Tonga.

40. No 508. Bone harpoon head. Marquesas.

34

and where they were massacred in large num­bers. This method of fishing needs great coor­dination between the canoes and a head fisher­man ( 1,IIlukul who directs the movemcnts withthe aid of known signaIs.

FISH WEIRS, TRAPS, ENCLOSURES

In favorable areas, especially in the Tua­motuS and Society Islands, stone constructionsof ·varying forms and dimensions in which fishwere trapped can still be seen. The most spec­tacular of these is that of Mac va, Huahinewhich occupies part of channel in front of thevillage. This channel runs from the salt lakeof Fauna nui ta the west of Maeva down to theBea via the Tiare Pass. The fish weirs thatform five L'ns<.'mllle:- arc orientated in both di­rections so that they can be used both duringthe incoming and outgoing tide s. The unob s­trucred passages outside these CO!1:-;tJ"uctionsare very narrow and the fish can C:-C:lpL' onlywith dif iculty. Large blocks of stolll' h~l\'l' beengathered to make vertical walls. Six of thesetraps are of rather simple construction ; thewall sare arranged in the form of a largely 0­

pened V the sides of which close in to make anarrow passage which is enclosed by a circu­lar pen. Once the fish arc caught in this closedpen, they are complete prisoners. One of thecentral structure s is more comple x : the wingsof the trap arc actually passage ways whichlead in ta the closed pen.

ln the l uamOlU::>, the traps that are in goodcondition are still in use. The traps also serveas fish enclosures where fish can be takenwhen needed. Polynesian fishermen also use amovable sort of fish container; if the large bas­ket made of fern stems, onee indispensable forthe ancient tuna fishing, has fallen out of use,everywhere in Tahiti one can see the fish con­tainer made from split bamboo with the lathsseparated.

The wicker traps were uscd at river mouthsor to catch reef fish. Generally they were plai­ted from the aerial roots of a variety of panda­nus, the 'ie'ie (Freycinetia demissa). Theirform varied according ta island groups.

These II"UPS of 'ie'ie are still used in theSociety Islands lU catch lobsters and fresh wa­ter shrimp:-'.

JJARPOONS:

In the Marque~'las, harpoon heads of shellor of bone were found at aIl levels in the ar­cheological excavations. Most of them had aperforation and several barbs. Points of a si­milar form are known in New Zealand. Boneharpoon heads, dating from the 18 th ccnturyand coming from the Marque sas make up apart of sorne of the rare ethnographie collec­tions.

3S

Ja ml' s MORRISON' s journal give s some in­dications on the type s of harpoons used in thE'Society Islands at a historieai date : " ... theyhave harpoons which they throw with a greatprecision ; they are 12 ta 15 feet long and sup­port at their extremity two points of toa : ha­ving no line attached to the harpoon they swimout to retrieve it when there is a fish at the end.They have other harpoons with severai pointswhich they throw at random into a schoolof fishand often spear two or three at a time"

TURTLE FISHING

'l'unIe s were fished by means of nets weigheddown at the base with stones; occasionally turt­les were taken on hooks and lines.

ln the present day, turtles are harpooned orca ught on line s fitted with strong hooks.

OCTOpUS F ISHING :

Archeologicai excavations in the Marquesasa nd in Hawaii have revealed srone s in the form of"coffee-beans"· which served as sinkers foroctopus lures. The complete decoy includedsuperimposed fragments of pierced cowry shell(Cypraea), fasrcned ta a stick of hard wood.The stone which served as a sinker had a hoI­Iowed OUt grove along its dorsal side and thusfirmly attached ta the stick.

At the base of the lure, there was a hookand sorne shredded Cordyline leave s. The octa­puses, attracted by the cowry shells carefullyselL'cted For tl1dr brillluncl', were hooked andrapidly drawn up into the canoe. This is an an­cient method of fishing, as during the archeo­logical excavations many ~rforated r:owryshells aecompanied by stone s.nkers are reeo­vered. The earliest levels from the site exca­vated on Uahuka, Marquesas, revealed conicaisinkers, similar to those which are still inuse in Samoa for a similar method of fishing.

In the Society Islands an even simpler decoyis in use ; it has neither sinker nor point.Fragments of cowry shell are tied around astick which is held in one hand and shaken infront of the hole where the octopus is hidden..When it appears, the fisherman seizes it withhis other hand or else hooks it with a sort ofgaft hook.

FISHING pOISONING

The Polynesians knew how to stupefy fishby crushing the fruit, Ieaves or roots of cer­tain plants. Most of aIl they used the green­kernel of the Barringtonia speciosa F. (hutuin Tahitian) and the roots of the Tephrosia pis­catoria (hora in Tahitian). The raspings wereplaccd in the anfractuosities among the corall1eads or rocks. The henumbed fish came out of

and where they were massacred in large num­bers. This method of fishing needs great coor­dination between the canoes and a head fisher­man ( 1,IIlukul who directs the movemcnts withthe aid of known signaIs.

