Evaluation Report 3/2000

The Project “Training for Peace in Southern Africa”

Royal Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Af fairs

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The Project “Training for Peace in

Southern Africa”

A report prepared by

FAFO

Lena C. Endresen (Team leader)Ramesh Thakur (Main evaluator)

Margaret A. Vogt (Main evaluator)Ingvild Skinstad (Team member)

Malehoko Tshoaedi (Team member)

Responsibility for the contents and presentation of findings and recommendations rests with the evaluation team. The views and opinions expressed in the report do not necessarily correspond with

the views of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs.

Table of Contents

Abbreviations and acronyms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

The Project “Training for Peace in Southern Africa”. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

Executive Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

1 Background and Context. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13The Evaluation of Training for Peace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13A brief history of TfP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14SADC: conflict resolutions and peacekeeping in the 1990s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

2 Description of Training for Peace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19TfP Actors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

The Royal Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MFA) and the Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation (NORAD) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19Implementing Organisations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

TfP Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

3 Administration, Management and Effectiveness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23NUPI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24ACCORD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25ISS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26Cost Effectiveness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

4 Quality and Policy Relevance of Publications Produced under Training for Peace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

Narrow Base of Authorship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31Academic Rigor vs. Policy Relevance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

5 Pedagogical Methods, Curriculum and Learning for Training-for-Peace Participants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35Curriculum and the Contents of the TfP Workshops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35Professionally-targeted Courses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36Survey of Former Participants – Main Findings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37The Conflict Management Module of the UN Military Observers Course . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39Training Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39Trainers and Resource Persons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

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6 Relevance and Institutionalisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43TfP Objective (1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43TfP Objective (2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44TfP Objective (3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45TfP Objective (4) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46TfP Objective (5) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

7 Further Needs and Future Course . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49Partner Institutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

ACCORD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50ISS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51An additional partner? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52NUPI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

Nordic Cooperation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54Timeframe and Budget . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

TablesTable 2.1. Participants in TfP Workshops 1996–1998 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21Table 3.1. Allocation of funds spent 1995–1999 in NOK (Source: TfP Annual Reports) . . . . . . . . . . . 29Table 4.1. ISS Publications under TfP Auspices, 1996–1999. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33Table 5.1. How did you choose or how were you selected for the course? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38Table 5.2. How did you find the length of the workshop? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

FiguresFigure 7.1. A proposed model for the relationship between TfP donors and partners . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

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Abbreviations and acronyms

ACCORD African Centre for the Constructive Resolution of DisputesAFIC-N Norwegian Armed Forces International Center

CIVPOL Civilian Police

DANIDA Danish International Development AgencyDPKO Department of Peacekeeping Operations (UN)DRC Democratic Republic of Congo

ECOWAS Economic Community of West African StatesIDP Institute for Defence PolicyISDSC SADC Interstate Defence and Security CommitteeISS Institute for Security Studies

MFA Royal Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs

NORAD Norwegian Agency for Development CooperationNORDEM Norwegian Resource Bank for Democracy and Human Rights

OAU Organisation of African Unity

PSO Peace Support Operation

RPTC SADC Regional Peacekeeping Training Center (Zimbabwe)

SADC Southern African Development CommunitySADCC Southern African Development Co-ordination ConferenceSANDF South African National Defence ForceSAFDEM Southern Africa Resource Bank for Democracy and Human RightsSAPES Southern African Political Economy Series TrustSARIPS Southern African Regional Institute for Policy StudiesSAPS South African Police ServiceSARPCCO Southern African Regional Police Chiefs’ Coordinating Organisation

TfP Training for Peace in Southern Africa

UNAMIR United Nations Assistance Mission to RwandaUNAVEM United Nations Verification Mission in AngolaUN DPA United Nations Department of Political AffairsUNHCHR United Nations High Commissioner for Human RightsUNITA National Union for the Independence of AngolaUNOCHA United Nations Office for the Co-ordination of Humanitarian AffairsUNMO United Nations Military Observers in Peace OperationsUNMOC United Nations Military Observers CourseUNOSOM United Nations Operation in SomaliaUNPOC United Nations Police Officers CourseUNSOC United Nations Senior Officers Course

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Project period:Start: May 2 1995 (project preparations)Project funding from October 19951st project activity: 21 November 1995

Period covered by the evaluation: From project start to 31 December 19991.

Financing:The Royal Norwegian Ministry of ForeignAf fairs, through the Norwegian Agency forDevelopment Co-operation (NORAD). TfP had afive-year funding timeframe from October 1995.The initial budget was NOK 11.3 million. Thebudget has been expanded to a total of NOK12,904,480 until the end of 1999. Furthermore,NOK 998,300 has been transferred fromNORAD to specific supplemental projectsbetween 1996 and 1999.

