the presence of lean construction principles in norways ... · the presence of lean construction...

The presence of Lean Construction principles in Norways transport infrastructure projects

Christoph Friedrich Rodewohl

Civil and Environmental Engineering

Supervisor: Olav Torp, BAT

Department of Civil and Transport Engineering

Submission date: July 2014

Norwegian University of Science and Technology

NORWEGIAN UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL AND TRANSPORT ENGINEERING

Report Title:

The presence of Lean Construction principles in Norway’s transport infrastructure projects

Date: 04.07.2014

Number of pages (incl. appendices): 126

Master Thesis X Project Work

Name:

Christoph Friedrich Rodewohl

Professor in charge/supervisor:

Førsteamanuensis Olav Torp (NTNU Trondheim) & Prof. Dr.-Ing. Bernd Kochendörfer (TU Berlin)

Other external professional contacts/supervisors:

---

Abstract:

The construction sector is tainted with cost overruns, time delays, poor quality and repairing work, conflicts between

the contracting parties as well as accidents and environmental problems. Thus new ways and methods have been

developed in recent years. Especially the term lean construction came up and was implemented first in theory and

afterwards in construction and building projects. Processes have been optimized and basic approaches for a new

way of thinking has been developed in the construction industry. The body of literature for lean construction with

its different facets became overwhelming within a short period of time. Nevertheless its practical application within

the construction sector isn't well marked. The thesis intends to broaden the application of lean and its examination

to provide knowledge for implementing and existing lean principles in practice. While examining Norwegian

infrastructure projects with the help of case studies the researcher aims to prove the application of lean principles.

The existence of lean principles is linked to the usage of proper lean tools and methods within the project

management approach.

The focus of this thesis is to investigate transport infrastructure projects in Norway regarding the practical

application of single principles of the Lean Construction approach. First of all, this requires identifying the relevant

body of literature to give an overview on this topic with its different aspects. Furthermore this part should serve as

an introduction to get familiar with the core ideas of the term Lean Construction and to present the possibilities

given by this theoretical described management approach. For the practical part of the thesis current projects carried

out by the Norwegian Public Road Authority, as the biggest client for roads, tunnels and bridges, can serve as

examination objects. By the usage of proper research methods, relevant data shall be collected considering the

mentioned aspects of the theory part. Based on evaluating and validating the collected information the researcher

shall describe the current situation about the existence of Lean Construction principles from the client’s point of

view. Finally the importance of this issue and the role of the client within this approach shall be explained.

Keywords:

1. Lean construction

2. Infrastructure

3. Value, waste, flow

4. Lean project management

_________________________________________

(sign.)

ii

Declaration of Authorship

I hereby declare that the thesis submitted is my own unaided work. All direct or indirect sources

used are acknowledged as references.

I am aware that the thesis in digital form can be examined for the use of unauthorized aid and in

order to determine whether the thesis as a whole or parts incorporated in it may be deemed as

plagiarism. For the comparison of my work with existing sources I agree that it shall be entered

in a database where it shall also remain after examination, to enable comparison with future

theses submitted. Further rights of reproduction and usage, however, are not granted here.

This paper was not previously presented to another examination board and has not been pub-

lished before.

PLACE & DATE SIGNATURE OF THE AUTHOR

iii

Preface

This Master of Science thesis was written in the first half of the year 2014 within the master

program industrial engineering at TU Berlin. The thesis emerged due to an Erasmus semester

at NTNU Trondheim. Afterwards the researcher drafted the thesis in cooperation with TU Berlin

(Department for Construction Management), NTNU Trondheim (Department of Civil and Trans-

port Engineering) and the external partner Statens vegvesen. The core idea arose during a cou-

ple of meetings and conversations with professors from the NTNU in agreement with the TU

Berlin considering the interests of the researcher, the accessibility of data and the need of re-

search.

iv

Acknowledgement

After making this thesis happen I would like to give thanks to the following persons for their

great support during the phase editing the master-thesis. First of all Olav Torp who supervised

me and was always available to help in word and deed from the creation of the topic until the

submission. He made the connection of the researcher with Statens vegvessen possible. At the

same I need to mention the openness and the patience of the contacted employees of Statens

vegvesen. They provided me with the data I needed for my practical part and made my thesis in

this way alive and usable. I also would like to name James Odeck at this point who was especially

in preparation of the thesis my contact person and get me with valuable information.

From the TU Berlin the researcher got supervised by Prof. Dr. Kochendörfer. He encouraged

the researcher from the first moment to realize the idea of such a cooperation and managed the

contact to the home university.

In addition to it I would like to give thanks to my parents who supported and accompanied

me during all my years at university, the decisions I made and the different experiences I went

through. The times back at home were always a place where I could collect new ideas and new

energy to go the next step. During my stay here in Norway I got in touch with so many new peo-

ple who broadened with their personality my horizon significantly. All of them accompanied

me on my ways in Trondheim and at the university in a unique way. Especially my friend Sebas-

tian was from the first moment a faithful companion and a perfect supplement to discover the

beauty of the Norwegian landscape.

C.R.

v

Summary

The construction sector is tainted with a bad image and has a significant impact on the eco-

nomic situation of a country. Claims for better and optimized processes are existent. The spe-

cial properties of construction projects, especially their uniqueness, require a holistic under-

standing and make an adoption of the project team regarding the concerned context essential.

A new way of thinking develops to cope with the complex and dynamic features. Lean has its

roots in the manufacturing processes of the car industry. The body of literature of the approach

called lean construction became overwhelming within a short period of time. The practical ap-

plication within the construction sector isn’t still highly developed. There are still a range of

challenges implementing those methods from theory into practice which need to be solved.

The thesis intends to make a contribution to broaden the application of lean and to provide

knowledge implementing lean principles in practice. While examining Norwegians infrastruc-

ture projects with the help of case studies the researcher aims to prove the application of lean

principles. The existence of lean principles is linked to the usage of lean tools and methods.

There are two important sides introducing a new approach. The application of new processes is

one aspect. New processes are depending on the appliers who implement them based on their

experience and the way of thinking. LC means a paradigm shift in the way of thinking and re-

quires commitment from all involved people. The approach scrutinizes the integration of the

design and construction phase as well as the involvement of the client.

To approach this topic the researcher divided the thesis into six chapters. The first part serves

to introduce the topic and identifies the customer while presenting the objectives of the thesis.

The second part presents the researchers approach for the literature part and the project work.

The researcher presents the theory in the third chapter. This part deals with significant contri-

butions as an excerpt from the huge body of literature. Chapter four reflects the case study and

the collected data. The researcher is going to present the results of the examination phase by

the chosen research method. In chapter five the data will be discussed and analysed matching

the results with the theory part. With the help of collected data the task is to analyse the project

management approach of SVV for the existence of lean principles and to prove the meaning-

fulness and application of lean ideas within the construction sector in general. The sixth part

summarizes the results of the thesis and gives an outlook for further research work.

Key words: lean construction, infrastructure, construction management, value, waste, flow

vi

Zusammenfassung

Die Anwendung von Lean Prinzipien ist heutzutage aus industriellen Produktionsprozessen

kaum mehr weg zu denken und stellt mehr als nur einen Standard dar. Entwickelt von Managern

und Ingenieuren bei Toyota in den 60-iger Jahren hat sich dieser Managmentansatz schnell in

der ganzen Welt verbreitet und wurde auch auf andere Sektoren übertragen. Ausgehend von

den Problemen in der Baubranche und dessem gleichzeitig bedeutenden Einfluss auf die na-

tionale Wirtschaft eines Landes ist der Sektor auf der Suche nach Verbesserungen und Verän-

derungen. Die steigende Komplexität und Dynamik innerhalb der Projekte sowie das Charak-

teristikum der Einzigartigkeit fordert Veränderungen. Mittels der Übernahme und Transforma-

tion von einzelnen Lean Methoden sollen bessere Projektresultate erzielt werden. Begonnen hat

dieser gewissermaßen neue Zeitabschnitt bereits in den 80-iger Jahren ausgehend von Amerika.

In Europa ist in den 90-iger Jahren vor allem die britische Bauindustrie durch den Report von

Egan, 1998 aktiv zur Anwendung von Lean Prinzipien aufgefordert worden. Mittlerweile wur-

den viele nationale Institute und Forschungsgemeinschaften gegründet, die sich mit Lean Con-

struction auseinandersetzen und die Entwicklung von Methoden und Prinzipien vor allem the-

oretisch vorantreiben. Erst seit den letzten Jahren findet eine gezielte praktische Anwendung

von Lean in Projekten statt. Über genaue Auswirkungen einzelner Tools und Methoden liegen

kaum Forschungsresulte vor. Der Ansatz ist eng an Prozesse und Verhalten geknüpft. Weiter-

hin steht die Integration von Produkt und Prozess sowie die aktive Einbindung des Bauherrn im

Mittelpunkt.

Mit dieser Arbeit soll die Anwendung von Lean Ideen in Infrastrukturprojekten in Norwegen

nachgewiesen werden. Die zunehmende Komplexität und Anzahl an Projektmitgliedern, das

steigende Interesse verschiedener Stakeholder sowie die damit steigende Anzahl an Rahmenbe-

dingungen stellen die Ausgangsbasis für eine verstärkte Implementierung von Lean Prinzipien

in Linienbaustellen dar. Mit Hilfe des Theorieteils verschafft sich der Author zunächst einen

Überblick über den aktuellen Status von LC. Der Abschnitt dient gleichzeitig als Einführung in

die Thematik LC für den Projektpartner Statens Vegvesen, der nationalen Straßenbaubehörde

Norwegens. Im praktischen Teil der Arbeit wird mit Hilfe von Fallstudien die Präsenz von Lean

Ideen in dem Projektmanagementansatz des Bauherrn nachgewiesen. Mittels Interviews und

der Untersuchung von Projektdokumenten wird von den verwendeten Methoden auf die ur-

sprünglichen Lean Ideen zurück geschlossen. Abschließend wird ein Status quo definiert als

Ausgangspunkt für die weitere Etablierung einer Lean Denkweise.

Abbreviations

NTP National Transport Plan

LC Lean Construction

LCJ Lean Construction Journal

IGLC International Group for Lean Construction

AEC Architecture, Engineering and Construction

IPD Integrated Project Delivery

TFV Transformation, Flow, Value

OR Organisational structure

OS Operating system

CT Commercial terms

BIM Business Information Modeling

TVD Target Value Design

PS Pull Scheduling

LPS Last Planner System

CIP Continuous Improvement Process

VSM Value Stream Mapping

PTM Primary Team Member

vii

viii

JIT Just-in-time

TQC Total Quality Control

ICT Information and Communication Technology

LCI Lean Construction Institute

PPC Percentage Plan Completed

IFOA Integrated Form of Agreement

KPI Key Performance Indicator

mio Million

NOK Norwegian kroner

KVU Concept evaluation

KS1 Quality assurance

KU Impact assessment

LOV Public law for planning and construction

km Kilometres

n/s Not specified

tba Need to be announced

D/B Design-build team

NMTC Norwegian Ministry of Transport and Communication

e.g. for example

LDPS Lean Production Delivery System

WBS Work Breakdown Structure

Contents

Declaration of Authorship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ii

Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii

Acknowledgement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iv

Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v

Zusammenfassung . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vi

Abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii

1 Introduction 6

1.1 Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

1.2 Facts about Norway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

1.3 Who is the customer? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

1.4 Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

2 Methods and proceeding 14

2.1 Literature research: Scope and research strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

2.1.1 Scope and focus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

2.1.2 Research strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

2.2 Project work: Method and design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

2.2.1 Research method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

2.2.2 Case study design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

2.2.3 Selection of the cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

2.2.4 Data collection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

2.2.5 Research by questionnaire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

2.2.6 Research by interviews . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

2.3 Quality in case study work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

2.4 Ethical considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

1

CONTENTS 2

3 Literature research 28

3.1 Construction Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

3.1.1 Project work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

3.1.2 Construction projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

3.1.3 The challenges of a traditional management approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

3.1.4 The organizational structure around the client . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

3.2 Lean Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

3.2.1 Towards an understanding of lean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

3.2.2 Lean thinking and its roots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

3.2.3 The five lean principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

3.2.4 Lean techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

3.3 Transferring of principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

3.4 Lean Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

3.4.1 Lean Construction as a management fashion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

3.4.2 Effects: Challenges and opportunities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

3.4.3 Identifying waste in construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

3.4.4 Implementing lean thinking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

3.4.5 Organisational structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

3.4.6 Operating system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

3.4.7 Commercial terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

3.5 The role of the client . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

3.5.1 The customer in construction projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

3.5.2 The corresponding value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

3.5.3 The new role of the client . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

3.6 Cultural and structural barriers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

3.7 Establishing lean construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

4 Project work 71

4.1 The public road authority of Norway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

4.1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

4.1.2 The project management approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

4.1.3 Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

4.2 Case study work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76

4.2.1 Project descriptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76

CONTENTS 3

4.2.2 Findings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

4.2.3 Role of the client . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84

5 Analysing and discussion 85

5.1 Identifying Lean elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86

5.1.1 Organizational structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87

5.1.2 Operating system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

5.1.3 Commercial terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93

5.2 Overview about the results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

6 Conclusion and outlook 97

6.1 Research questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

6.2 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

6.3 Limitations of the research work and outlook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100

Bibliography 102

Appendix I

List of Figures

1 Two sides of improvement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

2 Life-cycle of a construction project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

3 The needs of selected customers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

4 Cost-influence curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

5 Overview about the used sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

6 The research process flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

7 Qualitative research method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

8 The case study design in reference to Yin, 2014 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

9 The used sources within the cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

10 Establishing quality within the results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

11 Holistic view on cost, time and scope of work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

12 How lean production is seen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

13 The five lean principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

14 Pull production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

15 Maintaining improvement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

16 The input parameter for transformation in construction projects . . . . . . . . . . . 47

17 The steps of implementing lean thinking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

18 The lean triangle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

19 The organizational structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

20 Lean Project Delivery System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

21 Last Planner System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

22 The Five Big Ideas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

23 Items to structure the work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

24 A trade-off decision while contracting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

4

LIST OF FIGURES 5

25 Producer - client relation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

26 A relational project arrangement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

27 Finding the customer value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

28 Cultural and structural barriers in reference to Sarhan and Fox, 2013 . . . . . . . . 69

29 Implementing a lean system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

30 The organizational structure of SVV . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

31 The project phases of SVV . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

32 The researchers strategy analysing the data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86

33 Aims within the preparation of the site . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

34 Case study results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

35 The presence of lean principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96

Chapter 1

Introduction

The first chapter of this thesis is an introduction detailing some background information, the

problem description and identifying the customer. Simultaneously the researcher defines the scope

of the thesis.

6

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION 7

1.1 Preface

Lean processes for manufacturing companies are of daily routine nowadays. The term ’lean’ is

ubiquitous after solving and understanding the secret of success of Toyota’s production system.

They were pioneering in applying lean principles within their organization in the 1960s. It needs

a long time to figure out what it is that made them so successfully. Several opinions about it are

existent. (Stone, 2012, 112p)

The construction sector of Great Britain was seriously investigated in the 1990s for example by

Latham, 1994 and Egan, 1998. At that time the sector was seen synonymously for cost overruns,

time delays, poor quality, low efficiency, removal of defects and conflicts between the involved

parties as well as producing a range of safety and negative environmental impacts (Egan, 1998,

6p). All involved parties were forced to think about new strategies to dispose themselves of this

negative image against the backdrop of the economic importance of the construction sector.

Thus new ways and methods were developed in recent years. This contains especially the fact

of the transfer of experience and knowledge from the manufacturing industry unified under the

term lean management. With regard to the construction business the term lean construction

(LC) was created. Processes were optimized, new methods were introduced and approaches of

a new thinking were developed. The aim was to cope with the increased complexity, dynamic

and interests of construction projects. The objective was to refresh all the inefficient processes

and to break with existing structures. LC is repetitive named in relation to higher efficiency and

improved project results. As there are many advocates presenting their ideas and experience.

Nevertheless there is still a lack of knowledge referring an exactly definition and distinction in

this field. LC is a huge area with many different aspects and facets.

The project ’Integrated Building Process’ (SIB-Samspillet i byggeprosessen) carried out by NTNU

Trondheim in collaboration with well-known Norwegian construction companies is one of the

first steps to implement and transfer the thinking of the manufacturing industry into the build-

ing sector in Norway. The aim of this project was to look for new innovative approaches like

using increasingly partnership models along the supply chain, focussing on organisational is-

sues and developing simple IT-solutions to ease the exchange of information and data. As an

inspiring example in Norway serves the domestic offshore industry which was able to reduce

the cost in late 90s for about 50 % by applying a more collaborative model and simplifying the

processes. (Haugen, Tore I. and BEAM, 1999, 2p) The project team around Haugen, Tore I. and

BEAM, 1999 came up with two main issues which the researcher is taking up for this thesis. The

first aim is to shape and configure processes in a way so that they are efficient, simple and robust


whereby. Every process is owned and run by an operator or by a whole team. They are influenc-

ing the performance of the process by their own ideas, experience and way of thinking. Besides

this, lean it is often seen as a culture and a specific way of thinking. Therefore the behaviour of

the involved people needs to be adapted aiming for sustainable effects in the long term. Both

Adoptingprocesses

Change behavior

Improve-ment

Figure 1: Two sides of improvement

ways are a suitable measures to renew and improve processes. The researcher reflects on both

sides within the following pages. The task is to reveal the overall approach of LC considering the

construction business. Moreover to some extent are single elements already elements within

the management approach of the public road administration in Norway.

1.2 Facts about Norway

• 80% of the population is living in urban areas. The country has five mio. inhabitants and

an area of 323.802 square km. The population density amounts up to 1.600 persons per

square kilometre. An efficient and effective infrastructure system is essentially linking the

different populous areas of Norway. (Norwegian Ministry of Transport and Communica-

tion, 2013, 2pp)

• The road network consists of 94.000 km of roads linked by more than 900 tunnels and

1.000 bridges (Norwegian Ministry of Transport and Communication, 2013, 2pp). The

geographical conditions in Norway with its variety of mountains, fjords and rivers need to

be considered for realizing infrastructure projects.


• The construction business in Norway is dominated by the infrastructure sector and the

prosperous construction sector is influencing the national economic situation. (Albrikt-

sen, Rolf, 2013, 18).

• The Norwegian government is focussing on developing and constructing road infrastruc-

ture, highlighting its importance for the whole country (Brekkhus, 2014). Considering the

current plans of the country many projects are going to be carried out in the near future.

• Representative companies in Norway are aware of the lean topic, try to learn and incorpo-

rate aspects of lean management into their organizations. The positive results achieved

by applying a lean system are an inspiring example for other industry sectors as well.

(Byggeindustrien, 2014)

• Major road projects need on average 10 years for the planning phase (Harvold, Kjell and

Tesli, Arne, 2013, 26). The long planning period is a result of many different sub-processes

involving multiple sectors, administration levels and authorities. The objective for the

government is to halve the planning time. (Rodewohl, 2014)

• Current issues in the world such as urbanisation, climate changes, demographic changes,

globalization, resource scarcity and sustainability pose new challenges for construction

projects considering the amount of resources needed and the requirements for the project.

The government stated projects with a planning time of five to seven years as a benchmark

and proposed the following general considerations coping with the challenges and improving

project results. (Norwegian Ministry of Transport and Communication, 2013, 20pp)

- The necessity for a good project management approach.

- A sufficient exchange of information within the project team and the stakeholders.

- The availability of committed objectives and actions to achieve continuously progress.

- The avoidance of conflicts of interests.

Taken into account the individual character of every construction project an approach that al-

lows for flexibility and variety in response to the project is necessary.

1.3 Who is the customer?

Before proceeding with further required formal aspects within such a scientific work the re-

searcher wants to identify the customer of this thesis. This helps the researcher to address the


right aspects of interest to the recipient after identifying the customer needs. This kind of re-

lation is always alternating and is the first step into the world of lean thinking (Ballard, 2008,

5p).

Identifying the needs of the customer and help them to decide what they

want!

Who would be concerned by this thesis? For whom is the thesis suitable? The thesis is drafted

by the researcher to create value for people who are directly affected by this topic in their day-

to-day work or at least from time to time. The author is considering people who are involved

in launching and operating infrastructure projects in Norway. To determine those parts of the

society, the researcher is approaching the topic from two different point of views. First of all

every construction project undergoes a life-cycle with different phases and a time period up to

50 years. The different phases give a first hint who could be involved and affected by realizing

Idea & Demand

Design & Planning

Cons-truction

Usage & Maintenance

Removal

Figure 2: Life-cycle of a construction projectin reference to (Kohler and Lützkendorf, 2002, 340p)

such a project. Secondly the researcher looks at the formal processes, respectively the frame-

work given by legal aspects. By analysing the phases of a construction project and the given

framework, generally the following organizations and institutions can be identified (Harvold,

Kjell and Tesli, Arne, 2013, 17pp):

- The Parliament of Norway

- The Ministry of Transport and Communications

- The Ministry of Finance


- The Counties

- The Municipalities

Depending on the project, further parties might be involved in such a process. As well as admin-

istrative organisations architects, consultants, engineers and construction companies take part

at certain stages of the project. Furthermore there is the Norwegian society which is directly or

indirectly affected by a construction project. The society also takes part in the consideration of

functions of the provided infrastructure.

Finally the paper is mainly addressed to the employees of Statens vegvesen (SVV), the Norwe-

gian Road Administration. It might be also relevant for readers who belong to one of the men-

tioned organizations above. Naturally all other interested parties who show an interest in this

topic are also cordially invited to read this paper.

1.4 Objectives

To describe the intentions of the paper the researcher is reflecting on his field of interests and

the needs for research in the chosen area. First of all, from the perspective of the researcher’s

background as an industrial engineer and the chosen study subjects, it can be said that there is

an interest in improving and optimizing procedures in general. The core idea of the thesis is to

pick up different demands positioned by different customers. The next step would be to uncover

and develop further demands with the customer. The relevant needs launching an examination

are summarized in the following table. The origin of all needs is the society with its demand

for more mobility. The Government of Norway is naturally interested in the most efficient and

effective allocation of limited funding with the aim to fulfil most of the needs at the same time.