FISH WEIRS, TRAPS, ENCLOSURES

In favorable areas, especially in the Tua­motuS and Society Islands, stone constructionsof ·varying forms and dimensions in which fishwere trapped can still be seen. The most spec­tacular of these is that of Mac va, Huahinewhich occupies part of channel in front of thevillage. This channel runs from the salt lakeof Fauna nui ta the west of Maeva down to theBea via the Tiare Pass. The fish weirs thatform five L'ns<.'mllle:- arc orientated in both di­rections so that they can be used both duringthe incoming and outgoing tide s. The unob s­trucred passages outside these CO!1:-;tJ"uctionsare very narrow and the fish can C:-C:lpL' onlywith dif iculty. Large blocks of stolll' h~l\'l' beengathered to make vertical walls. Six of thesetraps are of rather simple construction ; thewall sare arranged in the form of a largely 0­

pened V the sides of which close in to make anarrow passage which is enclosed by a circu­lar pen. Once the fish arc caught in this closedpen, they are complete prisoners. One of thecentral structure s is more comple x : the wingsof the trap arc actually passage ways whichlead in ta the closed pen.

ln the l uamOlU::>, the traps that are in goodcondition are still in use. The traps also serveas fish enclosures where fish can be takenwhen needed. Polynesian fishermen also use amovable sort of fish container; if the large bas­ket made of fern stems, onee indispensable forthe ancient tuna fishing, has fallen out of use,everywhere in Tahiti one can see the fish con­tainer made from split bamboo with the lathsseparated.

The wicker traps were uscd at river mouthsor to catch reef fish. Generally they were plai­ted from the aerial roots of a variety of panda­nus, the 'ie'ie (Freycinetia demissa). Theirform varied according ta island groups.

These II"UPS of 'ie'ie are still used in theSociety Islands lU catch lobsters and fresh wa­ter shrimp:-'.

JJARPOONS:

In the Marque~'las, harpoon heads of shellor of bone were found at aIl levels in the ar­cheological excavations. Most of them had aperforation and several barbs. Points of a si­milar form are known in New Zealand. Boneharpoon heads, dating from the 18 th ccnturyand coming from the Marque sas make up apart of sorne of the rare ethnographie collec­tions.

3S

Ja ml' s MORRISON' s journal give s some in­dications on the type s of harpoons used in thE'Society Islands at a historieai date : " ... theyhave harpoons which they throw with a greatprecision ; they are 12 ta 15 feet long and sup­port at their extremity two points of toa : ha­ving no line attached to the harpoon they swimout to retrieve it when there is a fish at the end.They have other harpoons with severai pointswhich they throw at random into a schoolof fishand often spear two or three at a time"

TURTLE FISHING

'l'unIe s were fished by means of nets weigheddown at the base with stones; occasionally turt­les were taken on hooks and lines.

ln the present day, turtles are harpooned orca ught on line s fitted with strong hooks.

OCTOpUS F ISHING :

Archeologicai excavations in the Marquesasa nd in Hawaii have revealed srone s in the form of"coffee-beans"· which served as sinkers foroctopus lures. The complete decoy includedsuperimposed fragments of pierced cowry shell(Cypraea), fasrcned ta a stick of hard wood.The stone which served as a sinker had a hoI­Iowed OUt grove along its dorsal side and thusfirmly attached ta the stick.

At the base of the lure, there was a hookand sorne shredded Cordyline leave s. The octa­puses, attracted by the cowry shells carefullyselL'cted For tl1dr brillluncl', were hooked andrapidly drawn up into the canoe. This is an an­cient method of fishing, as during the archeo­logical excavations many ~rforated r:owryshells aecompanied by stone s.nkers are reeo­vered. The earliest levels from the site exca­vated on Uahuka, Marquesas, revealed conicaisinkers, similar to those which are still inuse in Samoa for a similar method of fishing.

In the Society Islands an even simpler decoyis in use ; it has neither sinker nor point.Fragments of cowry shell are tied around astick which is held in one hand and shaken infront of the hole where the octopus is hidden..When it appears, the fisherman seizes it withhis other hand or else hooks it with a sort ofgaft hook.

FISHING pOISONING

The Polynesians knew how to stupefy fishby crushing the fruit, Ieaves or roots of cer­tain plants. Most of aIl they used the green­kernel of the Barringtonia speciosa F. (hutuin Tahitian) and the roots of the Tephrosia pis­catoria (hora in Tahitian). The raspings wereplaccd in the anfractuosities among the corall1eads or rocks. The henumbed fish came out of

-Il. Ocrapus lure, S~m,)a. Wlll'n in use, rhe lure issupposed ra imiwtc lhL' mo"cmê.'O['s üf a dnlw­ningrar.

-lI

-12. No 658. Ocropus lure. Society Islands.

·n42

-13. Copper rimmed diving goggks. Glass stuck onwith wax. Muquesas.

-I-L No 953. Fishing weighr. 20 cm. Uapou, Marque­sas.