Implementing organisations:• NUPI - Norwegian Institute of International

Affairs, Oslo

• ACCORD - African Centre for theConstructive Resolution of Disputes,Durban

• ISS - Institute for Security Studies, Pretoria

TfP Objective: Enhance knowledge and competence withinthe area of peacekeeping in the SADC region.

TfP target groups: Civilian and military actors in peacekeeping inall SADC countries.

The Project “Training for Peace in Southern Africa” (TfP)

1) The evaluation also included observation of the Conflict Management module in the United Nations Military Observers Course(UNMOC) at RPTC in February 2000

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Norway has supported the Training for Peace(TfP) project in Southern Africa since October1995. TfP is a training and policy developmentproject that seeks to build regional competencewithin the area of peacekeeping in the SouthernAfrican Development Community (SADC)region. TfP was initiated by Norway in the wakeof changes in the security landscape ofSouthern Africa, following the end of apartheidand the installation of Nelson Mandela aspresident. It was launched after consultationswith representatives from relevant internationalbodies including the UN, OAU and SADC, aswell as regional governments. The Norwegiangovernment, officials and politicians, describedand perceived TfP as a flagship project. By thestandards of Norwegian aid, TfP represented afairly substantial and long-term commitment ofdevelopment co-operation money for building asustainable capacity for multifunctionalpeacekeeping by member countries of theSADC.

The project was organised as an institutionalNGO co-operation between the NorwegianInstitute of International Af fairs (NUPI),through its UN Programme, and two SouthAfrican institutions; the Institute for SecurityStudies (ISS - formerly the Institute for DefencePolicy - IDP) in Pretoria and the African Centrefor the Constructive Resolution of Disputes(ACCORD) in Durban. The two South Africanorganisations tried to work together for oneyear after the project started. Since then therehas been no active collaboration between thetwo organisations, and they do not perceiveeach other as partners.

Overall the evaluation team found the projectsuccessful and was impressed by the broadrange of activities conducted under TfP and itsimpact. Approximately 1 970 South Africanshave attended seminars and training inpeacekeeping through TfP. In total 272participants have undergone training in TfPworkshops of three and five days’ duration, andsome 62 participants have attended two UNPOC

training courses of two weeks’ duration each.Others have participated in different kinds ofcourses. The participants have, however, notbeen registered in a systematic manner thatwould make it possible at this point to use themas a stand-by capacity for peacekeepingoperations.

While to some extent courses have relied on UNmanuals, TfP has not developed manuals forpeacekeeping training.

NUPI has had an important co-ordinating rolethat has included budget control, facilitation ofthe TfP Exchange arrangement and liaison withthe Norwegian government and the UN, inaddition to providing resource persons andinput to the various courses.

The two South African organisations havegained considerable strength since the TfPproject star ted. Their staf fs have grownconsiderably, becoming more regional, andboth organisations are relatively well networkedin the region.

TfP has had regional outreach in terms of thecourses held without yet becoming a trueregional project. It is primarily seen as a SouthAfrican project. The ability of TfP to provide aregional view and support to SADC inpeacekeeping training and the development ofdoctrine might continue to be difficult as long asthe two partners remain South African.

In particular ISS, and to a lesser extentACCORD, has published extensively under theproject. While these publications have highpolicy relevance, the academic relevance is notso high.

Publications and activities under TfP have as arule been credited to the TfP project and itsNorwegian funding, but “Training for Peace”has not become a widely recognised trademarkin the region. The names of the programmesunder which TfP operates are called

Executive Summary

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respectively Peace Missions at ISS, and ThePeacekeeping Programme at ACCORD. As aresult TfP is not seen as a coherent andintegrated programme.

Under TfP’s Exchange arrangement initiated in1997, military and police personnel from theSADC region have participated in UN trainingcourses in Norway. The various stakeholderssee value in this arrangement. People who haveparticipated in these courses have been used astrainers in TfP activities held in Southern Africa.The arrangement also provides a goodopportunity for Southern African andNorwegian personnel to experience themultinational dimension of peace operations.

Over the course of the five years of the TfPproject, the volume of Nordic activity in the fieldof peace and security in Southern Africa hasincreased considerably. This has occurredwithout co-ordination amongst Nordic donors.NUPI and representatives from the Nordicdonor community have expressed the need toco-ordinate Nordic activities.

In interviews with the evaluation team, some ofthe actors, both from Norway and from SouthAfrica, expressed uncertainty as to the divisionof responsibilities and authority of theNorwegian actors (MFA - NORAD - NUPI), andthat they have occasionally felt that policy fromNorway on TfP has been lacking.