The overall aim is to create more value with less resources respectively to increase the efficiency

(’Doing the things right.’) and the effectiveness (’Doing the right things.’). (Crawford and Bryce,

2003, 366p)

All examined processes are related to

the principle of cost-effectiveness!

Starting from this principle and further constraints the task is to find the right methods and tools

to act within the given framework. A typical approach for such a problem is to abstract the situa-

tion from specific into general, creating simple models and concepts. This is the objective of the

scientists. Science means to observe and to experiment (Godfrey-Smith, 2009, 79p). The ability

and the tools to research for new ways and possibilities to find proper solutions and answers


Customer Needs

Society Transport possibilities

GovernmentRealization of the targets anchored within the national transport plan

SVVResponsible for realization as executive institution of the Government

SciencePartly critical reflection on Lean Construction for missing substantiation of a partly biased theory

Author Scientific contribution in a self chosen topic

Figure 3: The needs of selected customers

on how to deal with such situations. Afterwards the theory can be re-transferred, from general

to specific, and applied for the corresponding situation fulfilling the character of the model or

closely resemble the specified features. Before using theory, trials are going to be conducted.

The theory of launching case studies is then relevant.

The relevant literature of LC is widespread. Scientific critics refers often to difficulties transfer-

ring theory into practice. (Stone, 2012, 112pp) Another issue is the weakly considered point of

the contextual background (Green, 1999, 27p). Since this is still part of the scientific world the

author’s intention is to take up this points by investigating it with the help of case studies. The

following serves as an orientation about the context of the next chapters:

• Studying, reviewing and summarizing the existing literature referring the LC approach

and especially issues related to the infrastructure sector.

• Identifying relevant case studies in Norway to collect data and evaluate them.

• Looking for signs which indicate a coherence with the theory of LC and the management

approach of transport infrastructure projects operated by the Norwegian road authorities.

• Introducing the topic LC into the mentioned institutions to show alternatives to the cur-

rent used approach.

• Finally answering the three research questions combining the findings from the theoreti-

cal and practical chapters.


These points are the start for splitting up the thesis into two main parts. The aims of each part

will be introduced to the reader in 2.1.1 and 2.2. To combine theory and reality as well as to

convey theoretical aspects the author creates furthermore three research questions he wants

to focus on. The questions are going to be answered during the course of the thesis. They are

serving to keep the focus within this huge field which consists of a variety of sub-areas. The

questions serve also to find a comprehensible structure without any interruptions for the reader

to follow.

1. Why is it useful and beneficial using the original idea of lean in transport infrastructure

projects?

2. How supports the integration of the project team and the project phases lean thinking in

transport infrastructure projects?

3. What is the role of the client and how can he influence and support lean thinking while

carrying out a project?

The concept of this thesis shall give the customer an awareness about the existence of the lean

principles within their own organization. Secondly, it can be established which parts of this

topic is already present defining a status quo and to what extent it is worth considering the

required efforts to move into the direction of a holistic lean approach. The researcher is giving

an introduction of the topic of LC especially for SVV as a starting point reflecting the results and

transferring them into its own management approach.

Chapter 2

Methods and proceeding

The researcher is dividing the thesis into a theoretical part and a project part. To answer the

formulated research questions both parts need to be integrated at the end. The researcher is using

this chapter to describe the further research strategy. This section is divided into the proceeding for

the literature research and secondly into the project work. The theoretical knowledge of research

methods is presented in connection with contextual issues and used methods of the thesis.

14

CHAPTER 2. METHODS AND PROCEEDING 15

2.1 Literature research: Scope and research strategy

2.1.1 Scope and focus

Lean management is a holistic approach which covers a variety of aspects (Stone, 2012, 112pp).

The existent body of literature reflecting the topic LC is therefore enormous widely diversified

and can be backdated to a technical report of Koskela, 1992. In Jørgensen, 2006 the interested

reader can get easily an overview about the different reflections of this issue. Both, for the re-

searcher and for the customer the main target of this part is to describe the field and to get more

familiar with the core ideas of lean. It becomes apparent at an early stage of the research that

the majority of the literature is related to the construction of buildings (Jørgensen, 2006, 34).

There is a range of papers which are examining the application of the lean approach within in-

frastructure projects like e.g. Walker and Shen, 2002, Heidemann, 2010 and Dave et al., 2013. By

identifying and examining the literature the application of LC especially within transport infras-

tructure projects can be questioned and scrutinized. That way the reader gets familiar with the

theory of LC. The researcher is giving a broad insight presenting the theory of LC based on the

attributes of construction projects, the roots of lean management and finally its transfer to the

construction business.

To reveal the differences, the researcher is referring to the traditional way of construction man-

agement polarizing the situation and contrasting both approaches. The author is aware about

the point that this process has been improved already over the last years as response to the in-

creased requirements and complexity of the sector in general.

The thesis restricts its scope to the field of transport construction projects. The task is to ex-

pand the available theoretical knowledge, using the results of the thesis. Furthermore, the focus

tends to adopt the viewpoint of the clients side within the lean approach, using the viewpoint

of SVV. The customer SVV gets an introduction into the lean world by presenting the common

international terms and definitions as well as the core ideas. Within such a broad field and its

application within a new sector it is necessary to create and define a common basis and to in-

troduce into the language and key points of lean first of all. Those aspects can be linked to the

project management landscape of SVV later on. The researcher is assuming that the manage-

ment approach of SVV contains parts of the lean approach. Another aspect is that it is necessary

to use the same terms within the project to guarantee a goal oriented communication. This is

important especially since there are several experts and different parties involved. The thesis

helps to create a common and wider understanding as well as presenting new aspects.


Because the author has access to projects of the mentioned field, all the project data will be col-

lected from employees of the contracting authority. The investigation of the case studies refers

to a specific point; the date of the interview. An investigation about a longer period of time

wasn’t possible with regard to the general set up of a master-thesis.

The original intention of the researcher was to take the viewpoint of the client and of a contrac-

tor who operates physically on the project. This couldn’t be realized. Thus there is the chance

to narrow the field of the study by focussing on the client. As a consequence of this, the most

interesting phase is the design and planning phase as well as the passage to the construction

phase. This is based on the fact that the client first works on administrative tasks considering

the current procedure. Another point is the decreasing ability to influence the project. The

costs of changes are increasing at the same time as the project progresses. The still broad scope

Ability to influence the

project

Cost of changes

vs.

time

Figure 4: Cost-influence curvein reference to McGeorge and Palmer, 2002

of the thesis wasn’t consciously further narrowed down because of the high uncertainty of the

expected results referring the case studies.

2.1.2 Research strategy

The field of LC is multi-disciplinary and has been developed since the beginning of the 90s. The

first step was to search for literature which means examining and evaluating a variety of refer-

ences. This is based on the core idea of the researcher intentions being active in the field of LC

connected with infrastructure projects. In this case the dissertations Jørgensen, 2006 and Hei-


demann, 2010 are the starting point for further reflections. Because of the variety of literature

a strict proceeding schedule was required to keep track and find answers for the formulated re-

search questions. The researcher identified a process consisting of four phases.

(1) Identifying the basis literature referring to lean management. This step is necessary to get

in touch with the origins of lean and the core ideas behind this topic as well as the contextual

background. The roots of lean can be discovered within the writings of Ohno, 1988; Womack

et al., 1990 and Womack and Jones, 2003.

(2) The next step refers to the existent literature of LC in general. The task within this step was to

understand the development and the features of applying LC in the construction business. The

following remarks can be made as input for the progress. The theoretical knowledge about LC

is continuously growing since Koskela, 1992 started to transfer the ideas of lean from the manu-

facturing industry to the construction sector. This process is mainly driven by the International

Group for Lean Construction (IGLC) which was founded in 1993 (International group of lean

construction, 2014). Annually a variety of papers and research is presented. Thus, this group

of people has an important impact shaping and developing the future of LC. Considering the

local aspect, it can be noticed that especially the USA and Australia triggered the development

of LC by actively transferring and applying the lean principles into their projects (Heidemann

and Gehbauer, 2011, 19pp). These countries can be seen as pioneers.

(3) With the third step the writer searches for information about the current status of LC in par-

ticular. Besides the annual meetings of the IGLC where a variety of papers is presented every

year, there are also national lean construction institutes, for example in Germany, Norway and

Great Britain who are regularly publishing new papers. Another approach to keep track with

current developments especially in Norway is to follow proper on-line journals. As a result it

can be noticed that the majority of documents is related to the building industry.

(4) The last step of the literature research is to look especially for LC topics closely connected to

the area of infrastructure projects. This step serves as link and preparation for the project work.

By referring the identified references the findings of step (2) and (3) can be used. Some of the

researchers sources are already mentioned. What are the further information sources and in

which way are they managed? The sources used differ from step to step because of the format

of the specific search code, the type of reference and the expected reliability of the results for

references. Dependant on the research level, the researcher is using the sources mentioned in

figure 5. As a consequence three categories of sources can be identified:

- Llibrary systems of NTNU Trondheim and TU Berlin


Research level: (1) (2) (3) (4)

NTNU library X X X

Online library system: BIBSYS

X X X

Online library system: Knowledge Portal Primo

X X X

Google scholar X X X

IGLC database X X X

SVV database X

Journal websites X X

Institute websites X X

Company websites X

Conference websites X

Figure 5: Overview about the used sources

- Databases

- Websites

The library systems serves mainly to identify the basis literature referring ’Lean Management’

and ’Lean Construction’ for books, journal articles and theses. Recently published papers give

also a first indication of the current status of LC. The on-line system BIBSYS of NTNU offers the

possibility for an advanced search request and includes more than 100 Norwegian libraries. An-

other search tool is the "Knowledge Portal Primo" run by TU Berlin.

For a more detailed view and for the preparation of the project part, the databases of SVV and

the IGLC have been chosen. The IGLC provides a variety of papers and conference proceedings

within their internal database called ’Lean Construction Journal’ (Lean Construction Institute,

2014). This database is run and reviewed by the international group itself. With the help of fixed

review instructions a high level of scientific quality shall be ensured. All the papers have the

same formal structure and are in English. Other external scientists and authors quest the va-

lidity and independence of the papers of the LCJ (Jørgensen, 2006, 72p). Many sources refer to

previous published articles of the same journal. The sources allow to gain an overview of the re-

search which has already been undertaken. The database of SVV consists mainly of documents

that reflect the standard project management approach and consist of handbooks, guidelines,


standards and provisions (Statens vegvesen, 2012). With the help of the chosen sources the re-

searcher is trying to identify lean principles within the organization itself.

The last category consists of websites which provide closely related information to this topic.

They are partly invalid and can’t be used as a basis for further scientific studies. The information

given by journals, companies and institutes are needed to gain knowledge about the presence

of this topic in the construction business in general to be able to prepare the interviews.

The researcher is going to use the process flow illustrated in figure 6 for all research levels refer-

ring to the collection of relevant and valid references. Searching by using the mentioned sources

Search Reflect Screen Examine

Figure 6: The research process flow

is followed by a reflection of the results in regard with the scope of the paper. The identified lit-

erature will be examined for its relevant parts of context. It can be further noticed that the more

specific the research field was outlined from step to step, the more informal were the results.

The scientific validity is to scrutinize in every single case.

All identified references are going to be collected and archived with the help of the current stu-

dent version of the reference management tool ’Citavia 4’. The studied literature represent the

basis for the project work as well as influences the design and the approach how to investigate

the case studies (Yin, 2014, 42p).

2.2 Project work: Method and design

The project work is marked by carrying out a case study. The theoretical knowledge to work

with this tool is explained in this section. The decision for or against a research method should

be based on the objectives of the research and on the research questions. The quantitative ap-

proach is useful to apply when dealing with mechanistic driven issues which are often visualized

by "what" questions. Qualitative methods serve to specify the humanistic and psychosocial side

as well as to find answers for "how" and "why" questions. A mix of both approaches is also think-

able and in some cases even necessary. Using different research methods help to confirm the


validity of the collected data and to increase the reliability of the research results by examining

advantages and disadvantages of both approaches. (Bryman, 2012, 33)

2.2.1 Research method

The researcher decided to apply the qualitative approach. The table describes shortly the main

ideas of the qualitative research approach. Accordingly the focus is on improved understand-

Qualitative research

Philosophical foundation Indicative

Aim Complex human issues

Study plan Iterative proceeding

Position of researcher Integral part of research process

Assessing quality of outcomes Indirect quality assurance

Measures of utility of results Transferability

Figure 7: Qualitative research methodin reference to Marshall, 1996

ing, comprehensiveness and visualization. That means to uncover causal relations, processes

and reasons. The generalizability of the research results needs to be proven in every single case.

To answer the questions in connection with this method, theory is required. Theory is based

on data that needs to be generated first. (Sutton and Staw, 1995, 373pp) Afterwards the data

needs to be transferred into the theory which is the task of the researcher. The easier the ap-

plied methodologies, the more useful results can be generated. (Mintzberg, 1979, 584p). The

next step is to carry out the research by experiments, surveys, archival and historical analysis

and the implementation of case studies. Launching a case study means to study current events

against the backdrop of its real contexts. There is no active control or intervention necessary. A

case study observes a current event more detailed related to a real life problem. (Yin, 2014, 9pp)

The contextual background is the part that has not been studied very well. Therefore investigat-

ing real cases is the best approach to further investigate at this issue. The decision of using case

studies as a research method has several reasons:

- the formulated research questions,

- the topicality of the issue lean,


- the demand for more efficiency and

- the high complexity of construction projects.

This research with its case studies aims to generate empirical evidence to what extent the used

project management approach reflects lean principles.

The theoretical knowledge follows the feedback observing and investigating the current used

approach within the case studies. This alignment permits to evaluate the present situation by

focussing on the field of LC. By uncovering applied methods and tools which belong to the lean

approach, the practical utilization can be simultaneously proven and evaluated. The case stud-

ies serves for realizing two targets in this case. First, an alignment of theory and practice is

undertaken by the researcher and secondly the evaluation of the applied theory. This results in

gaining more valid data about the implementation of the theoretical knowledge. The author is

conclusively trying to define the status quo of LC of the investigated projects considering the

limitations of the research method.

For illustrating the phenomenon of the existence of lean principles within the management ap-

proach of SVV the data collection method, case study, is used. The researcher is conducting

non-participatory case studies. As a consequence it is possible to collect in-depth data for sin-

gle aspects within the case study. Furthermore recommended are multiple sources of evidence

with a preceding theoretical discourse (Yin, 2014, 15pp). A multiple case study design is used to

increase the validity of the research results.

2.2.2 Case study design

The application of a multiple case study design is based on the following reasons:

• Using more than one case study generates a higher validity caused by individual character

of every single construction project.

• LC is referring to its definition an interpretable term. Furthermore within the Norwegian

language other terms and definitions exist.

• None of the cases seems to be extreme or unique to serve as a single case at this point of

research.

• The results aren’t going to be dependent on the progress, development and character of

one single case. The prospect for transferability is given.


• Projects with different parameters like the impact of different involved parties or local

impacts can be considered.

The design consists of disadvantages the researcher should be aware of. It is a time consuming

task to investigate several projects at the same time. Furthermore, there is not enough time to

uncover more details about some aspects. The overall context is given by the construction of in-

Context: Infrastructure projects in Norway of Statens vegvesen

Context

Case I

Lean principles

Context Context

Context Context Context

Case II Case III

Case V Case VI

Lean

prin

ciples

Lean principles

Case IV

Lean principles

Lean principles Lean

principles

Figure 8: The case study design in reference to Yin, 2014

frastructure projects in Norway conducted by SVV. Every case has its own sub-context referring

to the involved parties, the local site with its available resources and character, the function of

the construction and the aim of the project. Six individual cases are examined within the thesis

illustrated by figure 8.

2.2.3 Selection of the cases

Whilst selecting the cases it is important to have a balanced mix within the sample (Yin, 2014,

50). In this case, the case studies were chosen by SVV itself. All project cases except one case

have one common feature. The projects exceed the costs of 750 mio. NOK (approx. 93 mio. e).1

They are important within the project portfolio and an external quality assurance is required

(Rodewohl, 2014). The researcher itself have had no impact on the selection except describing

the research intention to trigger the selection process. Another important part of the projects

1The researcher uses consistent the currency Norwegian kroner, shortly NOK. To reflect the given figures withprojects in the euro area an exchange course of 1e= 8 NOK can be used.


is that they are located in different areas of Norway. Similar results can be expected despite

different sub-contexts given the fact that the same management approach is installed in every

case. Working with six such individual cases the replications will strengthen the research results

(Bryman, 2012, 46p).

2.2.4 Data collection

The principles of data collection are to maximize the benefits and foster the validity and relia-

bility of the collected information. There is a wide range of possibilities to collect data from case

studies. Methods like non-participant observation, questionnaire, group interview or individual

interview, study of project documents, conversation, e-mail correspondence, physical artefacts

and collecting quantitative data are thinkable. (Yin, 2014, 102p)

Because the author gets access to projects in the mentioned field, all the data for the project part

is going to be collected from employees of the contracting authority. All projects are investigated

at a specific single date. The first idea was to look into projects collecting information from the

constructor and from the client. This has methodical reasons and the practical effect to bring

client and constructor closer together. This is especially for the processes during the execution

phase of importance and can help to foster a mutual understanding for the project approach.

After considering the boundary conditions for such an investigation and in consultation with

the supervisor the researcher is focussing on the client’s side only. The validity and reliability

of the findings won’t be weakened by this aspect. Referring the transferability of the results it is

necessary to take this issue into account.

Yin, 2014 recommends to collect data from different sources using different methods. In this

case the following reasons cause such a progress:

- The time of investigation is short.

- The term LC is interpretable.

- The range and quality of the date is difficult to forecast.

All case studies are different but are unified by the same project management approach. The

approach used by SVV in every project is the same because it is fixed within their standards and

handbooks which are also constrained by the public law. The researcher decided to focus on

accessible project documents and on interviews with the assigned contact person. Subsequent

to the interviews a questionnaire shall be launched to verify the collected data. The following

strategy is identified:

1. The researcher studies the relevant handbooks and provisions of SVV. The documents


comply with the Norwegian act for public clients. All relevant documents and informa-

tion are available on the website of SVV.

2. The information are verified in the interviews and e-mail correspondence with employees

of SVV.

3. The next step is to get familiar with each single case studying the accessible information

of the project.

4. Based on this information the guideline for the interviews can be prepared.

5. Contacting the project manager and providing them with the relevant information about

intention, proceeding and notes about the context of the interview.

6. Conducting the interview using the guideline and collecting the information.

7. Subsequently editing the results of the interview.

8. *With the interviewee’s help identifying further persons for launching a survey.

9. *Undertaking the survey.2

2.2.5 Research by questionnaire

The initial thought was to launch a questionnaire subsequently to the interviews as a further

method to augment and corroborate the findings. After conducting the first interview the re-

searcher decided to disregard the survey. A survey is an inefficient tool and highly dependent

on the type of questions. An indication of the prior knowledge of the potential candidate is

needed and the same state of knowledge for all candidates that are going to be interviewed.

(Samset, 2003, 120p) In this case a survey is not flexible enough because of the mentioned level

of uncertainty above. As a consequence the author considered it as inappropriate in this case.

Instead the researcher is going to use data provided by students of the university in Agder who

investigated a road project of SVV at the end of 2013. They forwarded the results compiled within

the frame of a bachelor-thesis (Hagen et al., 2014) to the researcher via e-mail on 24th of March

2014. Parts of the results are going to be presented in 4.2.2. The survey confirms the assump-

tions made by the researcher and serves as input to design the interview guideline.

2A * marks the steps of the original idea. In the used research method the researcher renounces for this twosteps.


2.2.6 Research by interviews

An interview serves to uncover human affairs and behavioural events. The focus lies on verbal

information. Interviews have the distinction of being flexible, focused, goal directed and in-

sightful. It can also cause bias by inappropriate questions and answers, misunderstandings and

the possibility that the interviewer hears what he expects. Furthermore there are different types

of interviews. There is the in-depth interview which focusses on facts and opinions. The second

type is the focused interview which is short and open-ended following a set of questions . (Yin,

2014, 102pp)

The researcher identified the focussed interview as the most appropriate tool to be used. With

this knowledge, the theoretical knowledge about LC and the expectations for the results the re-

searcher is preparing an interview guideline. The expectations are based on assumptions de-

duced from an intensive exchange with the supervisor and the results of the mentioned survey

above. The following points are necessary to be aware of when launching the interviews:

- The interviewee should decide about the time for the interview!

- Give an introduction about the intention and the procedure!

- Follow the prepared protocol guidelines!

- Be flexible, react to interviewee and avoid biased questions!

- Avoid ’Why’ questions!

- Be focussed on the objectives and the information needed! (Yin, 2014, 102pp)

With regard to the interview guidelines the researcher decided to use a semi-structured ap-

proach influenced by the character of the situation. Flexibility and openness to uncover new

features and aspects are the success factors in this case. The specific questions are going to

be formulated during the interview. As guideline and reminder serves a prepared list of single

keywords. This makes the approach robust and tolerant in case of unforeseen events. Previ-

ously collected data from other sources can be substantiated. The interviews aren’t going to be

recorded. The researcher is preparing minutes after the interview to record the information.

Figure 9 gives an overview about the sources used.

2.3 Quality in case study work

According to Yin, 2014 quality in case study work can be achieved by proving reliability and

validity within the research work. Triangulation supports the thinking of the generation of ev-

idence within research results. A proper collection method, the careful and sensible choice of


Researchsources

Case I

Case II

Case III

Case IV

Case V

Case VI

Study of public project documents

X X X X X X

Individual interview with project

managerX X

Individual interview with project participant

X X

Communication via e-mail

X X

Questionnaire X

Figure 9: The used sources within the cases

the sample and the utilization of several information sources serve to provide reliable and valid

data. (Samset, 2003, 153p)

Validity is the accomplishment to measure what the researcher intends to measure (Samset,

2003, 157). The concept of validity can be divided into three different perspectives. Construct

validity is the requirement for the correct usage of measurement within the case to examine the

area the case study is used for. This can be achieved by following the appropriate steps while

using multiples sources and aiming for an easy comprehensible chain of evidence (Yin, 2014,

26p). Internal validity is the result of the construction of logical models or pattern. First of all it

is required within explanatory research tasks and can be supported by a discussion and an eval-

uation agreeing upon the results within a team (Samset, 2003, 157). In this case the researcher is

aiming to produce a descriptive study. The third level of validity is the external validity. It fosters

the transferability of the made conclusions from one case to another (Yin, 2014, 27).