36

-Il. Ocrapus lure, S~m,)a. Wlll'n in use, rhe lure issupposed ra imiwtc lhL' mo"cmê.'O['s üf a dnlw­ningrar.

-lI

-12. No 658. Ocropus lure. Society Islands.

·n42

-13. Copper rimmed diving goggks. Glass stuck onwith wax. Muquesas.

-I-L No 953. Fishing weighr. 20 cm. Uapou, Marque­sas.

36

their hole and let themselvcs be spearcdcasily.Thc poison was absorbed in such small dOseHby thc fish that it was not dangcrous for man.

GATHERING:

Practically cvcrything living in thc sea thatis not poisonous is cdiblc. So, the ancient Poly­nesians did not eat only fish and tunlesbut alsocrabs, lobster s, sand crayfish (ti'ane 'e), seacentipedes (varo),· shrimps, a small crustaceaHippa sp. (popoti), several kinds of sea urchins(vana, fetu'e, ava'e, etc.). The coconut crab(kaveu) whosc abdomen is a pockcd filled withcoconut oil is very much appreciated by inhabi­tants of the Tuamotus. Amongst the shclls, themost fished are still the rridacnaswhichin sorneof the disinherited atoll':; (lI' Illv luamotus becomean exclusive food, the difFervnI kinds of turboshells which are found (ln llH-' rL'L'f, clams, mus­sels and oysters. If there wus nothing better,limp:ns (mapihi) were also eaten as well as theless habitually eaten mollusks such as the seaworms (u'a'o) that constructed a poréelaine-li­ke calcareaous tube, etc ...

Sorne edible scaweeds, still known hy theprescnt-day Polynesians, were gathered forfood. .

Nor must it he forgotten that sea bird eggsarc still collected systematically on certainislets of the Tuamotus and of the volcanic is­lands. Young sea birds are knocked out with astick and also furnish a weU appreciated meal.

Whilc fishing wa s, strictly spcaking, re ser­vcd ta the men who considercd ir to be as mucha spon as a way of findingfood, gathering was awoman's activity.

But the producr s of the sea wcre not aU de s­tined to become food. Many were uscd ta makevarious objects, as apan from stone and wood,raw materials from the land were rare.

The most precious raw material furnishedby the sca was probably pearl-shell, as it isfrom this that wcre made the fish hooks, bonitalure s, cenain harpoon point s, all very imponantobjects for the survival of the Polync sians.

With pearl-shell, ornaments or pans of or­naments, big pendants, small square pieces ofmot h e r-of-pearl to decorate mourners' cos­tumes (heiva), decorative buttons as weIl asdo­me stic impIe ments, scraper sor coconut grater swcre also made.

Pearl-sheU, very rare and valued in theSociety Islands, was obtained by exchange fromthe inhabitants of the Tuamotus who lackcdvolcanic rock to make adze s.

Knives and scrapers werc of pearl-shell,shell or sharks'lceLh. ln the far off TuamotuatoUs, only adzes and chisels of tridacna wereknown and large pearl-shells were used asshovels.

37

Everywhere, coral, shells (Mitres and Tere­bras) and pencil sea-urchin spines were useda s file s ta finish hooks. Ray skin al so servedas an excellent rasp. Drill points or piercersthat were necessary to make hooks and canocswere made from shells or sharks'teeth.

Coral itsclf was not scorned as with it onemade coconut graters ('ana in the Society Is­lands), and still taday on Rurutu in the AustralIslands, large coral pounders are made forthe preparation of poi, a fermented ma shedtuber dish. A few images (ti'i) from the SocietyIslands are in coral.

The knive s used to peel breadfruit weremade from cowries (Cypraea) These are stlllin use in the Marquesas but have been aban­doned in Tahiti.

Along with the birds from which the fea­ther s were pl ucked, the sea crea ture s furnishedthe most beautiful ornaments of Polynesia :sharks' teeth for the beautiful Tahitian breast­plates (taumi), shell and carved tunle shellfor Marquesan head crowns, whale tooth orimitation whale tooth for shell pendants andnecklace s. On Uapou in the Marque sa s therewas a local speciality of porpoise tooth neck­lace s.

Many of these objects were uscd long agoas they are found in the course of archeologi­cal excavations, generally in a good stare ofprc serva tion.

their hole and let themselvcs be spearcdcasily.Thc poison was absorbed in such small dOseHby thc fish that it was not dangcrous for man.

GATHERING:

Practically cvcrything living in thc sea thatis not poisonous is cdiblc. So, the ancient Poly­nesians did not eat only fish and tunlesbut alsocrabs, lobster s, sand crayfish (ti'ane 'e), seacentipedes (varo),· shrimps, a small crustaceaHippa sp. (popoti), several kinds of sea urchins(vana, fetu'e, ava'e, etc.). The coconut crab(kaveu) whosc abdomen is a pockcd filled withcoconut oil is very much appreciated by inhabi­tants of the Tuamotus. Amongst the shclls, themost fished are still the rridacnaswhichin sorneof the disinherited atoll':; (lI' Illv luamotus becomean exclusive food, the difFervnI kinds of turboshells which are found (ln llH-' rL'L'f, clams, mus­sels and oysters. If there wus nothing better,limp:ns (mapihi) were also eaten as well as theless habitually eaten mollusks such as the seaworms (u'a'o) that constructed a poréelaine-li­ke calcareaous tube, etc ...

Sorne edible scaweeds, still known hy theprescnt-day Polynesians, were gathered forfood. .

Nor must it he forgotten that sea bird eggsarc still collected systematically on certainislets of the Tuamotus and of the volcanic is­lands. Young sea birds are knocked out with astick and also furnish a weU appreciated meal.

Whilc fishing wa s, strictly spcaking, re ser­vcd ta the men who considercd ir to be as mucha spon as a way of findingfood, gathering was awoman's activity.

But the producr s of the sea wcre not aU de s­tined to become food. Many were uscd ta makevarious objects, as apan from stone and wood,raw materials from the land were rare.

The most precious raw material furnishedby the sca was probably pearl-shell, as it isfrom this that wcre made the fish hooks, bonitalure s, cenain harpoon point s, all very imponantobjects for the survival of the Polync sians.

With pearl-shell, ornaments or pans of or­naments, big pendants, small square pieces ofmot h e r-of-pearl to decorate mourners' cos­tumes (heiva), decorative buttons as weIl asdo­me stic impIe ments, scraper sor coconut grater swcre also made.

Pearl-sheU, very rare and valued in theSociety Islands, was obtained by exchange fromthe inhabitants of the Tuamotus who lackcdvolcanic rock to make adze s.

Knives and scrapers werc of pearl-shell,shell or sharks'lceLh. ln the far off TuamotuatoUs, only adzes and chisels of tridacna wereknown and large pearl-shells were used asshovels.

37

Everywhere, coral, shells (Mitres and Tere­bras) and pencil sea-urchin spines were useda s file s ta finish hooks. Ray skin al so servedas an excellent rasp. Drill points or piercersthat were necessary to make hooks and canocswere made from shells or sharks'teeth.

Coral itsclf was not scorned as with it onemade coconut graters ('ana in the Society Is­lands), and still taday on Rurutu in the AustralIslands, large coral pounders are made forthe preparation of poi, a fermented ma shedtuber dish. A few images (ti'i) from the SocietyIslands are in coral.

The knive s used to peel breadfruit weremade from cowries (Cypraea) These are stlllin use in the Marquesas but have been aban­doned in Tahiti.

Along with the birds from which the fea­ther s were pl ucked, the sea crea ture s furnishedthe most beautiful ornaments of Polynesia :sharks' teeth for the beautiful Tahitian breast­plates (taumi), shell and carved tunle shellfor Marquesan head crowns, whale tooth orimitation whale tooth for shell pendants andnecklace s. On Uapou in the Marque sa s therewas a local speciality of porpoise tooth neck­lace s.

Many of these objects were uscd long agoas they are found in the course of archeologi­cal excavations, generally in a good stare ofprc serva tion.

45. No 206,207. CurJl pounders. IZurutu, /\u:-iLral,.,.J8 cm.

46. Shcll scrapers to peel breadfruit. ivLlrqul ~d,.,.

46

47. No 313. Adze of Iriùacna shell. Tuamotu.

38

..L'i

45. No 206,207. CurJl pounders. IZurutu, /\u:-iLral,.,.J8 cm.

46. Shcll scrapers to peel breadfruit. ivLlrqul ~d,.,.

46

47. No 313. Adze of Iriùacna shell. Tuamotu.

38

..L'i

-J )

48. No 288. Muquesan porpoise cooch necklacl'with red and blue beads.

49. Chisel of Tridacna shell. Tuamow.

39

-J )

48. No 288. Muquesan porpoise cooch necklacl'with red and blue beads.

49. Chisel of Tridacna shell. Tuamow.

39

50. No 633. Imitation sperm whale tooth pendantsmade of shell. Uapou. Marquesas.

40

50. No 633. Imitation sperm whale tooth pendantsmade of shell. Uapou. Marquesas.

40

;, 1

52

') 1. No 623. Marqucsan head crown of turtle shelland shell. Circles of pearl shell covered overwith a fine piece of turtle shell are attachedta a braided band .

.')2. No 299. Man's car ornament of a sperm whale'staoth. Marquesas.

41

;, 1

52

') 1. No 623. Marqucsan head crown of turtle shelland shell. Circles of pearl shell covered overwith a fine piece of turtle shell are attachedta a braided band .

.')2. No 299. Man's car ornament of a sperm whale'staoth. Marquesas.

41

53

.')3. No 436. Coral image or tri. Moorea, SocietyJoland. 46 cm.

54. No 79 J and 792. Pans of a canoe found in ,1

buriaJ cave in the valley of Hakatetau, Uapou,Marqucsas. 35 and 58 cm. No 791 is decoratedwith chevron ffio:>tifs, otill visible in spite of theweathered surface.