Whether reliable results are existent is depending on whether the measurement used is repeat-

able by different researchers. Thus the results remain equivalent for the same case under the

same circumstances (Samset, 2003, 157). The used research methods need to be described as

precisely as possible.

Figure 10 visualizes the researchers efforts to implement elements which trigger the generation

of reliable and valid data. Furthermore the researcher searches within the sample for confir-


mation of previously gained information and uses an approach of cross examination. The data

collection method of a semi-structured interview provides the required flexibility to react to up-

coming topics during the conversation. In preparation for the interviews the researcher studied

the corresponding accessible project documents in English and Norwegian to take up interest-

ing issues or project features. The derivation of results is supported by tables and illustrations to

make the approach more comprehensible. Besides the results the researcher provides the used

documents such as an interview guide and the table about the project data which are annexed.

They are useful tools representing the process of the researchers work.

Use multiple sources of evidence

Create a case study database

Maintain a chain of evidence

Figure 10: Establishing quality within the results

2.4 Ethical considerations

It is a matter of interest of the researcher to mention the following points related to ethical as-

pects with regard launching a case study design and documenting the results.

• To avoid any kind of impact from the research to the real project processes or create any

kind of discomfort among the project parties, the scope for the observation is focussed on

the perspective of SVV.

• The researcher is aware that participants remain anonymous avoiding any unwanted im-

pacts resulting from the research to the individual person.

Chapter 3

Literature research

The following theoretical discourse presents an overview of the core ideas of lean, the development

of lean construction (LC), the existing tools and concepts as well as the current trends in the project

world. It is just a briefly glimpse compared to the huge field of lean. The researcher presents

the main ideas of the identified relevant body of literature with the aim to give an introduction

into the topic and to make core elements more comprehensible. Coherences will be pointed out

afterwards enabling the reader to understand this approach and implement it.

28

CHAPTER 3. LITERATURE RESEARCH 29

3.1 Construction Management

Infrastructure projects effect many people and that is the reason why there are in general many

stakeholders. They have often a high value and are of strategic of strategic importance. (Dave

et al., 2013, 743) Ideas for new approaches and the transfer of successful solutions from other

fields serve as means to cope with old and new project challenges to improve the project results.

Using special methods and principles for a special field means to analyse and mark out the cor-

responding area first of all. Only the purposeful use of lean principles can lead to better project

values in the end (Heidemann, 2010, 12). Working in projects requires knowledge and skills

about the rules and liabilities within the project. Especially in several fields of the construction

business where some new attributes bring to bear. The following sections serve the aim to pose

those attributes and its meaning for further reflections. Finally a short overview is given consid-

ering the current evolution of management approaches coping with the challenges in modern

times. In this way the reader should get a feeling for the roots and backgrounds adopting lean.

3.1.1 Project work

The contextual background of this work is given by road, tunnel and bridge constructions. Con-

struction work in this sector is organized as project work in order of its complex and multidis-

ciplinary demands. A project can be seen as a task fulfilling the needs of a requesting party ,the

construction owner and finally the delivery of a product which makes the demander satisfied

(Oberlender, 1993, 4). In general a project is framed by the scope of work, the limited amount of

resources and the time line. (Oberlender, 1993, 4p) They should be defined as clear as possible

make the project comprehensible for all involved parties. The source of many problems in the

later phases of a project is the one-sided reflection on cost and time without considering the

scope of work in a proper manner. That’s why the challenge for the operators is to balance these

three components which influence each other. (Oberlender, 1993, 4p) Nowadays projects be-

come more and more complex by additional constraints which influence the main components

significantly. An enhanced consciousnesses about environmental issues extends the amount of

workload (Turner, 2003, 16). A higher public awareness from different sides requires additional

work for the whole project team and finally more man power (Oberlender, 1993, 4p). Project

teams become bigger and more interdisciplinary. The amount of involved experts and special-

ists is continuously grown up in the history (Koskela, 2000, 126pp).


Ability to influence the

project

Cost of changes

vs.

time

Figure 11: Holistic view on cost, time and scope of work

3.1.2 Construction projects

The project management approach is often dealing with the project like a simple ordered prod-

uct. To produce such a product a division into contracts referring the supplier, project phases,

the progress, activities or work packages for a better coordination is often the first step. Man-

agement -as-planning and a strict top-down approach are the consequence. (Bertelsen and

Koskela, 2004, 7p) The character of those projects in general can be described with the help of

adjectives like complex, unique and dynamic. A system like this results in high uncertain and

variable processes which are challenging and difficult to control during all project phases for

a project team. The construction environment is influenced by two basic elements. The issue

weather inducts uncertainty. The second aspect is the long lead time of construction projects

which is a source for unpredictability as well. Moreover the work results are based on craft tech-

nology and on human interrelationships. (Applebaum, 1982, 227p)

From the manufacturing world’s point of view construction equalises an assembly process. Sev-

eral material and components are composed to one final product on a specific site using specific

processes. (Koskela, 2000, 185p) Looking on the arrangement of the process in total, a range of

processes are independent from each other and can be executed in random order without ef-

fecting the project results (Bertelsen and Koskela, 2004, 8). Another part of activities is highly

related to each other and depending on the results and quality of the upstream activities. A con-

struction task contains of a range of several preconditions. They are influencing the variability

of the processes at the site and so the flow. Thus, the whole construction process consists of a

range of production tasks with a high amount of input flows. Work stages and flows need to be


sophisticated at the same time. (Koskela, 2000, 185pp)

What are the classic attributes of construction projects? In general the supply chain of the pro-

cesses is more flexible and therefore less robust towards externalities. The members of the

project team come from various disciplines and professions. From unskilled labourer to mas-

ter craftsman to the project manager. All belong to one professional project team. It is origi-

nally "a face-to-face operation" which takes place on the field (Applebaum, 1982, 220). Thus

employees with different level of labour costs meet each other within a project. The quality of

the end product results from the conformance of the particular used materials and commodi-

ties. According to the scope and complexity are defects not of rare occurrence respectively after

starting the usage of the product a quick quality loss can occur if the product don’t meet with

the daily requirements. Within all project phases the project team has to meet with several na-

tional regulations referring safety, environmental issues and the conformance by the national

and local public authorities. The amount of compulsory constraints increases with the scope

of the project. In the majority of the cases one final product is handed over to the client in the

end. (Salem, 2006, 168p) Applebaum, 1982 emphasizes next to the uniqueness of time and lo-

cation the active correlation occurred by a set of the following impacts: unforeseeable events

during a long lead time and a certain required combination of craftsman, equipment, material

and tradesman (Applebaum, 1982, 220). Koskela, 2000 summarized those attributes as follows:

• On-site production

• One-of-a-kind project

• Temporary organization.

Every project is carried out at its final place. That means the site is simultaneously an important

and unique resource with it special attributes and offers local resources. The location with its

changing attributes brings a variety of constraints within the project the project teams needs to

take care about. All construction projects are unique making it impossible using the same so-

lution and structures again. Every project is marked by a unique composition of attributes and

constraints. The time aspect is mainly caused by the other two factors. That means many differ-

ent and special building materials are possible for the customer. The mix of needed materials,

available local materials and further local resources make it a temporary organization. (Koskela,

2000, 181pp)

Another attribute which should be named in this context is complexity. It is the result from the

three attributes. The realization of activities is based on interaction and team work of different


skilled operators. The effect of all this aspects can be simply summarized under the term uncer-

tainty. Getting control over the project means to reduce uncertainty by collecting information

and data about the current situation. (Salem, 2006, 168p)

3.1.3 The challenges of a traditional management approach

The handling of those projects is in theory named as construction management. This way of

management is mainly based on the idea of production as transformations. The traditional

view was changing over time due to more complex projects and thus more involved and bigger

teams (Applebaum, 1982, 227p). From Koskela, 2000 point of view has the building industry

completely changed considering the technology part of the industry in the last century and the

branch was globally marked by problems. The reasons for this are poor management and or-

ganisational approaches (Koskela, 2000, 131p).

Where does the problems come from? Why are they unsolved so far? How can they be solved?

These questions are just one starting point making it worth to search for new ways to cope with

the challenges of construction projects.

Scientists speak about construction management considering concepts and theory for the con-

struction business which is developing since the Second World War. The focus is thereby on

project planning and economic analysis (Koskela, 2000, 139pp). The co-ordination and balance

of objectives, product, organization and the environment is the main task of the project team

and can be the root for problem. The creation of a set up making the project team able to per-

form on daily work packages as efficient as possible is an approach to overcame complexity

and variability (Bennett, 1991, 387p). The development of a new management approach should

consider the following four attributes intensively:

• The processes are triggered by the client with a requirement capture and a brief formula-

tion plot as the basis for everything in the project. This can be identified as the weakest

link in the chain and thus a cascade problem arises.

• There is a varied group of customers. It is a large group of users represented by the client

who is carrying out the contracts. The customer group represents a variety of techni-

cal, functional, safety and aesthetic requirements and the long life requirements. Every

project consist of an own mix of requirements and interest.

• It is a temporary organization which is carrying out the project. Obviously they are less


efficient and in general more steps are necessary. Often contrary objectives dominate the

organizational structure.

• Every project is of a prototype nature. There is no prototype construction possible debug-

ging defects and errors. (Koskela, 2000, 200pp)

The management must cope with a dynamic and complex system influenced by a variety of

external factors. Thus a non-linear setting is given (Koskela, 2000, 200pp). Moreover there is the

fact about the fight for a limited amount of resources within the project (Bertelsen and Koskela,

2004, 7p).

The researcher is going to speak about a delivery system for the purpose of a project which is

aiming to create a product for the customer. In this case, the product is a road, bridge or tunnel.

The way how such a system can work is described by the following chapters.

3.1.4 The organizational structure around the client

A typical project team consists of the three parties: client, constructor and a team of architects

and engineers (Oberlender, 1993, 12pp). The mentioned life-cycle in 1.3 is determining the

project procedure roughly. In the literature and the praxis prevail different ideas about the way

of realizing an idea. The management team is dealing with the project under ideal conditions

by generating drawings, calculations and cost and time tables. (Applebaum, 1982, 227p) The

engineers and architects are responsible for the design and planning phase realizing the ideas

of the client with the help of drawings and maps. Constructor and subcontractor are responsi-

ble for the execution phase. (Koskela, 2000, 126pp) They are confronted with the reality of the

field. That means they need to cope with all the daily challenges the construction side can offer

such as failures, chaotic processes, environmental influences, human emotions and needs and

fighting for scarce resources. (Applebaum, 1982, 227p)

Two separate organizations are existent. Both phases are closely accompanied by the client.

Both sides are triggered and motivated by different objectives and experienced by different

backgrounds. The craftsman of the different trades are aiming for visible results. The man-

agement function is driven by higher level expecting them to square the project with the given

framework. In many cases they aren’t able to coordinate their work among each other. (Apple-

baum, 1982, 227p)

For establishing a structure within a system proper contracts strategies are required. A classic

and often used type of contract in infrastructure project is the unit-price contract. The contrac-


tor get paid on the basis of the spent resources in combination with a price per unit. This price

is negotiated in advance based on an estimation for the amount of units. The unit-price con-

tains all cost elements such as labour, material, overhead and profit. Another option is to use

a lump sum contract which contains one total sum of costs in exchange for a certain scope of

work. (Gordon, 1994, 208)

These types of contracts have their advantages basically within projects which have a clear

scope, are already fully designed and there are enough time resources available (Gordon, 1994,

196pp). A minority of projects is doing so. That means the client needs to think about alterna-

tives to cope with challenges which arose within the projects.

3.2 Lean Management

This chapter gives an introduction to the most important terms of lean stating out their meaning

and importance in general. The reader shall get familiar with the main terms and principles.

3.2.1 Towards an understanding of lean

The idea of a lean system was developed in the halls of the young founded car producer, Toyota

in Japan between 1950 and 1960. The engineers of Toyota, especially Taiichi Ohno (1912-1990),

established a new approach for the production of cars. Since Toyota was the pioneer and in-

novator it is also called the "Toyota Production System" (TPS). (Stone, 2012, 113p) In the 1990’s

several authors especially Womack et al., 1990 introduced into the world of production in Toyota

and named the application of Toyota’s approach as "lean production". The authors are describ-

ing first of all different principles used within the production hall which are also defined under

the term “lean manufacturing”. Besides them the approach includes also activities and meth-

ods which are undertaken during the product development, the selling process, the attraction

and involvement of new customers, the relation and integration of suppliers as well as the dis-

tribution of the final product. The term lean production or lean manufacturing got widespread

describing a range of tools which have been developed the preceding decades. (Stone, 2012,

113)

Womack et al., 1990 can be seen as a strong proponent of Toyota’s approach predicting that this

approach will change the world in the twenty-first century. The author opened the view for

other sectors beyond the manufacturing industry giving attention to Ohno’s inventions which

are supposed to be superior and everywhere applicable. (Womack et al., 1990, 278) Hayes and


What is seen as Lean Production / TPS?

• A certain way of thinking

• A management philosophy

• A customer-centered approach

• Marked by teamwork andimprovment and quality

• A way with an undefined end andan evolutionary character

• The creation of strict organisedworkstations

What is Lean Production / TPS not?

• A specific recipe for beingsuccessful

• A management project or program

• A range of applicable tools

• A system only applicable in fabric processes

• An approach with short- and mid-term effects

Figure 12: How lean production is seenin reference to Jørgensen, 2006

Pisano, 1994 introduced lean as a direction a company can move to doing changes. With other

words, lean production is not a state or the solution for an existent or upcoming problem. With

regard to productivity applying lean means to increase the productivity of processes. (Hayes

and Pisano, 1994, 79).

�Productivity isn't everything but in the long run it is almost everything�

- Paul Krugman

Productivity can be quantified by the ratio of input and output. The formula is based on the

ultimate economic behaviour to satisfy human needs at the most minimum usage of efforts and

resources. (Saari, 2006, 2p) Green and May, 2005 reveal that lean production itself is simply

understood as, “a set of techniques, a discourse , a socio-technical paradigm or even a cultural

commodity” (Green and May, 2005, 503p). This lack of understanding aims to contrast what is

seen as lean production and what is it not. Figure 12 is showing the reader that an overall explicit

definition for lean production is missing.

The researchers view on lean production is determined as a specific and common way of think-

ing within an organization. The thinking is following the core ideas of lean and is framed by the

peculiarities and requirements of the construction sector.


3.2.2 Lean thinking and its roots

What are the roots of this way of thinking? What is the contextual background of the story of

lean management?

The roots of lean thinking can be found in TPS. Thus the contextual background has been de-

veloped within the car industry.

The core idea is to create value for the customer and to abandon waste.

(Womack et al., 1990, 64)

The principles of lean production were developed in the 1960s within the whole system of pro-

ducing and selling cars (Womack et al., 1990, 64pp). In the first half of the 19th century, Toyota

has been suffered big problems such as being forced by the government to produce cars they

wanted to have, a small domestic market, a wide range of different requirements using a car for

and high energy prices. The company was forced to act and the engineers introduced the Toyota

Production System. (Womack et al., 1990, 46pp) The idea of lean production was born.

The engineers of Toyota started to think more in-depth about the terms value and waste. The

Japanese term for waste is muda and this term was going to be one of the key terms of the new

approach. Waste can be identified as a human activity using resources without creating a ben-

efit for the customer (Koskela, 2000, 57). Inspired by this observations the engineers tested a

range of new methods and processes. (Womack et al., 1990, 55pp)

• The production of small batch sizes instead of producing huge amounts with the aim to

offer products of high quality and reliability.

• Toyota installed a system to change the tools of the machines to reduce the tool changeover

time from one day to three minutes.

• Toyota created interdisciplinary teams with strong leaders and fostered team players by a

reward system. Every team is responsible for a range of tasks they had to solve in the most

efficient way. The improvement of the current process was the aim. Hence the idea of

Kaizen was born which describes the installation of a continuous, incremental improve-

ment process.

• Referring the issue how to handle rework or upcoming errors, Toyota stops the whole pro-

cess immediately to search together for a solution.


• Instead of just fixing a problem in trust that it will never appear again, Toyota invented the

five “Why” approach to identify the original source of the problem.

The results were significant; no breaks during the production, no rework and the occurrence

of defect products was rare. High reliable products were produced. (Womack et al., 1990, 55pp)

Furthermore Toyota was able to offer many different types of cars because of the low production-

engineering costs. The relation between the customer and the producer became more and more

important. Toyota figured out that the company needs to align their amount of produced goods

with the amount the customer need for. The development of a build-to order system was trig-

gered. The aim was to identify the customer’s preferences and buying behaviour. The idea of

the ’Pull-system’ was born. (Womack et al., 1990, 64pp)

Nowadays the application of lean principles standard within the production industry. Com-

panies need to implement and develop new processes to remain competitive in a globalized

market. (Vienazindiene and Ciarniene, 2013, 1pp)

3.2.3 The five lean principles

The two central terms of lean production are value and waste. Several authors try to describe

this approach and uncover its secrets. Hence different scientific statements are available. The

researcher decided in this case for the approach of Womack and Jones, 2003 who described and

defined five lean principles as follows. Another reason is to stay consistent to the preceding

words partly based on Womack et al., 1990.

Additionally to the two mentioned terms, further concepts arose. These are ’value stream’, ’flow’,

’pull’ and ’perfection’ which have the final aim to reduce waste and improve on that way the sys-

tem as a whole. (Womack and Jones, 2003, 16pp).

This five concepts against waste are summarized by the term lean thinking. The idea is to deter-

mine together with the customer the value of a product, organize the required processes in the

most efficient sequence to avoid any kind of breaks or disruptions and aspire for improvement

all the time. That implies also to reach more with less resources such as human effort, equip-

ment, time and space. The aim is to create a system which produces exactly the demanded

products. (Womack and Jones, 2003, 16pp) These ideas reflect the lean philosophy and describe

a certain way of thinking within an organization or unit. To achieve this way of thinking a range

of tools are needed. (Womack and Jones, 2003, 15)


Lean thinking

Value

Value stream

FlowPull

Perfec-tion

Figure 13: The five lean principles

Value

Lean thinking starts with the step of specifying value. Value is supposed to be expressed with the

help of a specific product and its features defined by the customer. From the customers point of

view the producer is responsible to deliver exactly what the "voice of the customer" has ordered

regarding specific product attributes as price and time. For the customer something is of value

what he can directly use. First of all the end customer (3.5.1) needs to be identified. Afterwards

it is the task of the producer to enable the customer to determine those features giving him the

knowledge. (Womack and Jones, 2003, 16p) A close relation between producer and customer

is required. The concept of the customer is the basis for this specific thinking. (Jørgensen and

Emmitt, 2008, 386p)

The counter part of value is waste. The aim of lean is to increase the value while eliminating and

reducing waste (Womack and Jones, 2003, 15). Providing a product a customer isn’t asking for is

an activity of producing waste. It is necessary to examine a system onto whether single processes

directly add value to a product or service. Every transformation process from input to output is

linked to work and waste. There are two types of waste. The first type of waste can’t be avoided

and should that’s why reduced as far as possible. The second type consists processes which

aren’t necessary for the value of the end product and should be eliminated. (Womack and Jones,

2003, 16) The thinking of waste is related to the seven categories of overproduction, rework,

transport, over-processing, inventory, waiting and motion. Waste can effectively identified to


the extant the customer has defined value. (Ohno, 1988, 19p)

Value stream

Every product underlies three management tasks: a problem-solving task, an information man-

agement task and a transformation task. Focussing on a value stream means to create an envi-

ronment where a product and its required activities can pass the three management areas in the

most efficient way. (Womack and Jones, 2003, 19p) Moreover it can be determined which spe-

cific actions need to be involved into the whole process from the first idea until delivering the

product. The value stream is visualized with the use of a mapping method. Based on the iden-

tified process disruptions can be observed and proper actions can be undertaken. On that way

waste can be reduced and eliminated. A value stream can be used to depict all internal affairs

and can be extended to the whole supply chain. (Womack and Jones, 2003, 37p) The central tool

aiming for a value stream is the value stream mapping method. It means to focus and analyse

the activities in detail. Drawing the material and information flow with a pencil helps to get into

the bird’s eye perspective and understand the process in total. (Rother and Shook, 2003, 37p) By

illustrating the present process flow with the help of a mapping method supports to optimize

the flow. The performance of a value stream can be operationalized determining the attributes

lead time, inventory and operational costs. (Jarkko et al., 2013, 49pp)

Flow

The concept flow is one of the core elements of lean thinking. It enables the user to remove

waste making the remained processes flow after a value stream analysis. As a consequence the

lead time can be reduced and hence the probability for unforeseen events declines. (Womack

and Jones, 2003, 21p) To get a flow into the process, the manufacturing industry uses working

cells instead of sending a product along the production line. (Suzaki, 1987, 27p). The work of

functions and departments are redefined by ignoring the traditional approach and focussed on

each product separately. In that way they are questioned whether they perform a positive con-

tribution to the process. Applying special tools, interruptions and breaks can be eliminated and

the object can proceed continuously. (Womack and Jones, 2003, 52p) Further methods to cre-

ate a flow are given by standardization of work (3.2.3)or just-in-time (57). Flow can be realized

in any kind of activity besides the production world. The traditional classification thinking is

conquered installing an one-piece flow after being able to see the process from another point of

view. (Womack and Jones, 2003, 64p)


Pull production

Within pull production the production is triggered with the order of the customer. The order

marks the starting point to produce a product. Cascading backwards along the product pro-

cess every production step starts to demand of getting input from the production step before.