53

.')3. No 436. Coral image or tri, Moorea, SocietyIoland. 46 cm.

54. No 791 and 792. Pans of a canoe found in ,1

buriaI cave in the valley of Hakatetau, Uapou,Marqucsas. 35 and 58 cm. No 791 is decoratedwith chevron ffio:>tifs, otill visible in spite of theweathered surface.

55. No 118. Stone image intheformofa fish.39 cm,Marque sa 5,

.'i6. No 506. Turtle engraved on a pebble. 20 cm.Mdrquc";:lS.

43

55. No 118. Stone image intheformofa fish.39 cm,Marque sa 5,

.'i6. No 506. Turtle engraved on a pebble. 20 cm.Mdrquc";:lS.

43

:;-:-. No 120 and 121. Double stone image from theMarquesas. 12 and 16 cm. These little votiveofferings were placed on the marae to obtainsuccess in an emerprisc. They were probablyderived from the double-headed fishing sinkersand are sometime s considered a s net weights.

57

58. No 119. Stone im3.ge i.n the form of a [izard.29 cm. Marquesas.

:')9, No 345. Coral tunle. 30,5 cm. Tuamotu.

59

44

:;-:-. No 120 and 121. Double stone image from theMarquesas. 12 and 16 cm. These little votiveofferings were placed on the marae to obtainsuccess in an emerprisc. They were probablyderived from the double-headed fishing sinkersand are sometime s considered a s net weights.

57

58. No 119. Stone im3.ge i.n the form of a [izard.29 cm. Marquesas.

:')9, No 345. Coral tunle. 30,5 cm. Tuamotu.

59

44

ANCIENT CUSTOMSAND RITUALS

The Polynesians were so close ta the seain aIl respects that this familarity could nothelp but have innumerable implications in theirdaily life, custamsand beliefs. The sea was thebig purificatar j she could receive both thatwhich was tao soile'd or that which was too sa­cred without ever any subsequent disastrousconsequences.

The sea was at the· sarne time an extensionof the firm land j she had like it her place namesand appropriated areas of which the owner­ship titles were transmitted from generation tagener~tion among the chiefs.

The construction and launching of a canoeas weIl as certain types of fishing were accom­panied by special songs and ceremonies withfood offerings. The ceremonies and the feaststhat. followed gathered many participants andthey ,were, along with collective fishing, an im­portant factor in maintaining social cohesion.

The different activitiesassociated with canoeconstruction and big fishing were done uhderthe orders of a tahu'a (tuhuka in theMarquesas),a specialist who was in charge of directing theoperation.

Turtle fishing was specially filled with ri­tuaIs. In the Tuamotus, turtles were consecra­ted ta the gods by chants and sacrifices, heldon the marae during certain seasonal ceremo­nies. In the Marque sas, only the chiefs andpriests could eat them. Everywhere, they wereforbidden for women who also did not have theright ta board a fishing canoe. In. Tahiti, womencould not eat shark or certain noble fish like thetuna and the mahimahi (Coryphaena).

Fishermen Ilad their own special maraewhere they consecrated their fishing materials,said prayers before setting out, and performedcelebration rites on their return. The first fishcaught was offered to the "marae" gods.

The divinities of the sea, appropriated tothe navigators and fishermen, seem to have beennumerous. The early aUthors list several, but

45

under different names j in reality nothing isknown of their exact identity and of their res­pective importance. Nor is it known if in Tahi­ti they were materially represented by imagesor if they were just invoq ued in the prayer sandchants.

ln Tahiti, the rahui wa s applied which wa s atemporary interdiction ta fish within a determi­nated area of the lagoon ; this protective mea­sure took place most of aIl during the largefestivities which assembled in the same areaa population coming from several islands.Without this precaution, the participants wouldhave over-fished the lagoon. As it was they we­re provided with food from other districts.

A fisherman could also appropriate for him­self a temporary reserve .. It is said that befo­re, in Marque sas, a fisherman who had found aconch shell (putoka) which was too small, wouldlet it grow by making a stone enclosure for itwhich would become his mark of ownership.Conch shell s were greatly valued in all the is­lands as they served as a trumpet and were soused in numerous circumstances.

The tahu'a specialists knew how ta keeptrack of the seasons and of the time to observethe movements of fish. And it wasn't so long agothat the old fishermen of the Society Islandswere familiar. with a lunar calendar in whichthe months were devided into nights favorableor not for fishing certain kinds of fish, crabs,etc.

For example, the ninth night is especiallyfavorable for bonito fishing, the tenth night, aIlthe fish hide, etc. Certain signs observed onland, like the flowering of a plant, indiquatedthe beginning or the end of a fishing season:

Mr.. Raoul TEISSIER has just published asynthe sis of sorne of these calendars, showinga connection between fishing and agriculture.

WOODEN AND STONE IMAGES

It is known that in Tahiti the big sacredcanoes, decorated with carvings, were keptat the marae. They were used by the chiefs andpriests, and for the transport of sacred objects.Masts and paddles, whose exact role is unknown,were ,~lso erected on the marae.

During the historical period, the carvedwooden images as the bow and stern of canoeswere purely ornamental. '

The real god image-~ were put in a preciseplace in the canoe, but it· is possible that fur­ther back in time these ti'i would have had areligious function.

The very numerous fishing gods were, ac-

ANCIENT CUSTOMSAND RITUALS

The Polynesians were so close ta the seain aIl respects that this familarity could nothelp but have innumerable implications in theirdaily life, custamsand beliefs. The sea was thebig purificatar j she could receive both thatwhich was tao soile'd or that which was too sa­cred without ever any subsequent disastrousconsequences.

The sea was at the· sarne time an extensionof the firm land j she had like it her place namesand appropriated areas of which the owner­ship titles were transmitted from generation tagener~tion among the chiefs.

The construction and launching of a canoeas weIl as certain types of fishing were accom­panied by special songs and ceremonies withfood offerings. The ceremonies and the feaststhat. followed gathered many participants andthey ,were, along with collective fishing, an im­portant factor in maintaining social cohesion.

The different activitiesassociated with canoeconstruction and big fishing were done uhderthe orders of a tahu'a (tuhuka in theMarquesas),a specialist who was in charge of directing theoperation.

Turtle fishing was specially filled with ri­tuaIs. In the Tuamotus, turtles were consecra­ted ta the gods by chants and sacrifices, heldon the marae during certain seasonal ceremo­nies. In the Marque sas, only the chiefs andpriests could eat them. Everywhere, they wereforbidden for women who also did not have theright ta board a fishing canoe. In. Tahiti, womencould not eat shark or certain noble fish like thetuna and the mahimahi (Coryphaena).

Fishermen Ilad their own special maraewhere they consecrated their fishing materials,said prayers before setting out, and performedcelebration rites on their return. The first fishcaught was offered to the "marae" gods.

The divinities of the sea, appropriated tothe navigators and fishermen, seem to have beennumerous. The early aUthors list several, but

45

under different names j in reality nothing isknown of their exact identity and of their res­pective importance. Nor is it known if in Tahi­ti they were materially represented by imagesor if they were just invoq ued in the prayer sandchants.

ln Tahiti, the rahui wa s applied which wa s atemporary interdiction ta fish within a determi­nated area of the lagoon ; this protective mea­sure took place most of aIl during the largefestivities which assembled in the same areaa population coming from several islands.Without this precaution, the participants wouldhave over-fished the lagoon. As it was they we­re provided with food from other districts.

A fisherman could also appropriate for him­self a temporary reserve .. It is said that befo­re, in Marque sas, a fisherman who had found aconch shell (putoka) which was too small, wouldlet it grow by making a stone enclosure for itwhich would become his mark of ownership.Conch shell s were greatly valued in all the is­lands as they served as a trumpet and were soused in numerous circumstances.

The tahu'a specialists knew how ta keeptrack of the seasons and of the time to observethe movements of fish. And it wasn't so long agothat the old fishermen of the Society Islandswere familiar. with a lunar calendar in whichthe months were devided into nights favorableor not for fishing certain kinds of fish, crabs,etc.

For example, the ninth night is especiallyfavorable for bonito fishing, the tenth night, aIlthe fish hide, etc. Certain signs observed onland, like the flowering of a plant, indiquatedthe beginning or the end of a fishing season:

Mr.. Raoul TEISSIER has just published asynthe sis of sorne of these calendars, showinga connection between fishing and agriculture.

WOODEN AND STONE IMAGES

It is known that in Tahiti the big sacredcanoes, decorated with carvings, were keptat the marae. They were used by the chiefs andpriests, and for the transport of sacred objects.Masts and paddles, whose exact role is unknown,were ,~lso erected on the marae.

During the historical period, the carvedwooden images as the bow and stern of canoeswere purely ornamental. '

The real god image-~ were put in a preciseplace in the canoe, but it· is possible that fur­ther back in time these ti'i would have had areligious function.

The very numerous fishing gods were, ac-

cording ta T. HE NRY, in stone or in wood. Thefishermen placed them, as weIl as other sacredrelicsand bird feather decorations, in secrethiding places on the fishermen's marae.

No Tahitian images of these gods have bcendiscovered, but sorne statuettes from Rarotongain the Cook Islands brought back by the Englishmissionaries are known to be representationsofthe god of the fishermen.

ln. the marae of Tahiti, the first Europcansobserved carvings of fish that could have had arelationship with fishing.

ln the Society Islands stone fish were prima­rily dcstined to favorise runa fishing.

ln the Marquesas, stones carved in the shapeof fish were hidden inside the marae. While fis­hing, one of thesc tiki fish was exposcd on themarae platform. If it was not efficient, it wasreplaced by another.

The Papeete Museum possesscs one of the scstone fish, a s weIl a lizard of similar workman­ship, but perhaps more recent.