(Womack and Jones, 2003, 24p) The output of a production step is the input needed by an activ-

ity further downstream (Tommelein, 1998, 280p). A supermarket system within the production

process develops. Refreshment of the material or inputs is precipitated by consumption (Liker,

2004, 23). Each step in a production line is treated as a customer. Having internal customers

Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Customer

Figure 14: Pull production

raises also the awareness for quality (Deming, 2000, 58p). Further benefits having a pull system

are to be flexible regarding the demand of the customer, making the process flow and reducing

the waiting time of products between the single steps of the production line as well as reducing

inventories. All production steps are connected within an information system giving every step

a sign to get active. (Womack and Jones, 2003, 67p) It is a whole set of principles enabling the

user to deliver the right products in time to the right place with the right amount. The organiza-

tion is in this way flexible on changes in demand. (Liker, 2004, 23pp)

Perfection

The management of Toyota was able to establish a culture within the organization that makes

the employees to strive for improvement all the time (Womack and Jones, 2003, 25). A culture

is a pattern of ideology or an general behaviour showed by members of the same organization

who are acting together for a certain period of time (Wit and Meyer, 2010, 171). Based on this

culture a mindset developed to aspire for more value, a better flow and less waste. The fifth

principle of lean is matching with high transparency. The more open all processes are for all in-

volved parties, the higher are the chances to find better solutions which make the whole system

better. (Womack and Jones, 2003, 25p) The term Kaizen describes the aspiration for perfection

and is part of the mentality of the Japanese. The way to move further all the time is taken for


Time

Innovation

Innovation

Kaizen

Kaizen

Figure 15: Maintaining improvementin reference to Wit and Meyer, 2010

granted here in contrast to the Western world which has another attitude to changes. It is nec-

essary to distinguish between gradual and abrupt changes. The Kaizen idea stands for a gradual

change and can be described as a continuous improvement process in the background of the

day-to-day business. It is an undramatic process where the results are not always seen directly.

All employees are involved in it. (Wit and Meyer, 2010, 195pp) It is the source of all further

existent concepts originated from Japanese companies especially the awareness about quality

and reliability of the products. Standardization helps to settle and maintain an achieved status.

(Womack and Jones, 2003, 91pp) Kaizen is an universal concept and can be applied in every kind

of activity (Wit and Meyer, 2010, 195pp).

3.2.4 Lean techniques

The lean principles can be realized and implemented by using lean techniques. It is the last

element within a system but for the user the most visible and comprehensible one. In recent

years a huge range of different tools has evolved. The focus should be on understanding the

system and the thinking on causes and their effects. (Seddon and Caulkin, 2007, 14)


3.3 Transferring of principles

The researcher gives with this chapter an overview about the development of LC referring the

knowledge transfer from the manufacturing industry to the construction business.

Transferring principles means first of all to consider similarities and differences before connect-

ing two different fields. Such a comparison is done already within a variety of works e.g. by

Salem, 2006; Jørgensen, 2006 and Santorella, 2011.

• The client can influence the production process by specifying the term of value which is

the foundation of all following processes (Bertelsen, 2004, 54).

• Construction teams can be seen as problem solvers at the site. They are going to operate

and perform at the edge of impossibility every day. A construction team needs to know

every step of producing a product to have full control about it.

• The construction site can be described as a dynamic place formed by individuals and their

interaction with each other.

• There are different interest groups like the customer, the users, the workers or the suppli-

ers. Those stakeholders can be part of the execution phase and they give feedback directly.

• Many construction processes are dependent on subcontractors such as technical experts

and master craftsman. These players are naturally not interested being team players and

adopt the activities for the purpose of the optimization of the whole project. (Santorella,

2011, 1pp)

The report of Koskela, 1992 was the first one who discussed the topic lean production within the

construction sector. Within the dissertation, Koskela, 2000, the author takes up with this topic

again and introduces the TFV concept highlighting the construction processes from another

perspective than all other scientist did before. The concept is based on the handling of the

management of:

• Transformation,

• Flow and

• Value.


The transfer of tools realizing and applying the ideas of lean within the construction fields are

visible reviewing the theoretical body of literature about LC. Critique is often related to the topic,

to what extent such principles originated from the production industry can be transferred to

other sectors. (Green, 1999, 22p). A range of new tools and methods developed considering the

character of construction projects as well as consisting the core idea of lean.

By adopting a new approach two requirements can be stressed. The first point is to scrutinize

how and why the new tools and processes are driving the change. The next step is necessary

to ensure that the new processes work reliable and that they can be monitored and measured.

(Poppendieck and Poppendieck, 2003, 15p) To evaluate the implementation process, tools to

monitor and assess the process were developed by Salem, 2006 or Heidemann, 2010. The status

can be monitored with the help of check-lists and tables. By this means the status of the imple-

mentation process can be quantified and changes can be tracked as well as effects with regard to

the project results (Salem, 2006, 171pp). Further indicators for single areas can help to measure

the process implementing lean (Vienazindiene and Ciarniene, 2013, 368p).

Another interesting point of criticism was given by Jørgensen, 2006 uncovering that the body of

literature isn’t a conceptual starting point for further theoretical research on LC. This is based on

the fact that there is no common definition about LC available. Thus a common comprehension

about this field doesn’t exist so far. (Jørgensen and Emmitt, 2008, 386pp)

�Emerging techniques have started to change the way constructors manage

their own operations.� (Salem, 2006, 169)

3.4 Lean Construction

The following chapter acquaint the reader with the term LC in general and its different defini-

tions. Based on the traditional wide spread approaches described in theory, the following chap-

ter is created to give an overview about the most important tools and methods. There are three

starting points to approach and realize lean principles in an organization: the organisational

structure, the operating system and the commercial aspects.

3.4.1 Lean Construction as a management fashion

From the overall point of view there are actually two things happening within the construction

business. The first concern is happening on the conceptual and theoretical level named as LC.


The second impact is on the level of the transformation of information summarized under the

term building information modeling (BIM). Both aspects tend to change the sector and its pro-

cesses elementary. Scientists observed that both approaches brings synergies for the user if they

are applied parallel. (Sacks et al., 2010, 968pp)

Influenced and based on the research of Koskela, 2000 several authors developed discrete in-

struments for the design and production phase (Jørgensen and Emmitt, 2008, 387p). A repre-

sentative survey launched by Green and May, 2005 about the interpretation of the term LC three

central aspects were coined representing lean: elimination, partnering and structuring the con-

text (Green and May, 2005, 508). Eliminating and reducing waste means to install smooth oper-

ation steps and increase the performance of the whole process. The second character is aiming

for strategic and close relations between the involved parties of a project made by knowledge

sharing and teamwork. Moreover having a culture of learning and supporting each other. The

last aspect is scrutinizing the traditional structure of construction projects and is postulating

a new delivery system carried out by a new structured organisation. Beside the training of in-

dividuals is the involvement of them by an innovative system through bottom-up activities of

importance. (Green and May, 2005, 508p)

Jørgensen, 2006 tried to give an overview about the several existent definitions. LC is seen as

a management fashion (Green and May, 2005, 501pp). A management fashion is defined as

a temporary common belief widespread by management-knowledge entrepreneurs. New in-

troduced management techniques result to a new management approach. (Abrahamson and

Fairchild, 1999, 708p) One important character of such a fashion is the interpretative viability.

This feature gives a fashion the chance to get adopted by a variety of different organizations.

The applicability get increased by the possibility to use and implement the fashion in an own

way. Different versions of the same concept can be existent after a certain periods of time. (Ben-

ders and van Veen, 2001, 37p) The mentioned survey is showing and confirming that there are

multiple interpretations existent which are essential for an effective diffusion. LC is tackling a

set of different areas within an organization. It can be further seen as an innovation process of

social and technical issues aiming for a certain state of the system. Such a process is going to be

steadily implemented against the background of new local contextual issues. (Green and May,

2005, 509p)

An often used implicit statement about LC is the usage of the lean production ideas within the

construction business. Production consists in this case of an integrated approach of design-

ing and making activities. Following this argumentation the term lean design has the same at-


tributes as LC. It is the application of lean production ideas within the processes of the designing

phase. (Jørgensen, 2006, 110p)

That means LC is focussing on lean methods and tools during the execution phase aiming for a

lean site and and a lean delivery of the product. Lean design is focussing on all upstream activi-

ties necessary to prepare the execution phase. This separation is only touching the level of pro-

cesses, not the methodology (Jørgensen, 2006, 110). This fact is important looking on projects

carried out by public clients with their boundedness to public procurement restrictions (Hei-

demann and Gehbauer, 2011, 19p). Due to the holistic character of lean and the independence

from the type of activity it can be said that a design phase shaped by lean activities has a huge

impact on the execution phase. But both phases can be handled and optimized separately as

well. The design phase is also part of the suggested lean delivery system by Ballard, 2000 (3.4.6).

In common usage lean design is seen as a branch of LC.

Looking on LC as management fashion means that lean principles are also relevant for organi-

zations dealing with infrastructure projects without using the terms around of LC or having a

specific knowledge about this field. This fact triggers in turn the demand for the examination

of projects about indicators for lean principles and the demand for a step in the direction of

one common comprehension to overcome the status of a fashion. One possible method for this

concern is the conduction of case studies.

3.4.2 Effects: Challenges and opportunities

The implementation of lean is fragmented. That means a range of scientist figured out that the

usage of single tools and methods is already widespread. More important than the tools is the

comprehension of the new system in a holistic way (Seddon and Caulkin, 2007, 14). The cases in

which tools are used can be seen as an important step spreading and triggering this approach as

pioneer projects to learn from. Often several tools are applied which makes it difficult to reveal

exactly the effects. It is more about using LC, whether it is dependent to a bunch of methods

and a large number of actors involved in the project. (Andersen et al., 2012, 126) The body of lit-

erature provides a range of case studies trying to identify and quantify the results applying lean

principles within infrastructure projects such as Walker and Shen, 2002, Eastmann et al., 2011

and Dave et al., 2013. All of them report positive aspects for their examined activities. Those

non-generalizable effects were mainly reduced lead times, reduced costs, better quality, better

cooperation among the project parties and better health and safety performance.

The missing common definition and thus the space for interpretation can be a challenge as well.


There is not one recipe for the ’right’ implementation heading towards a state using lean prin-

ciples. The widespread application based on different comprehension and experiences makes

it difficult to develop a guideline implementing lean principles. (Jørgensen and Emmitt, 2008,

386pp) Launching lean is disruptive to the status quo and difficult to undertake (Vienazindiene

and Ciarniene, 2013, 367).

3.4.3 Identifying waste in construction

The discussion of value and waste within the construction sector is of central importance and

similar to lean production. Value is first of all discussed against the background of the project

as a process and of the product (Ballard, 2000, 2). The viewpoint of a whole-life perspective is

necessary. As a result the questions about value and waste became more complex and are auto-

matically shifted from the execution phase to the design phase. (Jørgensen and Emmitt, 2008,

388p)

Reducing and eliminating waste is one of the key factors in LC. Waste in construction can be

classified using the categories of lean production introduced by Ohno, 1988: correction, over-

processing, delay, inventory, conveyance, over-production and motion. An eighth type of waste

was introduced by Koskela, 2004. The type “Making-do” is about activities which are started

without fulfilling the requirements to complete the process in one go. Processes should be

started when required (3.2.3) and when the input parameter are fully available or their avail-

ability can be ensured. Otherwise workers are executing their work under suboptimal condi-

tions which leads to lower productivity. Suboptimal conditions are existent due to congestions,

out-of-sequence work, multiple stops and starts, inability to do detailed planning in advance,

obstructions due to stocks of materials, tries to cope without the most suitable equipment for

the task, interruptions due to lack of materials, tools or instructions or over-sizing the crew.

Reasons for this upcoming conditions are rework in order to changes or defects. (Koskela, 2000,

190p)

The input parameters are given in figure 16. A rest of uncertainty remains given by external con-

ditions and impacts. Waste occurs if at least one of the input parameter is unconsidered and

isn’t available in time. (Koskela, 2004, 1pp) Looking at the causes for “Making-do” issues it’s nec-

essary to distinguish between the design and the production phase. During the design phase

making-do issues are caused by the incompleteness of information. (Koskela, 2004, 4p)

A further type of waste can be seen in unused human resources referring the experience and

ideas. A way of lean organizations to reduce this kind of waste is to establish a suggestion sys-


Transformation OutputInput

Components and materials

Construction design

Workers

Equipment Space Connecting works External conditions

Figure 16: The input parameter for transformation in construction projectsin reference to Koskela, 2000

tem. By this means all team members can be involved. A culture of aspiration for perfection can

develop and can be the first step for having a ’Kaizen’ structure. (Nahmens and Ikuma, Laura H.

& Khot, Digvesh, 2012, 92p)

Avoiding waste is the overall objective of lean, the lean principles and the provided methods.

Methods which aspire,

• to reduce the lead time,

• to reduce the variability,

• to simplify the progress,

• to increase the flexibility or

• to increase the transparency

can be used to tackle waste in construction projects (Koskela, 2000, 57pp). The applier of lean

methods needs to have the view, experience and later the attitude being able to identify waste

and to tackle it in its particular case in favour of the whole project. Handling waste means af-

ter the step of identification to examine their causes. The consequences eliminating waste are

better facilities which can be designed and constructed for lower costs (Ballard, 2008, 3p).


3.4.4 Implementing lean thinking

The development of the new approach within the production field proceeded with three steps.

First of all it was seen as a collection of tools which serve for realizing something. The next step

is the view as a method. That means the focus is on the way how someone is doing something.

Finally a special way of thinking is evolving. (Liker, 2004, 13)

While considering construction projects it is important to know about the attributes in contrast

Tool a means or

instrument for doing something

Methoda specific way of doing something

Philosophya comprehensivesystem of belief

Figure 17: The steps of implementing lean thinking

to the manufacturing industry. Especially referring the physical features of the end product of

these industry fields there are differences. Both sectors have in common to aspire with their

production processes a state with the highest value for the customer considering a long term

period (Salem, 2006, 169).

New processes are needed by implementing various tools and techniques which help to move

into the direction of lean. Because lean is a different way of thinking a new environment is re-

quired to influence the behaviour of the humans. (Vienazindiene and Ciarniene, 2013, 367pp)

To implement a new system into an existing organisation, there are two essential requirements.

The first one is to provide the right and efficient tools for the right situation. A purposeful us-

age of the tools is necessary (Heidemann, 2010, 12). Those should be confidently and function

properly. In the case of lean the best solution is a combination of both to force and motivate the

employees to take up new ways of progressing and enable them to understand why and what

they are doing. The change of behaviour is necessary as well. This can be a change referring

either to many aspects or to some specific aspects, either to a whole organization or to parts

of the organisation. A change requires the commitment of the concerned people. The success

factors are to give the users adoption time, to support them with proper resources and to have a


clear plan. (Amaral et al., 2012, 9p) Monitoring this process with the help of previously defined

indicators can be one approach for a successful implementation of lean. (Vienazindiene and

Ciarniene, 2013, 367pp)

For applying a new approach in such a broad field means to tackle an existent system from

different sides. All mentioned core values of lean can be realized applying certain techniques

within a project management system. Compared to a traditional system there are differences

in defining the phase, the relation among the different phases and the persons who participate

in each phase. (Ballard and Howell, 2003, 121pp) The concept used in this case to analyse the

done research is based on the lean triangle. The triangle, illustrated in figure 18, is consisting

of the three areas of organizational structure, operating system and commercial terms (Heide-

mann and Gehbauer, 2011, 27). On this way lean can be approached holistically (Lichtig, 2005,

106p). That means there are three domains of LC to focus on which contain several ideas and

Commercial terms(CT)

Figure 18: The lean triangle

techniques which help to become a lean system.

3.4.5 Organisational structure

The first side to meet is the organizational structure (OR). How is the project team structured

and how is it working? Furthermore this area is tackling which relationships and structures are

needed.


Integration within the project

This side is dominated by the Integrated Project Delivery (IPD) approach. To get the needed

materials as well as reliable and consistent information from other project parties is one of the

biggest challenges (Applebaum, 1982, 232).

The phases design and execution are decoupled from each other in many cases (Koskela, 2000,

128). Projects take up on the mentioned systematic problems caused by the traditional ap-

proach. The IPD approach is sounded by the advocates of LC. A more collaborative and inte-

grated approach is seen as one tool to generate better project results and lower costs in response

to a high fragmented market (Egan, 1998, 8p). An “over-the-wall” syndrome was pointed for the

traditional management approach which need to be overcome. Evbuomwan and Anumba, 1998

speak about a paradigm shift within the construction industry towards the competitive situa-

tion. All important players along the different trades need to create one multi-disciplinary team

tackling the topics along the life-cycle from the early stage of the project. The level of integra-

tion is both project management and design implementation. A framework for operating and

collaborating is required to do so. (Evbuomwan and Anumba, 1998, 587p)

To achieve a lean project structure the project parties need to be aware about the following as-

pects (Matthews and Howell, 2005, 46pp):

• Every member is sharing the whole responsibility for the project.

• Deviations and faults are solved within the team.

• The optimization of the whole project is in the foreground.

• A close collaboration and good relations determine the daily business.

• The team is looking together for improvements and is sharing the benefits.

• All interests are aligned to aim for one common objective.

The team should consist of project members from all important project parties and it is advan-

tageous to share one common place together. The team has to designate together about the

personnel of key positions. Those positions are working for the team, report to the team and

get paid by the team. A solution given by the advocates of LC is seen within the application of

relational contracts (3.4.7). IPD is therefore one specific manifestation of relational contracting.

It is the core part of a lean delivery system. (Matthews and Howell, 2005, 46)

The project members need to be selected deliberately ensuring that the lean approach can be


implemented using a proper selection method. The key parties such as architects, engineers,

consultants, constructors and important subcontractors are conjuncted from an early stage of

the project. As a result the tool of concurrent engineering can be used and teams around spe-

cific assignments can be created. (Forbes and Ahmed, 2011, 171pp)

All aspects influence each other and underpin the presence of an integrated approach. The as-

pects support an integrated approach but do not create an integrated approach itself. (Kim and

Dossick, 2011, 62pp) Results of testing software tools like BIM (3.4.6) and VisiLean (3.4.6) re-

quire and foster the integration of downstream contractors providing relevant information and

feedback as input for visualizing the structures. (Dave et al., 2013, 750) The benefit of an IPD

Team

approach

Client

Planning team

Constructor

Client

Planning

teamConstructor

Entity approach

1.2.

“over-the-wall syndrome”

Figure 19: The organizational structure

is the search and creation of value starts with the start of the project. The whole project team

works together from the first moment. For a better coordination and a focussed work on certain

issues can the team divided into several cluster groups often depending on the type of tasks.

(Matthews and Howell, 2005, 50p) An IPD organization has the premisses being able to adopt

and implement the principles of a lean production system (Forbes and Ahmed, 2011, 173).

Communication platform

The construction sector is marked by multi-disciplinary teams, high dependence towards time

and the existence of a high amount of data of different formats. It is described as one of the

most-dependant industries. The provision of information is the basis for all decisions, the phys-

ical progress and serves to overcome communication barriers. (Deng et al., 2001, 240p)


The infrastructure of ’Information and Communication Technology’ (ICT) supports an inte-

grated team approach by sharing, documenting and producing data during all project phases.

Within the construction industry ICT solutions serves first of all to visualize projects in 2-D or

3-D, for data analysis, for the handling of communication and collaboration processes and the

distribution of information. The area of information management solutions provides proper

infrastructure for capturing, storing, organizing and retrieving data. (Forbes and Ahmed, 2011,

203pp)

Nowadays, there is the possibility to chose among a variety of information systems and to create

the own system adopted to the corresponding needs of the project work. Such a platform helps

among others to avoid double work, to create high transparency, to shift the official correspon-

dence to a collectively used platform and to reduce the response time right up to a real-time di-

alogue. The transaction costs can be reduced and the handling of information can be managed

in a more speedily, accurate and traceable manner. The usage of internet-based services affects

the management of construction projects in many aspects to overcome the barriers of time and

distance. (Deng et al., 2001, 240p) ICT supports the idea of integration significantly and trig-

gers the change for the way of thinking by providing a network creating new ideas. (Forbes and

Ahmed, 2011, 226)

3.4.6 Operating system

The operating system (OS) is about the used tools and methods within LC. While reviewing the

literature, collecting ideas from previous case studies and preparing the interview it gets dis-

cernible that the dominant part is represented by OS respectively the methods for a production

based planning, control and management system. This side in general is coined by the term

LPDS, the lean production delivery system.

Establishing a lean project delivery system

A LPDS represents a variety of tools and methods. Handling construction projects regarding to

LC means to determine a certain set of tools chosen from a toolbox which supports the ambi-

tions to establish a lean delivery system. (Salem, 2006, 169p)

The LPDS describes the way of implementing a lean approach. The model, introduced by Bal-

lard, 2000, the co-founder of the IGLC, was developed in 2000 and relaunched in 2008. It can

be seen as a philosophy and framework realizing construction projects from a production ori-

entated point of view. The LPDS can be seen as a try to create a simplified model introducing


LC as a holistic system which incorporates lean principles and takes up with the ideas of the

TVF-concept of Koskela, 2000. The aim is to align people, system and business practises in

such a manner to take advantage of the available resources and the knowledge of the involved

people in an optimal way. The user gets with this model a guide how to make a system lean.

(Ballard, 2000, 1pp) The current distinction between planning, execution and control causes of

Figure 20: Lean Project Delivery Systemin reference to Ballard, 2008

poor project performance and hampers of what is possible (Lichtig, 2005, 107). The model con-

tains of five phases with several modules. The modules next to each other overlap and influence

each other. The first three phases can be summarized as preparation phase. The phase ’lean as-

sembly’ is the execution phase starting with the delivery of tools to the site until the handover of

the product to the customer. The single phases with its modules are accompanied by the overall

proceeding modules ’work structuring’ and ’production control’. That means project parts are

disassembled into chunks identifying a reliable work flow of value adding processes. Further-

more production control is realized by using the Last Planner System (3.4.6. (Ballard, 2008, 2pp)

A LPDS can be illustrated in the following way:

LDPS = I PD +LPS +T V D +B I M + J I T +C I P +PS +V SM

It can be therefore spoken about the interaction of a variety of tools and techniques. Additionally

to this summands there is the aspect about the relation of the team members. Based on the IPD

approach, the organizational structure needs to be defined by the commercial term (3.4.7). The

single items of the equation are shortly named and described within the following paragraphs.