A pebble representing a rurtle is also con­served in the Papeete Museum. One side is car­ved in the form of a turtle head ; on the other'side, which is flat, appear.s the inciscd carvingof the contour of the animal. It is not known ifthis image, which Reems to be unique, was sup­posed to have a good influence on rurtle fishing,as the ruhuka, the specialists devoted to thisfishing, had stone tikis of human form.

On the other hand, repre sentations of runlescrudely shaped from a block of coral have beenreported from the Tuamotus and are represen­ted in museums. These werc regarded as sa­cred stone sand placed in the marac and werebrought out during the ceremoniesaccompanyinglurtle fishing.

The fisherman who had caught the tunle of­fered it ta the god and dedicated it with a chant

Now the tide ri se sIt sweeps ta the eastIt sweeps to the westIt sweeps taward the landIr swings out ta seaIt rises beforeIt rises betweenIt rise s behindo TagoroaPartake (of the offering) aboveParrake below ! ...

The Polynesian oral literarure, sacredchants, and legends are filled with evocationsofthe sea and aIl that it contains. The allusionsto canoe construction, ta voyages at sea, to de­panures, to rerurns and to fishing, are nume­rous, and from them one can learn many de-

rails of the knowledge of the ancient Polync­sians.

Fortunately aIl of this knowledge had notdisappeared along with the marae and the crea­tion chants. Canoes arc still bcing lmilt in 1'0­lynesia and fishing is still donc with much in­genuity.

cording ta T. HE NRY, in stone or in wood. Thefishermen placed them, as weIl as other sacredrelicsand bird feather decorations, in secrethiding places on the fishermen's marae.

No Tahitian images of these gods have bcendiscovered, but sorne statuettes from Rarotongain the Cook Islands brought back by the Englishmissionaries are known to be representationsofthe god of the fishermen.

ln. the marae of Tahiti, the first Europcansobserved carvings of fish that could have had arelationship with fishing.

ln the Society Islands stone fish were prima­rily dcstined to favorise runa fishing.

ln the Marquesas, stones carved in the shapeof fish were hidden inside the marae. While fis­hing, one of thesc tiki fish was exposcd on themarae platform. If it was not efficient, it wasreplaced by another.

The Papeete Museum possesscs one of the scstone fish, a s weIl a lizard of similar workman­ship, but perhaps more recent.

A pebble representing a rurtle is also con­served in the Papeete Museum. One side is car­ved in the form of a turtle head ; on the other'side, which is flat, appear.s the inciscd carvingof the contour of the animal. It is not known ifthis image, which Reems to be unique, was sup­posed to have a good influence on rurtle fishing,as the ruhuka, the specialists devoted to thisfishing, had stone tikis of human form.

On the other hand, repre sentations of runlescrudely shaped from a block of coral have beenreported from the Tuamotus and are represen­ted in museums. These werc regarded as sa­cred stone sand placed in the marac and werebrought out during the ceremoniesaccompanyinglurtle fishing.

The fisherman who had caught the tunle of­fered it ta the god and dedicated it with a chant

Now the tide ri se sIt sweeps ta the eastIt sweeps to the westIt sweeps taward the landIr swings out ta seaIt rises beforeIt rises betweenIt rise s behindo TagoroaPartake (of the offering) aboveParrake below ! ...

The Polynesian oral literarure, sacredchants, and legends are filled with evocationsofthe sea and aIl that it contains. The allusionsto canoe construction, ta voyages at sea, to de­panures, to rerurns and to fishing, are nume­rous, and from them one can learn many de-

rails of the knowledge of the ancient Polync­sians.

Fortunately aIl of this knowledge had notdisappeared along with the marae and the crea­tion chants. Canoes arc still bcing lmilt in 1'0­lynesia and fishing is still donc with much in­genuity.

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view of Two Centuries of Speculation andTheory in Polynesian Culture History. Es­says in Honour of Kenneth P. Emory. Edi­té par High land, Force, Howard, Kelly,Sinoto. Bishop Museum Special Publica­tion 56. Bishop Museum Press. Honolulu1967. pp. 45-103.

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1768-1771. Vol. 1 et 2. Sydney. 1963

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français~. T~m2 1. Botanique. Pap~ete

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française.) 0 me 11. Zoologie. PJ.peete.

DUFF. R,- The Mua-Hunter Period of Maori Culture.

Wèllington. 1962. .- No Sort of Iron. Culture of Cook's Pûlyn3­

sians.

ELUS W.- Polynesian Re s(;arches. Vol. let 11. London.

1829.

EMORY K.P.- Tuamütuan Religious Structures and Cere­

monies. Bernice P. Bishop Museûl1, 13 191.1947.

EMlJR Y K. P., BONK W., SINüTO Y.H.- Hawaiian Archeology, Fis!1hooks. Bernice

P. Bislnp Museum Special PublicationNo 47. 1959.

EM8RY K.P. et SINOrO Y.H.- Oahu Excavations. Haw:3.iian Archaeology.

Bernice P. Bishop M'lseum Special Publi­cation No 49. Bishop I\111seum Press. 1961.77 pages.