Scheduling with Last Planners

Who is creating the schedule? The engineers who have little information about the time used

for single processes or the craftsman and trades who have little information about the logical

sequence of the project through the different phases?

The scheduling process is dynamic and highly interrelated to the daily contact of human beings,

the confidence in human commitments, the tolerance for honest mistakes and the handling of

suddenly upcoming events. (Applebaum, 1982, 230).

Considering the features of construction projects 3.1.2, scheduling is a challenge for every project

team. Special tools are required supporting the idea realizing a lean delivery system. Tools of

the manufacturing industry doesn’t help to tackle the scheduling process due to their linear

planning character (Dave et al., 2013, 742). The required activities are deduced by the func-

tions of the building. A sequence is existing. Each sequence is operated by one trade in general.

(Koskela, 2000, 136)

The Last Planner System (LPS) is a popular tool within the lean approach for the construction

site considering the construction peculiarities and taking up the flow concept of Koskela, 2000.

The tool has been designed by Ballard and Howell, 1998 since 1992 and is licensed by the LCI. An

integrated team consists of the concerned contractors and project managers who are planning

the processes step by step. (Jørgensen, 2006, 83pp)

There are three different level of planning depending on the considered period of time. The

initial planning schedule contains all important milestones of the project as well as the total

budget. It has overall coordinating character. The look-ahead schedule includes the activities

for the next six weeks with the aim to make single processes ready for take-off and activate the

required resources. It can be seen as a check-list for every single process proving that all require-

ments are fulfilled in time and the process can be started like scheduled. Based on this plan the

weekly plans can be deduced with more details about the time and duration. The planning at

the last step actuate immediately the execution of the work based on the commitment of all

participating project teams. (Ballard and Howell, 1998, 11p) By dividing the number of activities

which are fully completed with the number of total activities, an indicator with a message for

the performance of the project can be calculated. The ratio ’Percentage Plan Completed’ (PPC)

indicates the performance of the schedule. By reviewing the causes of incomplete activities the

schedule can be improved tackling exactly the source of the causes. The goal is to aim continu-

ously for a PPC value up to 100%. Productivity, reliability and the flow of processes are triggered.

(Salem, 2005, 4p)


Methods Planning

Initial Planning

Look-ahead Planning

Commitment Planning

Figure 21: Last Planner Systemin reference to Ballard and Howell, 1998

Preconditions for applying this tool are a work breakdown structure and a pull character of the

processes. The LPS is often used in connection with a “Big room” as central office at the field

making decisions based on the visualized process. As a result a detailed and backward gener-

ated process flow exists which helps to identify the preconditions for each task. (Salem, 2006,

171pp)

The variability of workload can be reduced at the same time. Another effect of this kind of

planning is to identify proper buffers make processes towards unforeseen impacts more robust.

(Jørgensen, 2006, 83pp) The aim is to increase the reliableness and robustness of the processes

significantly. Moreover the typical start and stop progress can be eliminated and the activities

which consist of waste can be reduced. (Bertelsen, 2004, 58pp)

A proper software tool is ’VisiLean’ to generate a Last Planner-work flow and to integrate the

planning steps of the product and the required processes. (Dave et al., 2013, 741)

Designing and planning by target costs

Target value design (TVD) is aiming for a state that the project team and especially the archi-

tects and designers compile a design matching with the available funds. TVD is deduced by the

target costing concept of the manufacturing industry where the customer value drives the de-

sign phase. (Zimina et al., 2012, 384pp) The budget and the practicability are drawing the design

instead of being an outcome of the design. An integrated team with knowledge about different

aspects is necessary. Ballard, 2008 presented the following formula:

Al low able Cost ≥ E xpected Cost ≥ Tar g et Cost


TVD serves to realize the determined target cost (TC). The TC should be defined together with

the client. By defining the value, the target costs are determined. (Zimina et al., 2012, 384)

Design decisions can be reflected from different sides and are based on more available informa-

tion. The client has a central role within this method. He is responsible to communicate their

needs and he takes the final decisions. (Ballard, 2008, 8p) The value orientates to best practise

solutions and the costs shall be even lower than those performances. It serves to create incen-

tives among the project team. The team including the client aim to come below the TC value

triggering at the same time the system for perfection and close collaboration. It can be used

either for the whole project or for parts of the project to cope with attributes of construction

projects. (Ballard, 2008, 8pp) The current costs need to be aligned continuously with the target

costs (Heidemann, 2010, 64p).

Visualization with BIM

BIM is defined as a verb or adjective phrase to describe tools, processes, and technologies that

are facilitated by digital machine-readable documentation about a building, its performance,

its planning, its construction and later its operation. (Eastmann et al., 2011, 586p). It is an ac-

tivity using a software to create a building model. Building and construction structures can be

constructed virtually in advance. The whole life-cycle can be reproduced on the screen as a 3-D

model (Dave et al., 2013, 742). Furthermore it provides new potentials for new ways of design-

ing and constructing facilities. Mutations considering the distribution of roles within the project

team are thinkable as well. (Eastmann et al., 2011, 1p)

The tool is marked by the feature of steadily and simultaneously provision of information for

design, schedule and costs. The input parameter are fully integrated and coordinated. Benefits

for all phases of a construction project can be reached. (Forbes and Ahmed, 2011, 214pp) The

simultaneous planning of the product and the required processes can be strongly supported by

having a visual image (Dave et al., 2013, 748). Initiated by the client the team has the whole

project in its viewpoint instead of single parts. The effects of changes can be seen immediately.

Moreover further stakeholder or people which are affected or interested into the project can be

informed with the help of the visualized project. The orientation within a 3-D environment is

significantly eased compared to deal with 2-D drawings. (Eastmann et al., 2011, 70p)

Infrastructure projects are marked by uniqueness and non-standardized members. Moreover

especially road projects have the attribute of long horizontal and linear expansions. More re-

sources are needed applying BIM and producing 3-D data. (Yabuki, 2010, 1pp) Details about the


impact of BIM are rare. The application of BIM within projects with linear job sites increases.

(Dave et al., 2013, 742)

Looking at the effects overlaps with the benefits of LC can be recognized. That means that the

application of BIM produces to some extent the same benefits LC is supposed to generate (East-

mann et al., 2011, 297pp). Both areas can work independent from each other as well. This

implies that LC can be practised and applied without using BIM and BIM can be used without

considering LC. Sacks et al., 2010 examined the hypothesis whether the combined utilization

enable the user to realize the full potential. The author uncovered 56 interactions of both ap-

proaches revealing significant synergy effects. Consequently projects which apply BIM deliver

lean results. (Sacks et al., 2010, 968p) The main points taken into account are a better under-

standing of the project, the aspiration for a high level of visualization, the generation of data for

the construction phase and data about cost and time. Using it from the very beginning of the

project an integrated team and the integration of product and process are the consequences.

(Eastmann et al., 2011, 494pp)

Just-it-time processes

Koskela, 1992 emphasized that a just-in-time (JIT) approach is one of the roots of the new way

of thinking. JIT is mainly based on the fact that inventories and buffers are seen as waste. The

core idea of JIT activities and resources should be available when they are needed. (Salem, 2006,

169) The method is often named in relation to the precast concrete sector and includes first of

all processes at the logistics management level. The philosophy has its origins based on the fact

that the capacity of place is limited and expensive. JIT is consequently the reduction of waste

and inventories to keep the work progressing. (Pheng and Chuan, 2001, 495p) Small batches of

resources which are easier to handle and to coordinate are the key factor. The concept is trig-

gering the prefabrication of construction parts and is shorting the lead time on the construction

site. A close collaboration between the client, constructor and the suppliers is essential. (Forbes

and Ahmed, 2011, 50pp)

Aspiration for continuous improvement

Construction projects are unique. Due to this fact the project team need to be aware about

learning processes during the project. Learning means to extend the knowledge about the

project itself, its objectives, the client needs and the project parties. (Bertelsen, 2004, 61p) The

aspiration for perfection 3.2.3 is realized within the concepts Kaizen or continuous improve-


ment processes (CIP). A constant stream of changes over a longer period of time is termed ’evo-

lution’. Single aspects are modified through extension and adoption. Such a slow process is

similar to a learning process. Know-how must be acquired on the job in case that it is not di-

rect obtainable. This is the case if humans and groups of humans try to become familiar with

new processes. A new way of thinking can be established like in case of LC. Changes are made

step-by-step without any dramatic jumps. (Wit and Meyer, 2010, 171pp) To keep up with such a

steady process there are the three success factors commitment, motivation and adoption. (Wit

and Meyer, 2010, 171pp)

It is rather an attitude and culture than a method. Such processes happen subconsciously and

should be present all the time. The approach for realization can be diverse from concrete prob-

lem solving up to the usage of certain creative techniques. Huddle-meetings help to share infor-

mation directly at daily meetings on the site. The aim is allocate work and organize hand-overs.

(Salem, 2006, 170p) Another point is to learn from the project afterwards reflecting single situa-

tions as well as store the gained knowledge and experience. It is necessary to find a management

approach to support and trigger cooperation and learning. In general there are two ways. Ei-

ther a tight control of all processes which requires many resources or the establishment of a

self-organized learning system. (Bertelsen, 2004, 61p)

Pulling the processes

The pull scheduling (PS) approach is specific attribute of the manufacturing industry (3.2.3).

The core idea is that the processes get activated by downstream activities. That means to do only

work when it is demanded (Ballard and Howell, 2003, 127p). A customer thinking is necessary.

The start time of the activities is therefore flexible. It is the counterpart of the push philosophy

where all activities are fixed scheduled and often without any relation to each other. A range of

mentioned tools incorporate this approach such as LPS or JIT. (Forbes and Ahmed, 2011, 95p)

The effects reported from a pipe case study were smaller inventories, a reduced lead time and

higher productivity within all processes of the project. Informations about the current status

of single activities and about the availability of resources are necessary in real-time while using

LPS. (Tommelein, 1998, 280p)

Transparency using mapping methods

The application of a value stream mapping (VSM) tool aims for high transparency and for mak-

ing the processes flow. It enables the process owners to improve the processes with the view for


the whole project. By illustrating the process with an iterative approach the present state can be

uncovered (Jarkko et al., 2013, 49pp). By illustrating the flow of material and information, sin-

gle activities can categorized as value adding or non-value adding activity. Afterwards a future

state can be determined which need to be accomplished working with the generated drawings

(Forbes and Ahmed, 2011, 116).

Within construction projects the whole conglomerate of processes is unique because the prod-

uct is unique and the processes are marked by high variability. Single parts of the management

approach are standardized like the claim management, the bill run, the accounting control or

audits. Those identified processes are suitable for simplifying and and eliminating unnecessary

steps considering the level of quality. (Forbes and Ahmed, 2011, 116) The performance can be

operationalized by the factors lead time, inventory and operational costs (Jarkko et al., 2013,

49pp). The aspects around VSM is also strongly related to the topic of waste (3.4.3).

Acting under the Five Big Ideas

Value

Collaborate, really

collaborate

Optimize the project as a

whole

Tightly couple action with

learning

Increased relations

between all project parties

Projects are networks of

commitments

Figure 22: The Five Big Ideasin reference to Lichtig, 2005

Another more overall approach which reflects and incorporates the mentioned ideas in an-

other way is the concept of the “Five Big Ideas”. It was introduced by a public hospital company

in America in the course of the application of LC in its construction projects. As a pioneer they

used a lean approach in their building projects and developed together with their constructor

the approach further. This five behaviour patterns are forming the basis for a lean system and


can be seen as a guideline how to act. (Lichtig, 2005, 106pp) It is a frame for the LPDS illustrating

the key facts of a lean delivery system by simple and short slogans. Furthermore they define the

language, behaviour and the relation among the constructors in general. It can be transferred

to every other project. (Heidemann, 2010, 58p) The five slogans can be reduced to the five key

words optimization, relatedness, innovation, trust and commitment (Lichtig, 2005, 106pp).

Structuring the work

The work is structured based on the single crafts and the contracts in many cases. Such a struc-

ture, also well-known under the term work breakdown structure (WBS) aims for an optimal per-

formance within the single parts of the project. This fact leads often at the expanses of the overall

project performance. The new way of structuring under the impact of lean is to develop a pro-

cess design while considering the following aspects at the same time: the attributes of the final

product, the relation and dependencies to the supplier, the distribution of the resources and the

efforts about easing the assembly process. (Tsao, Cynthia C. Y. et al., 2004, 780pp) The process

of work structuring is dynamic and needs to be adopted in the course of the project after having

created an overall structure based on the design. The last product structuring the work is the

time schedule. (Ballard and Howell, 2003, 127) The objective is to establish a more reliable and

accelerated work-flow. Finally an integrated product-process can be achieved (Tsao, Cynthia C.

Y. et al., 2004, 780p).

Process

Final product

Assembly

Resource

Supplier

Figure 23: Items to structure the work


3.4.7 Commercial terms

The third side deals with problems how contracts need to be structured respectively which con-

tracts strategies are generally appropriate in such a case. A contract regulates important param-

eter of the organisational structure and has a significant impact on the productivity of a project

(Gordon, 1994, 203). Contracts have significant influence on how the members of a system be-

have and which culture is dominant (Lichtig, 2005, 106pp). A lean project delivery system needs

to be supported by a proper contract and procurement strategy (Heidemann and Gehbauer,

2011, 25pp). The client is responsible to determine the scope of the contract, the type of orga-

nization of the contracting partner, the type of the contract itself as well as the method to award

the contract and select the project team. (Gordon, 1994, 196pp) A construction project is often

carried out in a linear fashion (Koskela, 2000, 136). The delivery process for buildings is still

fragmented. (Eastmann et al., 2011, 3pp) Within a lean approach new contract strategies are

needed.

Partnering

A term which gains more importance in this context is partnering. Such an approach is present

since the 1980s and not directly connected to a certain type of contract or a contract strategy.

Rather it is a certain state organizations want to accomplish which is represented by the at-

tributes such as regard, confidence, collaboration and excellence for the involved stakeholders.

Such attributes represent an IPD approach as well. The motivation lies in the reduction of dis-

putes and transaction costs (Matthews and Howell, 2005) Partnering can be established on a

strategic level and a project level. The two main attributes for setting up such an approach is

the question for the kind of involvement of the project parties and its arrangement in general.

(McGeorge and Palmer, 2002, 229p)

Contracting in construction projects

The most mentionable contract methods are the design-bid-build approach and the design-

build approach. Considering public clients, the proceeding of a project within the design-bid-

build arrangement is quite common and in many cases mandatory bounded to the national

framework of public laws. The design phase is followed by a bidding process for to execute the

project in the field. A design-bid-build approach is the result where the design and construc-

tion phase are executed by two different contractors. (Gordon, 1994, 198p) The method has two


significant advantages. The process of bidding stimulates the market competition and gives

the owner the possibility to choose among the lowest bidders. This aspect leads further to the

second point since choosing with the help of economically driven criteria reduces the risk to

select a contractor due to political dependencies. Furthermore the fairness and equal treatment

of all interested and qualified contractors can be guaranteed. (Eastmann et al., 2011, 4) The

disadvantages are that the issue about the constructibility arises and documents lack of infor-

mation due to low budgets and low comprehension of the project. (Forbes and Ahmed, 2011,

167) The LC approach is limited by the character of the design-bid-build contract (Heidemann

and Gehbauer, 2011, 106p).

The design-bid strategy unifies the owner for designing and executing the project. It represents

a reaction considering the problems and challenges mainly evoked by the separation of plan-

ning and executing. (Eastmann et al., 2011, 3pp) The client has just one contractual relationship

with one entity which is able to provide most of the demanded services the client is asking for.

(Eastmann et al., 2011, 4) The responsibility of the design is transferred from the owner to the

D/B contractor (Chan and Chan, 2004, 630p). The owner’s input possibilities into the design

phase are reduced (Forbes and Ahmed, 2011, 167)

Both contract strategies display a variety of disadvantages coping with complex and dynamic

projects due to their adversarial nature. Mainly there are no incentives which trigger collab-

oration and cooperation and for each contract the focus is on the fulfilment of a single piece

instead of looking on the project as a whole (Forbes and Ahmed, 2011, 168). Matthews and How-

ell, 2005 pointed out four major problem areas. Information, ideas and improvement sugges-

tions are kept back, the space for innovation is rare, the coordination of the project parties is of

poor quality and incentives for a local optimization is high (Matthews and Howell, 2005, 47pp).

Especially the public client is framed by a range of restrictions regulating the tendering process.

New contract strategies need to be aligned with the frame given by the terms and provisions for

the public authorities. (Gordon, 1994, 206) The award method defines the selection process of

the contractors. Due to the unique character of every project it gets an important role. The client

aims to get a service or product at the most appropriate price by using the market forces as well

as information about the product and experience from previous contract procedures. Gordon,

1994 is revealing the two extrema of a competitive bidding and a single-source negotiation with

many opportunities between them. This means either to focus on the most efficient price or for

a better relationship. It is a trade-off decision between cost and relation. (Gordon, 1994, 204)


Costs

Relation

Figure 24: A trade-off decision while contracting

Transactional and relational contracts

For the implementation of an integrated team a relational contract system is required. A re-

lational contract is the counterpart of a transactional contract and focuses on the organisa-

tional arrangement of the contractual members. Figure 25 is illustrating a traditional client-

producer relation. The definition of the exchange object itself fades into the background. Pro-

visions installing a mini-society with its unique features and interaction rules are highlighted.

(Williamson, 1979, 238p) This type of contract emerges as less discrete. Looking on the high

amount of disagreements between the project members in general, a contract which covers all

upcoming uncertainties, risks and cases progressing the project is almost impossible. By using

a relational contract form, parties are automatically forced to collaborate for the purpose of the

project.

The IPD approach makes use of both contract forms illustrated in figure 26. On the face of it a

transactional contract between the client and one member party of the project team is existent.

He is providing provisions for the scope of work, the price and about the attributes for the de-

manded product or service. The prime contract has a traditional character like in a design-build

or design-bid-built contract strategy. All selected team members, called primary team mem-

bers (PTM), are bounded by a relational contract. The contract is regulating all issues within the

project team (Forbes and Ahmed, 2011, 174). The provisions are created by the team itself to

generate high acceptance. They are also called the team member agreements which bind the

PTM’s together for the fulfilment of the prime contract and for a certain period of time. The

PTM’s are united by the price and the project scope. These two factors let the individual entities

melt into one team guided by one contract and aiming for one objective. These are the con-


Producer Client

Value by delivering

goods and services

RequirementsWishesNeeds

Figure 25: Producer - client relation

ditions which move a project to a lean project striving for innovation, collaboration and global

optimization of the project. (Matthews and Howell, 2005, 47pp)

Further lean adopted contract forms

In the USA and Australia are relational contract forms used since the beginning of the 20th cen-

tury. They enable the project team to be more flexible providing the configuration of a project

delivery system with lean features. ’Alliance’ agreements are used in Australia and in the USA

the contract method of the ’Integrated Form of Agreement’ (IFOA) has been developed. (Hei-

demann and Gehbauer, 2011, 19pp) The utilization of relational contracts such as IFOA and

alliances support the LC approach.

Integrated form of agreement The IFOA fosters a delivery of the product by an integrated

team consisting minimum of the the client, architect, consultant and the constructor. They

are performing on the project together from the outset. All project members are on the same

hierarchical level. The contract is negotiated within the team. With the help of team-building

methods a team spirit is generated focussing on the settled objectives. This kind of contract

consists basically of a commercial strategy and a behavioural strategy. The commercial part

provides provisions about costs, profit, risk and incentives for savings. The application of lean

tools is directly named and part of the contract (Heidemann and Gehbauer, 2011, 23). The be-

havioural part is based on the ’Five Big Ideas’ (3.4.6). The foundation for a culture of innovative


Client / Construction owner

IPD

PTM 1 PTM 5

PTM 2 PTM 6

PTM 3

PTM 4

SCOPEPRICE Prime-Contract

Figure 26: A relational project arrangementin reference to Forbes and Ahmed, 2011

thinking and problem solving is triggered by them. (Heidemann, 2010, 73pp)

Alliance agreements The conditions of ’Alliances’ are used in infrastructure projects in Aus-

tralia. This kind of contract has the same attributes like an IFOA. An alliance constitutes a col-

laborative team including the client. The multi-party agreement consists of a client, an architect

and a general contractor. Subcontractors are not part of alliances. The selection of partners is

based on qualitative criteria. The selection process itself is precisely fixed. The agreement con-

sist of a commercial part and a behavioural part. The latter is based on the value defined by the

client, the attributes of the specific project and the information collected during the selection

process. (Heidemann and Gehbauer, 2011, 22p)

3.5 The role of the client

Based on the statement, “value can only be defined by the ultimate customer” (Womack and

Jones, 2003, 16), it is worth to have a more detailed look on the client. The following aspects

serves highlight the client’s position, liabilities and tasks within the holistic approach of lean.


3.5.1 The customer in construction projects

The constructor is the producer of value. How value is identified depends on the customer

(3.2.3). Thus two central questions arise. Who is the customer? What is of value for him. It is

highlighted as the core problem identifying the ultimate customer within a construction project

(Jørgensen, 2006, 195). The client represents often a group of users or owners. Client, user and

owner can be different persons or organizations.1 The following attributes try to frame the client

and their behaviour after (Heidemann and Gehbauer, 2011, 22p) and (Bertelsen, 2004, 51pp):

- The client is an intangible and undefined identity.

- The client is seen as a short term complex system.

- A client is asking for something and has special wishes.

- A client is marked by interfering and supporting decisions.

- The client is often acting in a chaotic process.

- The client’s organization is a complex social system.

- The client represents different interests.

- The client determines the constraints.

Furthermore the client can be considered as a mediator linking all different parties together (Jør-

gensen, 2006, 196). Koskela, 2000 suggested to see the broad society as a customer. Especially in

construction projects are client and users different. A third group is represented by the external

stakeholders such as authorities, neighbours, public organizations or further affected parties

which strongly influence the character of the product and the production processes. Construc-

tion projects incorporate mainly elements with social importance respectively serve to fulfil the

needs of a whole society. In comparison to buildings the original intention and purpose of an

infrastructure project is not going to change during the long life-cycle. (Jørgensen, 2006, 195p)

3.5.2 The corresponding value

The starting point of lean thinking is to determine and define value based on the customer.

When it is not possible to identify the customer, thus it is not possible identifying the customer

value. The definition of value is limited. Furthermore the value perspective is limited to a spe-

cific point in time. (Womack and Jones, 2003, 16)

Traditionally the customer is addressing its needs within two steps. One is about what shall be

acquired and the second one is about what to acquire. These constraints are expressed by draw-

1The word customer and client are used synonymous by the author.


ings, list of quantities and finally the contract itself. Often many iterations loops are needed

before finding the right product. Another point is that every organization defines in his own

way what of value for the customer is while satisfying at the same time their own needs. (Bal-

lard, 2008, 4p)

Communication with the customer is mandatory while looking at the whole product from the

viewpoint of the customer. Also the channel of communication is crucial. Client and team need

to work closely together scrutinizing and redefining the product from different sides during the

idea phase (Ballard, 2008, 4pp). Due to the long lifetime of construction projects, value for the

client need be identified considering the whole life cycle (Jørgensen, 2006, 196). Finally, the

three aspects of figure 27 need to be balanced. After looking on value one needs to consider the

What is wanted?

What are the constraints?

Wan can be provided?

Figure 27: Finding the customer valuein reference to Ballard, 2008

counterpart waste as well. Identifying waste is depending on the level to which extant value is

understood and acquainted. Tackling waste is therefore limited applying the lean approach and

defining value is once again highlighted. (Jørgensen, 2006, 202p)

3.5.3 The new role of the client

Looking on new types of contracts which are more appropriate for a lean approach, the cus-

tomer occupies a new role. The position of the client moves from the role of a mediator be-

tween the different project parties to an active role within the project team. The customer keeps

its traditional tasks but is a team member on the same hierarchical level. So, he gets more di-

rectly involved in single processes and decisions. (Heidemann and Gehbauer, 2011, 22p) That’s


why the client needs to be prepared and trained. (Heidemann, 2010, 168)

The client is responsible for the initiation of an IPD team by a proper selection process and

for the determination of lean tools (Eastmann et al., 2011, 153pp). The ’rules of the game’ are

committed within the team considering the objectives and constraints of the client. The lean

approach is also providing proper tools to monitor and track the processes during planning

and executing the project. The client is responsible to create the foundation for a lean delivery

approach and to create the following success factors realizing a lean system: (Heidemann and

Gehbauer, 2011, 25pp)

- An appropriate procurement strategy to identify resources and project parties.

- An integrated multi-skilled team right from idea phase of the product.

- The involvement of the client itself into the team as an active member.

- The usage of proper lean methods.

- The establishment of a culture of collaboration and innovation.

3.6 Cultural and structural barriers

Liker, 2004 recognized that most of the power shifting a system into the direction of lean lies in

the commitment of the management level investing in the employees and providing an envi-

ronment encouraging and enabling the members to aspire for improvements. (Liker, 2004, 13)

These examinations are based on studying the TPS of Toyota.

While implementing new processes barriers barriers and resistance need to be overcome. A

study in the UK construction industry investigated such barriers in retrospect to the demand

of a change referring culture, style and management by the report of Egan, 1998. A success-

ful implementation of lean is hampered by cultural and structural barriers. In the UK could be

identified ten different types of barriers illustrated in figure 28. With the help of a qualitative

research approach the most three significant barriers were identified. One of the biggest prob-

lems is the lack of understanding of the fundamental concepts and ideas of lean. Other issues in

this context are the lack of support of the management as well as the specific way of thinking. To

overcome those aspects proper measures are necessary to trigger a successful implementation

of lean. (Sarhan and Fox, 2013, 4pp)


FragmentationProcurement and contracts

Culture and human

attitudinal issues

Traditional management

concepts

Financial issuesLack of

management support

Design-bid-build approach

Lack of understanding

Education about LC

Lack of customer focus

Figure 28: Cultural and structural barriers in reference to Sarhan and Fox, 2013

3.7 Establishing lean construction

The movement into the direction of lean is a paradigm shift for all potential team members and

need to be handled with caution. Using alone tools and methods isn’t sufficient enough estab-

lishing a lean delivery system. The time aspect is important to develop and apply a lean system

based on a long term strategy. (Liker, 2004, 10pp)

Liker, 2004 is using the “4P” model examining the status of the implementation of lean. The sta-

tus can be considered within four bricks. Many organizations remain stuck to the process level

which is described by using single tools for having a flow within the activities and a pull sys-

tem. The problem solving level is about implementing learning processes and having a culture

of continuous improvement. Take intensively care about the employees and suppliers coins the

level of people and partners. The philosophy level is described by an integrated long term view

guiding the decisions. (Liker, 2004, 10pp)

Another model was introduced by Heidemann and Gehbauer, 2011. The core element of a LPDS

is an integrated team determining the character about handling planning, consulting and exe-

cuting services. The lean project system developed by Heidemann, 2010 highlights the fully

integration of a public client. The system is the foundation for a holistic implementation of

lean considering the project organization, the client’s internal organization and the procure-

ment strategy. It was developed within the German context based on case studies in the public

sector in America and Australia and highlights the following points:


Usage of single lean tools

Pilot-projects with an holistic

approach

Transfer to the project

portfolio

Figure 29: Implementing a lean systemin reference to Heidemann and Gehbauer, 2011

• Establishing an integrated team using the knowledge and experience of several parties

at the early stage of the project when the impact on the product and its processes is the

highest and most beneficial.

• Establishing an environment of trust and collaboration which needs time and resources.

• An integrated team causes higher costs in the beginning and contractors need to be at-

tracted being ready to give input from the outset.

• The integration of lean tools and their impact is depending on the customers framework.

• Qualitative factors like lean methods, innovation and collaboration should be part of the

selective process instead of focussing on the price.

• The potential project members need to be informed based on the their knowledge intro-

ducing one common language and presenting the suggestions of the client.

• Implementing lean needs the support of the management level since a change of be-

haviour and thinking is necessary. An recommendation is to start with the implemen-

tation of single tools. This is the stage, the author is assuming to find.

Chapter 4

Project work

This chapter aims to present the collected data of the case studies. The projects shall act as ex-

amples to study the lean approach phenomena in a real life context to substantiate the presented

theory and to answer the research questions. With the help of the cases the existence of lean princi-

ples shall be verified. Within the following remarks the researcher introduces the observed projects

and the findings by using the same structure presented in the theory chapter. All projects are in-

troduced by their general facts and their features to introduce the reader to the challenges of the

projects.

71

CHAPTER 4. PROJECT WORK 72

4.1 The public road authority of Norway

4.1.1 Introduction

The transport infrastructure projects in Norway are conducted by the Norwegian public roads

administration, Statens vegvesen (SVV). The organization is one of eight subordinate agencies

which directly reports to the Ministry of Transport and Communication. SVV is in charge of

building, maintaining, planning and administering the national transport system. They are also

responsible for rest areas, road safety, noise control, traffic engineering and thematics. SVV is

the biggest contracting client for road projects in Norway with more than 7,000 employees. The

annual budget of national funds for 2013 was about 21,000 mio. NOK with the tendency to be

increased. A share of approximately 9,000 mio. NOK was invested into national road projects.

Figure 30 is illustrating the organizational structure of SVV. (Statens vegvesen, 2013a, 4pp)

The law where the organization tasks and activities are statutorily regulated is called “Instruks

for Statens vegvesen” and is from 2011 (Samferdselsdepartementet, 2011). The “Lov om plan-

legging og byggesaksbehandling” from 2008 is regulating the process for the planning and con-

struction phase (Davidsen, Knut, 2008). Five regional divisions are in charge for carrying out the

Director General

Northern Region

Central Region

Western Region

Southern Region

Eastern Region

Directorate ofPuplic Roads

Figure 30: The organizational structure of SVVin reference to Statens vegvesen, 2013a

projects. The Directorate is responsible for the overall administration and organization of the

road network. Moreover they develop the management tools and communicate with the politi-

cal institutions in Oslo.

The client’s function is a formal role rooted in regulations and legislation. Furthermore SVV is


seen as adviser, facilitator and executor developing requirements and standards for construct-

ing, operating and maintaining the road network. SVV is the construction owner with an inter-

nal organizational model that encompasses far more than only the contract phase. As an ad-

ministration builder they have full responsibility for the development, design and construction

as well as planning and executing the operation and maintenance of the entire road network.

Preparatory planning, land acquisition and further facilitation belong to the tasks of SVV that is

carrying out the project work as efficient as possible. (Rodewohl, 2014)

SVV is fulfilling tasks arising from decisions of the government which is informed by SVV itself

about the status of the road network. Based on this input the government is creating the Na-

tional Transport Plan (NTP) which encompasses a ten-year plan period. The plan is updated

every four years and represents the framework of the activities. (Statens vegvesen, 2013a) Three

main topics exist considering the general objectives of infrastructure projects in Norway: safety

issues coupled with a zero vision policy, environmental issues by avoiding negative impacts and

the road network itself providing a good maintained and accessible net of roads. (Statens veg-

vesen, 2006, 2pp)

4.1.2 The project management approach

The planning and assessment of road projects is going to happen on various levels, from con-

ceptual studies at a general level till a municipal and environmental impact assessment for the

development of different route plans. SVV’s task is to anticipate developments and respond to

orders by the needs of the society. The whole process can be described with the keywords prob-

lem analysis, looking for alternatives, analysis of consequences and giving recommendations.

SVV isn’t involved into all planning processes. Their task is to support the project parties with

the proper tools, templates and work flows administrating the processes around the designing

and engineering work. The aim of SVV is to have an open and inclusive process to collect local

knowledge, edit the data and share the information with local actors. The formal requirements

of the planning process are precisely regulated by law. (Statens vegvesen, 2013a)

The handbook 151 is about the management of road projects and depicts SVV’s guidelines

for executing. It is for the planning of projects, the accomplishment of projects and the

proceeding within operating and maintaining projects. It is the “project bible”. (Rodewohl,

2014)

All required processes from the decision to the maintenance of the project are regulated. Fur-

thermore all necessary documents and process iterations are given. The manual 151 is edited


for planning and implementing of development projects. It has the character of a guideline and

provides the standard project management approach. Often it has a check-list character to en-

sure a proper project execution and a certain level of quality. (Statens vegvesen, 2012)

The single phases of the management approach can be described as follows:

• Stage 0: Project order - Identify the objectives and results of the project

• Stage 1: Clarification - Clarify the order and comprehension of the project itself

• Stage 2: Planning - Establish an organization and trigger the planning activities

• Stage 3: Execution - Implement and monitor effectively the execution processes

• Stage 4: Learning and handover - Terminate the project and transfer the gained experience

Project order phase

Clarification phase

Planning phase

Executionphase

Project -closure

80 % of time

< 20 % of time

Figure 31: The project phases of SVVin reference to Statens vegvesen, 2012

The handbook highlights the common understanding of the project processes and the aware-

ness of the different steps within a project. Moreover it highlights the importance of the first

steps within the project process and claims to focus on the interfaces. (Statens vegvesen, 2012,

5pp) A first hint for lean traces is visible.


4.1.3 Objectives

Major road projects need on average about ten years from the start of planning until the com-

mencement of construction. The planning phase can cover up to 80% of the lead time. One of

the objectives is to halve the planning time. (Rodewohl, 2014)

An effective planning phase is one reason achieving the objectives of the NTP in time. The need

for faster and more effective planning processes arose. Due to the unique character of every

project there must be changes in the management approach. Therefore the measures revealed

in Norwegian Ministry of Transport and Communication, 2013 are to establish a good project

management, to have a good exchange of information between the involved people, to commit

the objectives and actions and to avoid conflicts of interest.

To reduce the planning time the following measures are suggested in Heldal and Rasmussen,

2012.

• A clear and early involvement of the authorities in planning matters should be strived for.

The public law for planning and construction from 2009 emphasizes obligatory involve-

ment and cooperation between the relevant authorities early in the planning phase.

• Precisely formulated deadlines shall help to realize required activities and processes in

time.

• The concept evaluation (KVU) and the quality assurance (KS1) should be used to clarify

the main lines in the selection of the road to align and develop standards - using those

instruments in the right way and coordinate them more in agreement with the planning

processes.1

• The regulations settled by the government are supposed to be used more actively.

Looking at the objectives and suggestions, overlaps with the effects of LC in theory can be rec-

ognized (3.4.2). Effects in reducing the planning time would be significantly.

From the governmental side a new organization structure is planned which takes care of the

high priority projects. Moreover a new approach for funding and organizing the identified cor-

responding projects is planned. The aim is to provide predictable funding and to create efficient

processes. For the development of roads the government wants to create more competition and

better coordination adapting the contract strategy by developing roads on longer contiguous

sections and handling larger tenders. (Norwegian Ministry of Transport and Communication,

1The author is using the Norwegian abbreviations to avoid translation misunderstandings.


2013, 20pp)

By analysing those aims in connection with the current approach it can be recognized that there

are no tools available which help to realize the plans. A reduction of the planning time from ten

to five years is notably and can’t be realized without significant changes of the existing approach.

To have the knowledge and understanding about the right tools and methods which enable the

project managers and operators to handle a new approach is necessary. Developing and adopt-

ing new tools alone though isn’t sufficient enough. While using a new approach, a new way of

thinking is required moving away from the traditional approach. One approach is given by LC.

The following cases serve to identify to what extent lean principles are already existent.

4.2 Case study work

The researcher’s case study portfolio consists of six infrastructure projects allocated in the whole

country and carried out by four regional offices. These six cases represent the sample of the

researcher. The case descriptions are based on information given by the public project database

of SVV and are added by information from the interviews.

4.2.1 Project descriptions

The project case I is a pure road project that consists of the expansion of about 30 km road in

the western region of Norway. The aim is to expand the road onto four lines and to increase the

safety conditions. The project is in its planning phase. The start of construction is scheduled for

2018. Information about the cost aren’t available.

The second case, case II, consists of a 10 km long road and a tunnel. The project is included

in a row of other previous finished projects. The road is to expanded to four lines. Big parts of

the project are already realized and other parts are going to be finished soon. The project costs

are about 3.5 mio. NOK. The current road system shall be linked in a better generating a more

efficient traffic flow and unburden the bordering local places. The time line of the project is from

2006 - 2015. The project is divided into a range of different contracts and contracted to several

companies. Different types of contracts are used.

Case III is in the southern part of Norway. The planning phase has finished in the beginning of

2014 and the construction has already started. The project is contracted to two main construc-


tors which are in charge of a seven km long road including a bridge. The used type of contract

is a unit-price contract. The total costs have a scope of 3.2 mio. NOK. The project is going to be

finished in 2017 after a total planning time from 2006 until 2013.

The next case is about the expansion of a 70 km long road in the south-eastern part of Norway.

The project, case IV, is divided into nine sections depending on the different affected munic-

ipalities and to splitt the expenses into smaller pieces. The total costs for this road are about

11.25 mio. NOK. The project is aiming for upgrading the road considering higher safety con-

ditions and a better traffic flow to serve properly as a main link to the border of Sweden. Each

section is represented by an extra planning and execution phase. At the time of the interview,

six of nine sections were finished.

Case V is an inner-city project which contains the new construction of a eight km road sec-

tion as well as the appropriate infrastructure considering a cycling zone, public transport lanes

and stops as well as pedestrian ways. Another part was an immersed tunnel which has already

opened. The project is divided into four big contracts. The end of the project is scheduled for

2015. After a planning time of five years the construction phase started in 2005. The costs were

estimated with 7.13 mio. NOK.

The last case VI includes a city tunnel, a sub-sea road tunnel and a sub-sea city-tunnel. Ad-

ditionally, another part is the appropriate connection into the existing road system. The total

costs amount up to 8.7 mio. NOK. The project is in its execution phase and consists of eight

contracts. The project includes three tunnels with a length of four till fourteen km which run

partly under the sea. All tunnels have two individual tubes with two lanes. The project is going

to be finished in 2019.

4.2.2 Findings

The researcher was conducting the interviews with the help of an interview guideline. The re-

searcher launched the interviews from March until May 2014. The collected data is the result

from six interviews with one representative of each case study.

Lean management in general Before presenting detailed data categorized by the different

sides of the LC triangle, the researcher is presenting some data about LC in general. For case


I quantitative data is obtained by the mentioned questionnaire. The students provided the pure

results to the researcher who is going to use relevant results for its own analysis, as prelimi-

nary considerations and as input for his own qualitative research. The students investigated the

project within the framework of a bachelor-thesis for the following three main issues: the overall

project management plan, the used contract strategy and the knowledge management. Not all

collected data is relevant and worth to investigate further. The evaluation of the data was made

by the researcher itself and with regard to his own specific research field. The participants of

the survey have either the job as project manager or as construction supervisor. The last two

questions of the survey were considering directly the term LC. For the question about the de-

gree of familiarity with the term LC, 61% of the participants answered that it is an unknown field

for them. 77 participants answered this question in total. Only 4 % categorized their knowledge

about LC as good referring the given scale of good, moderate as well as the choice ’unknown’. In

the case of 30 persons there is to a certain extant knowledge about the term available. (Hagen

et al., 2014, 9p) As a result, the knowledge about LC is significant low. The question whether LC

is part of the project management approach of SVV, 50 person chose the possibility ’unknown’.

The evaluation of a term which is unknown isn’t possible. 27 persons responded that LC is used.

Nevertheless one third think that it is is important for SVV. (Hagen et al., 2014, 10) Based on this

results further investigations for the topic lean are relevant.

It can be assumed that the term LC isn’t widespread in the daily project language of SVV. This can

be proven by examining the handbooks of SVV which are the basis for the daily project work. In

the examined handbooks the term wasn’t used. This matter of fact triggers even more the need

for a deeper insight for the project management work about the presence of lean principles. The

results of the interviews also prove that point. Most of the interviewees reported that they have

heard about this term. Some linked this term directly to the flow principle or connected it with

the JIT approach.

It is a useful tool which makes the processes working more smoothly. (Rodewohl, 2014)

LC is more than only a tool. The knowledge about lean is fragmentary which was confirmed by

another interviewee.

The term LC is known but not what is behind it. (Rodewohl, 2014)

Moreover the majority of the interviewees were convinced that it is important for SVV and that

there are already a lot of aspects available within the used project delivery system even when the

term itself isn’t used so far. All participants showed interest in this topic. In addition to this data

about LC there is another interesting aspect with regard the mentioned project management


approach and the operational objectives in the short term.

There are two main fields, SVV is currently focussing on. First of all, SVV implemented BIM

into the project management approach and secondly, the lead time of the planning phase

shall be reduced significantly. (Rodewohl, 2014)

With regard to the close relation of BIM and LC given by Sacks et al., 2010 considering their

effects, using BIM means to have signs for a lean behaviour within the system.

Organizational structure of SVV

The organizational structure is revealing how the project team is structured and how it is work-

ing. Furthermore this area tackles the relationships and the set-up in general needed realizing

a lean delivery system. The organizational structure of a project team is mainly defined and

influenced by the choice of the contract strategy.

Communication Related to the issue communication it could be examined that the project

management approach is using a responsible-matrix and a decision-matrix. Project members

can quickly get an overview of the deployment of the project team and their corresponding indi-

vidual tasks. It needs to be created in the beginning of the project, maintained with the expan-

sion of the project team and provided at a central place that every project member has access

to. (Rodewohl, 2014)

Another point is SVV’s own web-based communication platform used since 2009. The platform

can be adopted to the particular project attributes and is available online. In many cases the

constructor is still using its own system at the same time.

The platform supports the handling and exchange of documents and files especially for

change orders, approvals, drawings, meeting minutes, technical solutions and performs on

special parts of the project. (Rodewohl, 2014)

Besides operating such an internal platform the communication between not directly involved

parties is also highly relevant for optimizing the outcome of the project. A variety of external

stakeholders is often involved due to the large geographical expansion of the projects. Referring

to the external communication, informations by SVV are mainly provided using the homepage

and social media. The website of SVV contains a database with all projects. Extensive informa-

tion and current events are presented while working on the project. Data is curtly also available

on ’facebook’ project sides. Especially information about current and short term events are pre-

sented by pictures and short statements. (Rodewohl, 2014)


Samhandlingsfasen The method “Samhandlingsfasen”2 was introduced to the project man-

agement phase of SVV in 2010. The concept behind this aspect is to foster common accepted

procedures among the project members, collaboration, trust, inspiration and to trigger pro-

cesses of steady development and improvement. These provisions can be part of the contract

for the construction of new facilities, for expansion projects as well as for maintenance projects.

If so, the provisions must be part of the tendering procedure. SVV suggests four weeks for this

phase depending on the scope of the project, its complexity and the available capabilities. The

client prepares a written report to document the agreements. All parties and later selected sub-

contractors need to sign this as a requirement for their involvement. The document needs to be

updated as required after the work has commenced. (Statens vegvesen, 2013b, 6p)

In the examined cases (except case I) Samhandlingsfasen is part of the contracts (Rodewohl,

2014). It describes the passage phase from planning to construction and describes the time be-

tween signing the contract and starting with the activities at the field. The provisions for it can

be found within the specific contract terms under point eight, C2-7 (Statens vegvesen, 2013b). A

kick-off meeting, workshops and informal events mark this phase. Participants in this meetings

were representatives of the client, constructor, consultants as well as persons from the local au-

thorities and the municipality. (Rodewohl, 2014)

The feedback about this tool contained mixed opinions (Rodewohl, 2014). An analysis of the

impacts on the project results by SVV four years after its introduction is in progress. That’s why

it is categorized by the researcher with an implementation status.

Quality gates SVV is using quality gates (Rodewohl, 2014). Quality assurance one (KS1) and

two (KS2) are executed by external consultants to ensure the target quality level considering

mainly time, safety, environment and costs aspects (Statens vegvesen, 2012).

Operating system of SVV

The operating system (OS) is representing applied tools and methods within the LC approach.