- Eastern polynesian B'lrials at Maupiti. TheJournal of the Polynesian Society. 73.2.June 1964. p. 143-160 et Pl. 1-7.

GARANGER J.- Hameçons océaniens. Eléments de typolo­

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- Recherches archéologique saux Nouvelles­Hébrides. L'l1om:îlü. t. 6. No I. Paris 1966.pp. 59-81.

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de la Société des Océanistes. No 27. T.XXVI, Juin 1970.

GOLSON J. (editor)Polynesian Navigation. A symposium onAndrew Sharp's Theory of AccidentaI Vo­yages. Supplement to the Journal of thePolynesian Soc i et y. Wellington. 1963.153 p. carte s.

GREEN R.C.- West Polynesian Prehistory in Prehisto­

ric Culture in Oceania. A Symposium. Edi­té par 1. Yawata et Y.H. Sinoto. EleventhPacific Science Congress, Tokyo, Japan,1966. Bishop Museum Press. Honolulu.1966. p. 99-109.

GREEN R.C. et DAVIDSON J.M.- Radiocarbon Dates for Western Samoa.

Journal of the Polynesian Society. Vol. 74.No 1. Mars 1965. p. 63-69.

GUlART J.- Océanie. Paris. 1963.

HANDY E.S.C.- The Native Culture in the Marquesas. Ber­

nice P. Bishop Museum B 9 1923.- Houses, Boats and Fishirig. Bernice P. Bis­

hop Museum 13 90 1932.

HENRY T.- l'ah i t i aux temps anciens. Trad. B. JAU­

NE Z P3.ris. 1952.

HG:-\NELL J.- Canoes of Oceania. Vol. 1 : The canoes of

Polynesia, Fiji and Micronesia. Bernice P.Bishop Museum Special Publication. 1936.

HOW ..\RD A.- Polynesian Origins and Migrations: A re­

view of Two Centuries of Speculation andTheory in Polynesian Culture History. Es­says in Honour of Kenneth P. Emory. Edi­té par High land, Force, Howard, Kelly,Sinoto. Bishop Museum Special Publica­tion 56. Bishop Museum Press. Honolulu1967. pp. 45-103.

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de Raivavae. Bulletin de la Société desEtudes O:::éaniennes. No 113. déc. 1955.p. 494-496.

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making discoverie s in the Southern Hemis­phere. London. 1773.

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ple polynésien. Braine-le-Comte et Paris.1938

LAVONDES A.- Musée de Papeete: Catalogue des Collec­

tions ethnographiques et archéologiques.Publication provisoire ronéotée. CentreORSTOM de Papeete. 1966. 409 p.

LEGAND M.- Contribution à l'étude des m<3thodes de

pêche dans le s Territoire s fransais duPacifique Sud. Journal de la Societé desOcéanistes. No 6. déc. 1950. p. 141-172.

LEMAITRE Y.- Les relations inter-insulaires tradition­

nelles en Océanie : Tonga. Premièresdonnées sur l'application d'une méthodemathématique. Journal de la Société desOcéanistes. 27. T. XXVI. juin 1970.

M8RRISON J.- Journal de James Morrison, second maέ

tre à bord de la "Bounty". Trad. B. JAU­NE Z. Paris, Papeete 1966.

NORDHOFF C.- Note s on the off- shore F ishing of the So­

ciety Islands. Journal of the PolynesianSociety. No 154, J. 1930 et No 155, Sept.1930.

O'REILLY P. et REITMAN E.- Bibliographie de Tahiti et de la Polynésie

Française. Publications de la Societé desOcéanistes. No 14. Paris 1967.

OTTINO P.- La pêche a u grand filet à Tahiti. ORSTOM.

Paris 1965 a.

PETARD P.- Les plantes ichtyoroxiques polynésiennes.

Bulletin de la Société desEtudes Océanien­ne s, déc. 1964.

SINOTO Y.H.- A Tentative Prehistoric Cultural Sequence

in the Northern Marqucsas Islands, FrenchPolynesia. Journal of the Polynesian So ­ciety. 75. (3). 1966. pp. 287-303.Position of the Marquesas Islands in EastPolynesian Prehistory, in Prehistoric Cul­ture in Oceania. A. Sym:;x>sium. Edité parI. Yawata et Y.H. Sinoto. Eleventh PacificScience Congress, Tokyo, Japan, 1966.Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu, 1968,p. 1JI à 118.

SINOTO Y.H. et KELLUM M.- Hameçons récoltés aux Tuamotu occiden­

tales. Journal de la Société des Océanis­tes. No 21. déc. 1965. p. 145-149.

48

'l'ElSSlER R.- Calendrier de s lunaisons utilisé par les

Polynésiens orientaux 1970.

WALLIS in J. HAWKESWORTH- An account of the Voyage untertaken for

making discoverie s in the Southern Hemis­phere. London. 1773.

Back cover. Shark hook. Tuamotu.

49

Back cover. Shark hook. Tuamotu.

49

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