Such tools are helpers on the operational level moving a system in the direction of a LPDS. They

influence the existent process and require simultaneously another way of thinking. Because

the term LC wasn’t known itself the researcher avoided to ask directly for special tools as the

interview guideline shows but rather tried to paraphrase those. Except in the case of BIM where

the researcher had knowledge that this tool is used in some of the projects of SVV.

2The researcher is using the Norwegian term further since its proper character given by SVV.


BIM SVV has identified pilot projects testing the application of BIM and its effects on the

project results.

SVV implemented BIM into its project management approach to reduce the costs, to visu-

alize the projects, to inform the concerned stakeholders about the project and the project

objectives. Actually, there are pilot projects using BIM before rolling out this concept onto

all projects. (Rodewohl, 2014)

The activity BIM is used in two of the six examined cases. In those cases everything was planned

from the outset with a proper software. The focus using BIM is rather on the handling of inter-

faces between different contractors and on technical aspects.

Compared to building constructions more space is available in road projects. (Rodewohl,

2014)

An evaluation of the impact of BIM on the project results wasn’t available so far.

Project closure The phase of the project closure is part of the project management approach

of SVV anchored in the handbook 151 (Statens vegvesen, 2012, 6pp). All experiences within all

types of projects carried out by SVV are expressed by a project report and shall be collected in an

internal data base. The purpose of all types of reports is to spread knowledge and experiences

easily within the organization. In practice it isn’t used like it is supposed to.

For the phase of the project closure is often not enough time scheduled. The project members

are moving directly to the next project. The templates for a project report and a database

are available on the internal project management system. But the system isn’t well-known

within the organization at this moment. (Rodewohl, 2014)

Case II reports that project members are often going directly from one project to another one.

There is only few time between the end of a project and the start of a new project. There is less

time for a project follow-up. Project reports are therefore under represented. Currently there is

only one project report available in the category construction projects within the database. The

knowledge management system is under construction.

A good approach could be to write regularly about special features and problems while pro-

gressing on the project. At the end of the project the notes can be summarized for the final

report. (Rodewohl, 2014)

Standardization Based on the handbook an on-line quality system is visualizing the standard

processes of SVV and the related tasks. It enables the user to browse the connected single

phases, their sub-phases and the corresponding check-lists. Single activities can be executed


more consequently and goal-orientated. The system is currently under construction and not

well-known within SVV. (Rodewohl, 2014)

Preparation phase Another important topic examined by the researcher is the focus on the

preparation of the construction phase. The aim is to collect as much information as possi-

ble about the project before the constructor is starting with the field work. In case III it was

mentioned to collect information about the ground, to assess the environmental impact of the

project and to prove all technical issues in detail to make sure establishing a state-of-the-art

product. (Rodewohl, 2014)

Providing tools, methods and proper infrastructure is important to make all following pro-

cesses smooth and operable. (Rodewohl, 2014)

By the detection of all kind of risk stopping processes waste can be reduced. It supports the flow

of the processes on the construction site and also during the planning phase. By eliminating

unnecessary iteration loops and making processes flow the lead time can be reduced.

Continuous improvement A knowledge management is part of the current management ap-

proach of SVV mentioned under the point project closure (Statens vegvesen, 2012, 58p). Em-

ployees need to experience the benefit of such a system combined with exchange possibilities

of knowledge beyond the regional office borders. In case IV the researcher was able to identify

a situation where one team of approximately 25 people, consisting of employees of SVV and ex-

ternal consultants, moved from section to section carrying out the project together. Through

this proceeding one team is working nine times on the same kind of project so that a learning

effect can be considered. The interviewee confirmed this aspect reporting of a culture where the

team members take care of each other and aspire for better efficiency from contract to contract.

Another case revealed the contrary. (Rodewohl, 2014)

The planning results are often of poor quality and several attempts are needed to realize the

agreed level of quality respectively to meet the requirements and objectives of SVV. (Rode-

wohl, 2014)

The disadvantages of a design-bid-build strategy are touched in this case (3.4.7). In another case

the responsibility as driver for innovation was delegated to the constructor.

The constructor has to be the driving force of innovation in the field considering how to work

and operate within this phase of the project. (Rodewohl, 2014)

Innovation is only possible within the framework given by the client’s objectives and constraints.

In another case the researcher examined the same situation. The interviewee highlighted the


situation that the objectives and constraints given by SVV needed to be kept.

New methods are generally possible but they need to be approved by SVV first of all. A new

approach should be verifiable cheaper and should be within the constraints defined by the

client. (Rodewohl, 2014)

There is no reason for the contractors striving for innovation looking on the side of the contracts.

Commercial terms of SVV

Within the commercial term chapter the researcher is presenting the used contract strategies of

SVV. The contract relation is regulating important parameters of the project in total.

Contract strategy A design-bid-build strategy is used in the examined cases. The design and

construction phase are separated by the chosen contract strategy and the constructor isn’t in-

volved into the planning phase. External consultants evaluate the constructibility of the planned

design.

Everything is related to the contract due to the matter of fact that everything is individually

regulated by their provisions as precisely as possible. (Rodewohl, 2014)

Several prime contracts exist with various constructors, consultants and engineers using their

special services and skills. The handling of small contracts have the advantage to distribute the

risk. In one case the differences between one big contract and towards splitting the contract

into several smaller contracts was tested. From the clients point of view and confirmed in case

IV, bigger contracts are preferred. Types of contracts which support a lean approach are already

available. But in the sample of the researcher, they were not used. (Rodewohl, 2014)

Transactional contracts In the examined cases unit-price contracts are used. Another ob-

served type of contract is the lump sum contract. The focus of those contracts is the exchange

relation of commodities and services for a bargained price. The contracts are therefore as pre-

cisely as possible and have often more than 1000 pages. The consequence is that a lot of time

and experts are necessary to draft the contracts and control the execution of each term after-

wards. Right from the beginning everything is regulated by the terms of the contracts to make

sure that every unforeseen situation is covered. Simultaneously the contractor is looking for

missing information within the contracts using it for supplements and their own benefit. To

achieve the highest value possible with a project is the basic need of SVV. The usage of incen-

tives within the contract is of no importance in the examined cases. The contracts are the basis


for carrying out field work as described. After the handover of the product it serves as a check

list to control and evaluate the performance of the contractors work. The researcher has no

information about the character of the contracts for the design phase. (Rodewohl, 2014)

Tendering procedure The contractor is awarded based on the cost after a competitive bidding

process. Other tendering procedures which are in line with the law are available but not used.

The tendering procedure is aiming for a fair treatment of all potential pre-qualified contractors

and for competition among the interested contractors. Another examination was the described

unwillingness of the contractors using new approaches within the project. (Rodewohl, 2014)

Implementing new methods fails caused by lack of knowledge of the other project parties.

There is little interest in using new methods. There is automatically the requirement for

training and instruction which causes the need for more resources. (Rodewohl, 2014)

The existence of qualitative criteria is important. In all the cases quantitative economic crite-

ria are dominant for choosing the contractor. In one case also qualifications, experience and

environmental issues had an impact on the selection procedure. (Rodewohl, 2014)

The tender procedure has the potential to reward the contractor for the usage and applica-

tion of LC methods related to their offers. (Rodewohl, 2014)

This would mean that the share of the costs for the decision process will be reduced and their

importance decreases. In other cases it was seen as helpful and necessary not to limit the choice

of the contractor only by the price (Rodewohl, 2014).

4.2.3 Role of the client

Looking at the lean approach with its different facets to create a new delivery system the client

needs to accept simultaneously a new role (3.5.3). One can recognize that the role of the client

is changing while implementing lean principles. Referring to the question in which role the

interviewees see SVV within the project, the following statements could be collected.

We control and track the work of the contractors to make sure that they fulfil the conditions

of the contract. We make the companies keep on working. We make sure that the project gets

money. We prepare the construction site for the constructors, deal with all administrative

aspects and uncover all possible aspects in advance. (Rodewohl, 2014)

SVV is the initiator of the processes around the project from the very beginning until the end

of the project. SVV is handling the formal processes in advance of the project involving all con-

cerned public authorities.

Chapter 5

Analysing and discussion

Considering the description of each project, the research questions and the theory part it is now

possible to identify existing lean elements within the examined cases. Moreover their meaning

and importance for the existence for a lean delivery system can be discussed and analysed. The

capabilities of the system applied are visible afterwards and give the project owner the chance to

rethink the processes for the purpose of a lean approach. The discussion part provides no concrete

instructions for implementing a special lean technique or method. It rather serves than as the

starting point for the discussion about creating a proper delivery system for the specific character

of a project.

85

CHAPTER 5. ANALYSING AND DISCUSSION 86

5.1 Identifying Lean elements

Within the discussion part the researcher is going to link the main ideas given by the theory

with the key results of the launched case studies. The contextual background are transport in-

frastructure projects. The discussion is focussing on the phase before starting to work on the

construction site. There is the highest potential to influence the parameters of a project and

implement cultural aspects for a holistic project approach. The single aspects are going to be

presented from the view of the client and its role acting on the three sides of the presented LC

triangle. Figure 32 is illustrating the procedure for this chapter. First of all the researcher needs

Identifying an issue within the collected data with relevance to lean construction principles

Labelling the aspect with a keyword for indiacation

Verifying the aspect using the collected data

Assessing of the issue by categorizing it as a weak or strong indicator for lean principles

Drawing a conclusion for the background LC and the management approach of SVV

Figure 32: The researchers strategy analysing the data

to identify the relevant issues from the collected data with relevance to the identified lean prin-

ciples. The researcher is using the original lean principles connecting them with the collected

data. Either they are directly related to the aspects of the lean approach and deliver indica-

tions that the system contains traces which are indicating a lean delivery system or they directly

hinder the system moving towards a lean approach. The aspects are labelled with a keyword

picked out from the theory which serve as unique identifier for a bunch of collected data. As

a consequence, a classification with regard to the three sides (3.4.4) is automatically given. By

using indirect speech (indentured parts) or references (Rodewohl, 2014) single aspects are ver-

ified with the help of the cases based on chapter four. An assessment is made by categorizing

the indicators as a strong or weak indicator for one of the five lean principles. Hence a rela-


tion between indicator and lean principle is constructed. Due to the depending and integrated

character of the principles often more than one of the principles is affected. Chapter three, four

and five are closely connected using the same approach three times given by the lean triangle.

First the theoretical description is followed by the findings. Finally the discussion is following

integrating the remarks from three and four. To ease the procedure the researcher decides on

the most relevant in each case being aware that other impacts are given at the same time. Meth-

ods which are not entirely used because they aren’t well-known or are in the implementation

phase are marked by a star . An impact is given though. The results are given in a table and can

be taken out of the appendix. For the presence of lean principles the following scale is used by

the researcher categorizing the collected data of the interviews and illustrating the results. The

following two-point scale is used:

• Strong indicator: The aspect is directly related to LC. At least one of the five lean princi-

ples is immediately touched respectively a goal-orientated application can be assumed.

Aspects which touch more than one principle by the perception of the researcher are cat-

egorized as a strong indicator as well.

• Weak indicator: In this case the relevance impact of the indicator is weak till moderate.

There is an indirect relation to other aspects which shift a system into the direction of

a LPDS. A relation to the five principles can’t be directly deduced from the recognized

matter.

Aspects which directly block the availability of lean principles fall into the category of no rel-

evance. From the researchers point of view it is important to list them as well. In this way a

connection is established between single used, aspects of the management approach of SVV

and the five lean principles .

5.1.1 Organizational structure

Communication A responsible-matrix and a decision-matrix clarifies the allocation of power

and responsibilities for the project team (Rodewohl, 2014). Project members get an overview

of the deployment of the project team. By using such a simple tool the flow of information is

ensured. It can be seen as weak indicator improving the communication among the project

team. Improving the flow of information by finding the right person for single positions within

the single parties. Related to the lean approach the team need to find together the best person

outside company borders. Positions are staffed through the commitment of the whole team


(Matthews and Howell, 2005, 5). Norwegian companies have a flat hierarchy and are more flex-

ible. (Rodewohl, 2014) The need to balance the fact of being structured and flexible at the same

time requires to adapt to new situations properly.

SVV is providing communication platform for the handling of the flow of information (3.3). The

platform is adoptable considering the requirements due to the uniqueness of each project and

the different human relations depending on the changing contractor from project to project.

Nevertheless the constructor is often using its own system at the same time which creates re-

dundancies within the project. A full integration and transparency isn’t given because of this

fact. Real-time communication can be supported. Borders between the project members are

abolished (Deng et al., 2001, 240p). The communication can start to flow and the transparency

of activities and decisions can be enhanced. A consequent usage by all team members triggers

a close collaboration of the project parties and eases the whole communication process (3.4.5).

Referring to the communication with the stakeholders, information by SVV is provided both us-

ing the homepage and social media. A part of the stakeholders with access to this platforms is

therefore closer to the project and knows more about the current processes. Referring to the

social media the project becomes even part of the daily life of the people and a communica-

tion between stakeholder and SVV is possible using the functionalities of the used medium. The

stakeholder can follow the progress of the project and can develop a deeper interest and com-

prehension for the project. The transparency of the project can be enhanced with the result that

the people feel more involved. Specifying the product of the project the voice of the user needs

to be involved. Doing it from the early stage a higher value out of the project can be created.

The effect for lean principles is rather low given the fact that the interest of the user should be

the point of focus for determining the value of a product. (Womack and Jones, 2003, 16) The

challenge within construction projects is the variety of different interests given by different cus-

tomers within the supply chain of such a project. Their impact possibilities into the product and

the process are caused by the statues of the public law. (Davidsen, Knut, 2008)

Samhandlingsfasen The method ’Samhandlingsfasen’ aims for a better project understand-

ing, a closer collaboration and a committed interaction among the project parties. The effects

of such a phase are challenged by the current used contract strategy (4.2.2). In case of using

many different contracts and having so a project team consisting of different companies, the

focus is on handling the interfaces. (Rodewohl, 2014) The introduction of such a phase can be

seen as the aspiration for increasing the value of the project. Therefore it is classified by the re-


searcher as a strong indicator. The constructor and SVV move closer together and get a better

comprehension of each other. Without looking at the planning phase, the project parties and

their members are conjuncted from the first moment. The “over-the-wall” syndrome can be

blocked creating a framework for more collaboration (Evbuomwan and Anumba, 1998, 587p).

Further more the chance is given to shift the system from a strict transactional thinking to a

more relational thinking and behaviour. This is the basis for further steps into the direction of

lean. (Matthews and Howell, 2005, 47pp)

Similarities to an IPD (3.4.5) can be examined as well. The client can develop a better under-

standing for the way of thinking and acting by the constructor. The project members of the con-

structor have a better comprehension about the objectives and constraints given by the client.

At the same time the share of waste activities can be reduced given the fact that processes of

coordination can be reduced and the processes on the construction field can start based on

previous made agreements. It’s also the prevention of potential upcoming problems instead of

looking for solutions afterwards. Especially waste of the type making-do (3.4.3) can be reduced

making the involved parties aware about the requirements of the process activities. A develop-

ment of guidelines based on the ’Five Big Ideas’ can foster such a cooperation.

Quality gates Quality gates along the linear progress of the project are used by SVV ensuring

the target level of quality. The traditional way of executing a project is directly blocking the

usage of an integrated team (3.1.3). By using this approach only single parts of the project are

optimised instead of the whole project. The product itself is handed over from one party to

another one to evaluate whether the product has the defined attributes at a certain point of

time. The thinking of value progressing in a project is interrupted. Therefore the researcher

identifies no relevance of this aspect for a lean delivery system.

5.1.2 Operating system

BIM The activity BIM is only used in selected projects of SVV. Looking at the sector in general

BIM is a current fashion and used in many projects aspiring for improvements. SVV also intro-

duced this tool to their project management approach recently. The utilization of BIM within

SVV is related to the handling of interfaces between different constructors and the avoidance of

clashes with the existent infrastructure.

BIM is seen as a strong indicator in theory for LC. Both elements and their effects are highly

interrelated to each other (Sacks et al., 2010). In these cases BIM is classified enhancing the


value of the projects. BIM is used mainly within the building sector. The effects of BIM for road

projects aren’t entirely covered with the help of case studies. First effects are validated with the

help of case studies in Eastmann et al., 2011 and Dave et al., 2013. Given by the geographical

extension of roads a lot of resources are necessary generating data (Yabuki, 2010, 1pp). Con-

sidering bridges and tunnels the extensions are not so huge (Eastmann et al., 2011, 494pp). In

general the usage of BIM triggers the need for an integrated team and the integrated planning of

the product and the correlated processes (Eastmann et al., 2011, 297pp). The software isn’t used

in the observed cases to such extent (3.4.6). The researcher is classifying this aspect therefore as

’weak’. The capabilities of this tool aren’t fully exploited in the cases.

Project closure Stage four of the project management approach of SVV incorporates the trans-

fer of knowledge (4.1.2). The main output of a project closure, the project report, is under rep-

resented. A knowledge management system is under construction and needs to be filled with

knowledge and information first before everyone can participate and benefit from the system.

The effect of a project closure isn’t given looking at the results of the interviews. The impact

of a filled data base can be significant despite the unique character of each project. The ex-

change of information isn’t therefore well-marked. Sharing information is done on an informal

basis directly form person to person and thus quite limited. For less experienced employees it

is difficult to participate from the existent knowledge beyond the project borders. The danger of

unused employee knowledge is high. Thus a type of waste is uncovered referring to 3.4.3. Due

to the provision of experience doubled up work can be avoided and so another type of waste is

eliminated. A company and its following projects thrive from the experience and knowledge of

the staff. In companies with many employees a database is the solution to overcome borders

due to time and place referring the exchange of knowledge. The benefits of best-practises and

lessons learned methods are low in the cases. The project managers should motivate or use in-

centives that every team is providing a report to overcome the described stadium soon and to

establish a self-maintaining database. The incentive in writing a report can be seen as having an

own knowledge management system with a variety of information. A report can emerge already

while progressing on the project. By giving the phase of a project closure more importance can

be the starting point for a learning culture. This indicator has an implementation status and has

a weak impact.

Standardization An on-line quality system is visualizing SVV’s standard management approach.

The system is still in the implementation phase. Processes can be based on practical experience


standardized, fixed and adopted in view of the optimization of the whole project. Every process

has a process owner who is in charge of maintaining the quality and being a contact person.

Such kind of standardization helps first of all to conserve and maintain a certain reached level

of quality (Wit and Meyer, 2010, 195pp). It is the foundation for further improvements and is

also an indicator which makes processes flow. Moreover the transparency can be enhanced sig-

nificantly. The effects within the approach of SVV are moderate because of its implementation

status. Moreover a culture of learning consisting of feedback loops couldn’t be observed by the

researcher (3.4.6). Signs for the aspiration for perfection are given. The flow of processes can be

enhanced. The researcher is categorizing it as a weak indicator in its implementation status.

Preparation phase Another examined topic is the focus at the preparation of the constructors

field work. Such a phase isn’t obviously part looking on the standard approach of SVV. The term

was marked in some of the interviews and the researcher is using it to determine its relevance

for a LC approach. Bundle different measure to such a phase helps to reduce the probability for

delays and unforeseen events. This has an impact on reducing waste within the project. The

Reducing uncertainty

Increasing the amount of information

Figure 33: Aims within the preparation of the site

management of transformation and flow is touched by such operations (3.3). The buyer tries to

establish a safe and predictable environment. In doing so a longer lead time for the planning

phase is the result. The benefits of a state with low uncertainty and a high level of informa-

tion content to the expanses of a long planning phase need to exceed the costs of having a high

amount of waste during the construction phase. The lean approach is supporting a process flow

on the one side as much as an efficient planning and preparation time on the other side. The

collection of information can proceed parallel to the field work which requires close collabora-

tion and other contract strategies. Focussing on lean during the planning phase can lead to a


reduced planning time with the focus to reduce the share of waste activities and avoid replica-

tions of planning steps. All downstream activities of the project are influenced. It serves further

to avoid start and stops of the activities and supports a making-do state starting activities as

scheduled and with the resources used (3.4.3). The preparation phase is highlighting therefore

the tools which can be used to achieve a predictable state. A LC approach is aiming for close

collaboration and open communication having a high level of information within the project.

Having only such a separate phase executed by the client itself isn’t sufficient enough for a lean

delivery system. The relevance of the indicator ’preparation phase’ is therefore weak.

Continuous improvement The internal culture of continuous improvement is driven by the

project members itself. The overall goal is the aspiration for improvement from day to day by

connecting knowledge and experience of the whole project team to cope faster and more effi-

cient with challenges and daily tasks (3.4.6).

One case reflects the disadvantages of a design-bid-build strategy due to cost pressure and little

comprehension of the project on the side of the design team. The result lacks of information

within the supply chain. Hence reiterations of planning activities are necessary. The absence

of communication is the overall root for this problem. Looking on the fact to build a road from

point A to point B it can be considered that such a project can be handled in the same way all

the time. The attributes of a construction project in general counter this view (3.1.2). The team

in one examined case is familiar with the processes because they are working together since a

while. The level of the human relationship is in a predictable state and everyone knows about

their tasks. A level of automatism is reached. This can be connected to a learning effect and

a self-organized system (Bertelsen, 2004, 61p). Through the changing contractor the effect ob-

served is only one-sided. But CIT isn’t reducible to one project party. Improvement occurs from

different sources and skills. Referring to a lean approach the whole project team needs to have

and live such a culture.

Construction projects are often coined by less collaboration and integration. The change of con-

tracting parties caused by the one-of-a-kind character, the used terms and conditions and the

high competitive market make the aspiration for such a culture more advanced. (Bertelsen and

Koskela, 2004, 7) Another point is that within the contracts is little space and no incentives for

the contractors to work on solutions which make the final product better and the work more

efficiently. The used contracts in the case studies are not using any kind of incentives or terms

to implement benefits for the involved project parties (Rodewohl, 2014). A culture of learn-


ing, improvement and innovation is prevented by the transactional character (4.2.2). Incentives

and the type of contract can have a significant impact on the productivity of the project (Gor-

don, 1994, 204p). Improvements within the whole team aren’t existent. The classification of

this factor is weak due to the fact of the presence of separated single teams and their individual

aspiration for improvement.

5.1.3 Commercial terms

Within this chapter the researcher is discussing the used contract strategies of SVV against the

backdrop whether they support the lean approach or not.

Contract strategy The planning and construction phase are separated within a design-bid-

build strategy. The construction projects of SVV are carried out in a linear fashion. The design

phase is followed by a bidding process selecting the constructor for the field work. The involve-

ment of the constructor happens at a point of time where the project has progressed quite far.

Changes are connected with high costs. A full application of LC is limited by the character of

such a contract strategy (Heidemann and Gehbauer, 2011, 106p). In a LPDS the constructor is

supposed to be part of an integrated team which is operating and collaborating from the outset

of the project (3.4.6). An integration of constructor and planning team isn’t used. The idea of

an IPD isn’t existent due to the linear way of executing the project. The usage of BIM can be

the driver for using the knowledge of the constructor at an earlier point of time in the project.

Another contract strategy is necessary considering lean. (Rodewohl, 2014)

The side of the commercial terms which serves as the foundation for the team culture and the

interaction among the project parties isn’t sufficient for a lean delivery system in the examined

cases. The phenomena that a buyer is using the type of contract he is used to is often recognized

(Gordon, 1994, 196p). Several project strategies are often fitting to the current project. The basis

for the decision for a contract strategy is to have a proper comprehension about the project. To

get an understanding of a project the client needs the help of experts (Gordon, 1994, 202). An

early integration and establishment of an IPD can be a solution.

The public client is limited in the application of special types of contracts by the public law.

In the interviews it could be examined that more appropriate contract strategies are applica-

ble considering the restrictions (Rodewohl, 2014). New contract strategies like IFOA or alliances

need to be proved. The contract strategy is also influencing the management structure of a

project (Chan and Chan, 2004, 632). In this case a design-bid-build strategy is hampering a


LPDS. The indicator has therefore no relevance for the existence of lean principles.

Transactional contracts The next step to decide about is the type of the contract itself. Often

a unit-price contract or a lump sum contract are used. Moreover the contracts are revealing

the criteria for the contractors work and have therefore a transactional character (3.4.7). Rela-

tional aspects are of no importance within the contract except the part of Samhandlingsfasen.

A strong transactional characters leads to a state where only the delivery of the product with its

defined attributes is important. There is little scope and no incentive seeking for innovation or

for a higher value for the project parties. The idea is to establish one project unit aspiring for one

common goal. In the examined cases a lean approach is hindered by a variety of isolated trans-

actional contracts. The used types of contracts by SVV with its transactional character aren’t

sufficient for the integration of project parties and processes. The aspect has therefore no rele-

vance for a lean system.

Tendering procedure The award method is to select the contractor and is often price orien-

tated. The transactional exchange of products and services is of first priority within the unit-

price contract. Therefore the first choice has the bidder with the lowest offer. Within the unit-

price contract it can be the objective to look for solutions where as less resources as possible

are spent to cap the costs to a minimum. With regard to the lean approach other criteria can be

important as well as finding the right project parties.

The ability of the contractor for a new way of carrying out a project can be part of the tender-

ing procedure. The application of new tools and the search for innovative solutions shouldn’t

be hampered by the fact that the contractors prefer to stick to their old approach of proceeding

within the project or because of lack of knowledge. To avoid such a case, qualitative criteria with

regard to a LPDS are required during the tendering procedure. Considering more criteria it is

possible to figure out the right contractor on the level of closer collaboration, the way of inter-

acting and to improve the project procedure within a holistic approach (3.4.5). The selection

process of alliances can be used as a model shifting the focus to a collaborative team (Heide-

mann and Gehbauer, 2011, 22p).

Choosing a contractor based on their price is to the expanse of the relation among the project

parties (Gordon, 1994, 204). The current used tendering procedure isn’t supporting a lean de-

livery system. It has the potential to involve more criteria. Therefore no indications for the

presence of lean are visible.


5.2 Overview about the results

CT

Tendering

Figure 34: Case study results

The graphic 34 is summarizing the mentioned indicators and the results of the discussion. This

is simultaneously the input for answering the research question within chapter six.

In total the researcher could identify 11 topics within the case studies which are directly related

to LC. The issue communication is divided into three parts. Therefore 13 topics are available.

Nine of those elements can be directly matched with one of the lean principles based on the the-

ory and the assessment of the researcher. These nine elements are further categorized whether

they are representing a strong or a weak indicator. The majority of the elements indicates lean

principles in a weak way. The methods ’Samhandlingsfasen’ and the project platform are indi-

cators with a strong impact for a lean delivery system. The tool BIM isn’t used to full capability

but it is also a sign for the existence of lean principles. In figure 34 the researcher illustrated

the match between method and lean principle as well as their relation to each other. As a re-

sult three of the five lean principles are reflected by the identified methods which are part of the

standard management approach of SVV. Value, flow and perfection are represented by elements

of the organisational structure and the operating system. For the principles value stream and

pull were no signs uncovered by the researcher. This relation is illustrated by figure 35 referring

to the mentioned procedure described in 5.1.

The elements named for the commercial terms have no relevance. Moreover they hamper the


Perfection

Flow

ValueValue stream

Pull

no signs

strong signs

weak signs

Figure 35: The presence of lean principles

system with their present character to establish a lean delivery system. They were identified by

the researcher because of their importance establishing a lean system. They are the foundation

to create a lean system and set the starting point for a way of culture and thinking (Lichtig, 2005,

106pp). To sum up, the examined cases display signs for a lean delivery system of moderate

significance. Hence the made assumptions from the beginning of this report can be confirmed

(2.1.1). Lean results are existent within the management approach of SVV without finding them

directly in the given guidelines and the daily project language.

Single results could be partly confirmed within the sample by other case studies. The existence

of more indicators can’t be enclosed. The presented results are the output of the researchers

sample. Six specific cases were examined which are representing six projects operated by SVV.

The total number of construction projects amounts up to 500. 50 projects of them have also a

contract sum above 750 mio. kroner (Statens vegvesen, 2013b). The sample of the researcher

is comparatively small. The transferability of the results to other projects of SVV is partly given.

An argument for the transferability is the usage of the handbooks which are representing the

standard management approach. The same proceeding and application of standard tools and

methods can lead to the same results for projects with similar attributes in comparison to the

sample of the researcher.

Chapter 6

Conclusion and outlook

The research was set out to find answers for the following research questions. (1) Why is it use-

ful and beneficial using the original idea of lean in transport infrastructure projects? (2) How

supports the integration of the project team and the project phases lean thinking in transport in-

frastructure projects? (3) What is the role of the client and how can he influence and support lean

thinking while carrying out a project? The researcher summarises the results integrating the the-

ory and the project part. There is a statement about the outreach of the research method and its

results. A verification of the undertaken research promotes the application of the conclusions in

the future and shall encourage for further research.

97

CHAPTER 6. CONCLUSION AND OUTLOOK 98

6.1 Research questions

Lean management within infrastructure projects To answer the first research question the

researcher needs to have in mind that the generalization of the results isn’t given in this case

with regard to the limits of the research method. Moreover can the question “why” not con-

clusively answered with the results of the thesis since the focus was only on identifying lean

principles instead of evaluating their effects.

The traditional approach is limited to increased complexity, dynamics and interests. The project

team of construction projects needs to cope with a type of processes which are executed by a

multi-skilled and temporary organization, result in one-of-a-kind products and are realized at

a specific place. Construction is a type of production managing transformation processes, the

flow of work and the creation of value.

Lean supports to get a view for the whole project and improves the results in a holistic way con-

sidering the whole life-cycle of the product. Value needs to be defined by the customer first of

all. To cope with complex systems means to use their capability to establish a self-organized en-

vironment for improvement, order and flow. Instead of having a management-as-planning, the

new approach is to go for a management-as-cooperation and learn within an integrated team.

To overcome and handle such a paradigm shift, lean provides tools and methods to support this

step. The final step needs to be done by a structured and equipped system itself.

By applying a lean approach the awareness about waste is stressed identifying and reducing

the share of non-adding value activities. The focus is on simplifying and easing the processes

to make them flow. Defining value and making processes flow are the fundamental principles.

These principles were discovered in the researcher’s sample. More and more projects apply BIM

activities. Often the users trigger in that way unconsciously but directly the system to move into

the direction of lean because of the close relation between LC and BIM.

An integrated approach A kind of integration wasn’t discovered in the case studies. The man-

agement approach is characterized as a linear approach carrying out the project. The approach

and its single tools like the contract strategy and the quality gates hamper directly the integra-

tion of a team and of the project phases. Within the results three points can be mentioned con-

sidering lean: BIM, Samhandlingsfasen and the communication platform. These concepts can

be seen as steps into the direction of lean provided by the client. They reflect single components

of a LPDS. BIM delivers data about the required processes while designing and planning the

product. Whereas Samhandlingsfasen and the communication platform bring the project par-


ties closer together. An “over-the-wall” syndrome and an isolated optimization of single parts of

the project at the expenses of the whole project can be avoided. All aspects are in a close rela-

tion. They create value for the customer based on a better comprehension and can be seen as

a starting point for a learning culture. A state of partnering is required making the team able to

aspire for a higher value and establishing a culture of continuous improvement.

The new role of SVV within a LPDS Lean is a holistic approach which requires prior knowl-

edge, comprehension about what to do and a specific way of thinking and behaviour. To sup-

port a lean delivery system the client needs to be aware about its new role and the change of

behaviour. This is mainly triggered by the application of new processes and activities. The sin-

gle aspects should complement and support each other properly. Given the fact that there is

no common definition high variability is given. The client needs to define its own approach to

adopt the interpretable LC approach to its own philosophy and policy. The single aspects of the

lean triangle are linked and highly interactive to each other. This means the construction owner

needs to initialize the search for higher value using more appropriate contract forms, creating

a culture of learning and establishing a team with one common objective. The customer itself

is an active member and driver of the processes during the design and construction phase. The

client determines and settles the structure of the system as well as the operative tools based on

the commercial terms. The conduction of trainings and social events are the first step into the

direction of lean having the same level of knowledge and the commitment of all involved people.

6.2 Conclusions

With the help of the case studies lean principles can be uncovered within the management ap-

proach of SVV for transport infrastructure projects in Norway. Referring to the presented models

the status of lean can be categorized on the process level using single tools. Three of the five lean

principles are present within the researchers sample. After making lean visible, a rethinking of

the system and single processes is possible for the purpose of a lean approach. First indicators

are visible which have the capability for extension. They serve as a starting point to develop a

deeper understanding for this approach.

• The preceding paragraphs haven’t mentioned all existing tools and methods referring to a

lean approach. Using tools is the last step in such an approach which is first of all based

on understanding, commitment and the availability of a common culture.


• In theory a variety of methods were developed giving organizations tools to make them

able realizing lean. Organisations make use of a range of tools adopting and transferring

them to their own culture. Therefore tools and methods can emerge under another name.

The ideas and the principles remain the same. Those need to be understand by using

the same language and having the same level of knowledge within an organization and

beyond companies borders.

• Using techniques alone isn’t sufficient enough. Most of the power shifting a system into

the direction of lean lies in the commitment of the management. Using the ’Five Big Ideas’

can help to create a comprehension in general what lean is going to do within the project.

• A purposeful usage of lean tools is required being able to aim for better project results and

a higher value for the customer. A long term strategy is necessary.

• The processes of lean need to meet with the framework given by the law referring espe-

cially the relational character.

• The tendering procedure has a significant impact deciding about the culture and the way

of interacting among the different contractors. A new tendering procedure is necessary

considering the fact to use other criteria beside economical ones.

• Construction processes can be seen as a type of production processes being aware about

the peculiarities in contrast to the manufacturing industry.

There are limitations implementing a new approach. LC can’t be seen as a universal remedy

solving all problems. Lean needs to be adopted to every single project. It is the way itself moving

into the direction of a LPDS.

"The journey is the reward."

The used processes and the behaviour of the people are determining this way to overcome re-

sistors and barriers while changing the system.

6.3 Limitations of the research work and outlook

This research was conducted through a qualitative approach of six case studies uncovering lean

principles within the projects. The term lean itself wasn’t represented in the management ap-


proach. The case studies were chosen by the construction owner itself based on their impor-

tance within the project portfolio measured by the project costs. The research is limited because

of the following reasons:

- The sample of the researcher is small.

- Despite the common project management approach there are different personal approaches

focussing on different aspects while executing projects.

- The amount of information sources is limited in this case.

- The conduction of the interviews wasn’t in the mother tongue of the interviewees.

- There is an one-sided perspective from the viewpoint of the client.

An active transfer from theoretical knowledge into practice isn’t provided.

For implementing lean a long term strategy by the organization is needed. Moreover with the

help of further case studies the effects and opportunities given by the implementation of single

tools need to be examined. Research designs over a longer period of time need to be established.

All data for the project part were collected from the employees of the contracting authority. An

investigation about a longer period of time was with regard to the general set up of such a paper

not possible. Another issue is the examination of the relationship and collaboration among the

key project parties. The sounded identification of waste can be a topic for further research en-

hancing the awareness for such an approach. An noticed issue within the case is that provided

tools given by the organization guidelines are not used or only partly used. The reasons for this

phenomena need to be examined for each case itself.

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List of attachments

1. Project attributes

2. Question guide

3. Organisational structure

4. Operating system

5. Commercial terms

6. Selection of lean tools

7. Thesis overview

I

Case study

I II III IV V VI

Project descript-

tion

road project about 32 km

expansion to 4 lines

road project about 10 km

tunnel project 2 kmExpansion to 4

lines

7 km of road system and a

bridge

70 km of roadExpansion to 4

lines9 segments

6 section already finished

8 km city streets including

road lane, cycle lane, pedestrian lane and public transport lanes,

an tunnel is already opened

3 tunnel and their connection into the existing road

system,2 tubes and 4 - 14

km

Type of contract

tbaDifferent types of

contractsUnit price contract

Unit price contract

Unit price contract

n/s

Costs tba 3,5 mio. NOK 3,2 mio. NOK 11,25 mio. NOK 7,13 mio. NOK 8,7 mio. NOK

Planning tba n/s 2006 - 2013 1990 - 1998 2000 - 2005 n/s

Construc-tion

2018 - 2006 - 2015 2014 - 2017 1998 - 2022 2005 - 2015 2012 - 2019

Status Planning phase Execution phase Execution phase Execution phase Execution phase Execution phase

Funding not clarifiedToll (80%) and

government (20%)Toll and

governmentToll and

governmentToll, governememt,

municipalityToll, government,

municipality

Question guide (interview time approx. 45 min)

Date and time

Introduction / role of the person / involved in the project since / working for Statens since / working

in construction industry since

features and challenges of infrastructure projects in general and of this project

Operating system (OS)

current used tools and methods either to optimize or to control the project

personal opinions about new approaches or thinkable methods

culture doing something new, taking risk and trying new approaches

meaning about the tools/objectives:

a. Last Planner System (LPS)

b. Building Information Modeling (BIM)

c. Kaizen – continuous improvement

d. Target Value Design (TVD)

e. Integrated Planning Design (IPD)

f. Lessons learned / best practise

Organisation (OR)

structure client – constructor – planning team

define the role of the client within the project

involvement of the constructor

Commercial terms (CT)

“Samhandlingsfasen” in this project

Type of contract and selection process

Lean thinking (LT)

meaning of Lean Construction in general

critical reflection to this topic in general

Further comments / critical reflection to the questions

Introduction into the prepared survey / documents / observation

Thanks for the support and time

No. Keyword theory = indicator Results of the case studies Lean principle Conclusion Relevance

Responsible-matrix and decision-matrix for the

project team.Flow

Improving the flow of information finding

the right person for single positions within

the single parties.

weak

SVV has an own central plattform which serves

for i.e.: the exchange of information, data and

drawings, for decisions processes and results

and for the communication beyond company

borders.

Flow

Improving the flow of information and

bring the project members closer

together sharing information in real-time

and easliy.

strong

Involvement and enlightenment of effected

stakeholders is executed by the usage of the

website and social media. Inforation are shared

about the project in preparation of local

meetings during the planning phase.

Value

A part of the effected people with access

to the used media by SVV can develop a

deeper understanding of the project.

Based on this fact more input by the local

people can be generated and a higher

transparency is given.

weak

6 Samhandlingsfasen

The part "Samhandlingsfasen" is part of the

contracts. It's an interphase and is installed

generating a better understanding about the

project, let the project parties work closer

together and create interaction agreements.

Value

A better comprehsion of the project is the

basis for generating a higher value for the

customer. Processes which add no value

can be reduced.

strong*

11 Quality gates

SVV is using quality gates along the linear

progress of the project. Quality assurance 1 and

2 executed by external consultants are

supposed to ensure the the target quality level

considering mainly time, safety, environment

and costs aspects.

The traditional way of executing the

project is directly blocking the usage of an

integrated team. Using this approach only

single parts of the project are optimised

instead of the whole project.

no

relevance

Organizational structure

1 Communication


3 Continuous improvement

One team is moving from contract to contract

within one project. Within a constant

environment they can developed among their

members a culture of improvement and

innovation.

Perfection

Processes are well-known and the team

members work together since a certain

time. A learning effect is partly given but

not beyond company borders.

weak

2 BIM

BIM is seen as a useful tool, but not in every

project used of SVV. The focus of using BIM is

to handle interfaces between different

contractors and providing information for the

public.

Value

The full capability of BIM isn't used in the

cases. BIM and LC are highly interrelated

to each other. BIM triggers the integration

of teams and the planning of product and

process.

weak

5 Project closure

The phase of the project closure is part of the

standard approach. In practical it is under

represented and not used like it is supposed to

be. Project reports are under represented. The

required templates and tools are available but

not used.

Perfection

The effect by a project closure isn't given

looking on the results of the interviews.

The impact of a filled data base can be

significant despite the unique character of

each project.

weak*

4 Standardization

Based on the handbook a online quality system

is under progress visualizing the standard

processes and enable the user to browse the

phases and their checklists.

Perfection

Processes can be standardized, fixed and

adopted in view of the whole project and

in agreement with the determined

process owner. The quality and the flow

of activities can be increased.

weak*

7 Preparation phase

During the interviews was in some cases

spoken about the preparation of the field work.

The aim is to achieve a predictable

environment.

Flow

The measures serve to reduce the share

of waste avoiding interruptions and

having a making-do state.

weak

Operating system


8 Contract strategy

A design-bid-build strategy is used. External

consultants evaluate the constructibility.

Several prime contracts are existent with

various constructors, consultants and engineers

using their services and skills.

An integration of constructor and

planning team isn't used. The idea of IPD

isn't existent due to the linear way

executing the projects. The usage of BIM

can be the driver for a more integrated

approach.

no

relevance

9 Transactional contracts

The focus of the used types of contracts is on

the exchange relation of commodities and

services for a bargained price. A unit-price or

lump sum contract are used in the cases.

A strong transactional character of the

contracts leads to an isolated state of the

project parties. A lean appraoch is

hindered by a variaty of transactional

contracts.

no

relevance

10 Tendering procedure

The contractor is awarded based on the cost in

the majority of the cases after a competitive

bidding process. Other tendering procedures

which are in line with the law are available but

not used.

With the tendering procedure the right

project partner can be fined reducing the

share of economic criteria. Within a LPDS

the focus is on the relation and

collaboration besides the cost factor.

no

relevance

Commercial terms

No. Side Name Abbrevitation Short description

1 CT Partnering - Get to know each other and align all

project parties with the project aims

2 OR Integrated project delivery team IPDOrganizational form consisting of key

project members applying Lean principles

3 OR Quality at the source - Producing products with a certain level of

quality avoiding to transfer bad quality

within the project

4 OR Quality assurance QAUsing consultants or experts evaluating

the project

5 OS Big room - Visualization of management tools and

KPI's by a team of experts

6 OS Value stream mapping VSMOverview about all steps needed to deliver

a final product as a flow chart

7 OS Pull scheduling PSProcesses are triggered and needed by the

following process which is seen as a

customer

8 OS Continuous improvement process CIP The aspiration to improve continuously all

resources and activities within a project

little by little using Kaizen and PDCA.

9 OS Standardization - Using processes regularly and match

certain problems with previous

determined processes

10 OS 5S - Method to organize and maintain order at

the work place

11 OS Work breakdown structure WBSPlanning the single work packages with

focus on disciplines and interfaces

12 OS Start operations like planned - Usage of a meeting structure which

investigates and triggers regularly the

operations

13 OS A3 - Visualization of the main aspects with a A3

paper informing others

14 OS Choosing by advantages CBADecisions based on the importance of

advantages compared to each other

15 OS Concurrent engineering - Planning of the product and process at the

same time

16 OS Just-in-time/sequence JIT / JISAppropriate products when they are

needed for further proceeding

17 OS Prefrabication - Transfering processes away from the site

18 OS Poke Yoke - Preventing any kind of errors or defects by

engineering

19 OS 5 Why analysis 5WInvestigating the root of problems by using

this question word

20 OS Six sigma 6σStatistical approach reducing variability

and errors by define-measure-analyse-

improve-control

LEAN MANAGE-

MENT

LEAN CONSTRUC-

TION

LPDS = IPD + LPS + TVD + BIM + JIT + CIP + PS + VSM + further tools

which are sounding, addressing and creating a lean thinking system

Master-thesis

“The presence of Lean Construction principles in Norway’s transport infrastructure projects”

RESEARCH QUESTIONS

1. Why is it useful and beneficial using the original idea of lean in transport infrastructure projects?

2. How far can an integrated approach referring the project team and the project phases support lean thinking in infrastructure projects?

3. What is the role of the client and how can he influence and support lean thinking while carrying out a project?

PROPOSI-TIONS

Lean principles are applied in the phases: pre-design, design, planning and the passage from planning to execution.

Lean principles play an important role carrying out construction projects in modern times.

Lean principles affect the project results significantly.

The role of the client has changed applying production orientated tools.

CASE STUDY

Identifying used methods and tools

Identifying traces of Lean

Identifying personal opinions and experiences towards Lean

Identifying starting points for implementation of Lean

Identifying effects towards cost, time and culture

Value Value stream Pull Flow Perfection

Lean

thinking (LT)

Commercial terms (CT)

Organisation (OR) Operating system (OS)

the presence of lean construction principles in norways ... · the presence of lean construction...

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