TfP has to some extent been caught up in thedisagreement over the regional securityarrangement and policy. The controversy withregard to the process of creating a SADC Organof Politics, Defence and Security, and theconflict in the Democratic Republic of Congo(DRC) have impacted TfP. The impact on TfPhas been af fected by the fact that thedisagreement on the structure of the SADCOrgan is caused mainly by a difference of viewsbetween South Africa and Zimbabwe, inparticular, but also involves the other SADCmembers. Moreover, SADC is also divided onthe conflict in the DRC, with some members ina military alliance with the Government, whileothers are perceived as being close to therebels.

TfP has achieved much in the first five years.Overall the project has been successful, evenexceeding expectations in certain areas, such asits contribution to evolving doctrines onpeacekeeping. The first five years have been theperiod of establishment. In the next phase, TfPneeds to consolidate, and to move fromestablishment activities into more research-inspired and doctrine-informed training. And itneeds to move more visibly out of South Africainto the Southern African region.

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1. TfP should be extended for a second phaseto allow the emergence of a self-sustainingcapacity for the training of peacekeepers fromthe Southern African region, with specialemphasis on the civilian dimensions ofcontemporary peace missions in Africa.

• Suggested duration for a second phase isthree years, after which the structure couldbe reviewed to assess whether a newproject set-up or design should beestablished.

• The second phase would require funding ofat least the same level as today, at aminimum expanded to accommodate afourth partner organisation. The evaluationteam has not considered how to best phasein the various components referred tobelow, and the specific fundingrequirements should be addressed within alater project design and planning process.

2. The regional aspects of the TfP projectshould be enhanced.

• The regional identity of TfP should be givengreater form and substance through anappropriate geographic spread of instruc-tors and venues as well as participants.When venues change, ef forts should bemade to involve local organisations so as tocreate local ownership and ensurecontinuity and follow-up.

• The inclusion of an additional collaborativepartner organisation in the region outsideSouth Africa is recommended.

3. The civilian aspects of peacekeeping shouldbe emphasised.

• The second phase of TfP should inparticular emphasise civilian aspects ofmodern peacekeeping, in training as well asin the development of doctrine for the

employment and integration of civilianpersonnel in peace missions.

• TfP should develop its niche in training anddevelopment of the civilian capacity forpeacekeeping, especially related to thecivilian military co-operation on the onehand, and the training of civilian personnelfrom UN Agencies, NGOs and civilianpolice on the other.

4. The TfP project should be strengthened tosupport the development of consensus on thebest approach for regional securitymanagement.

• TfP should help processes in the regionaland continental organisations that aim atdeveloping common security in SouthernAfrica.

• Partner organisations should examine,discuss, evolve and facilitate the acceptanceand implementation of a SADC SecurityOrgan. Similar to the efforts of the RPTC,the TfP partners should encourage theacceptance of a minimum common groundamong SADC members.

• TfP partners should remain engaged withthe OAU, the UN and other organisationsthat are critical to the creation of theenabling environment for peacekeepingactivities in Southern Africa.

5. Authority and management of TfP shouldbe clarified and structured.

• The division of responsibility among theTfP partners should be further defined inthe second phase. As part of its co-ordinating role, NUPI should ensure thatthis division is respected in order to avoidconflict within the group of implementingorganisations.

Recommendations

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• The evaluation team does not find thatcloser co-operation between the two SouthAfrican partners will be beneficial in asecond phase.

• The financial reporting for the projectshould be activity-based and follow anidentical set up for the implementingorganisations.

6. An international advisory board for the TfPproject should be established.

• The advisory board could includerepresentatives from SADC, the OAU, andthe UN system, as well as from theNorwegian government (MFA-NORAD)and the peace research community. Furtherrepresentation could include the Directorsof NUPI, RPTC or SARPCCO, and the NGOcommunity. The advisory board could meetonce a year, alternately in Norway and inthe region.

7. The interaction between NUPI and each ofthe partner organisations should seek todevelop capacity in both organisations.

• NUPI should continue co-operation ontraining and the Exchange arrangementand, more than the case is today, engage incollaborative research with all or some ofthe partner organisations.

• The TfP project should be strengthened tosupport research on the security agenda inSouthern Africa.

• All partner organisations should encourageinternational contributions to theirrespective journals, and also themselvespublish in international journals.

8. TfP should initiate a second round ofgeneric peacekeeping training workshops.

• The TfP Peacekeeping Training Workshopsconducted by ACCORD should alternatebetween in-country and SADC formats.

9. TfP should conduct training in co-operationwith the RPTC.

• TfP partner organisations should activelyexplore the possibility of mounting in-country training workshops and seminarsthroughout the SADC region conjointlywith the RPTC.

10. The implementing organisations shouldconsider giving longer and more structuredcourses, using carefully designed curricula anda faculty that is drawn from across the region.

• Instructors used in TfP training coursesshould be people with enhanced skills,especially familiar with UN and otherpeacekeeping training programmes as wellas regional issues.

• TfP should open for interdisciplinarynetworking and co-operation throughinviting former participants to follow-uptraining events or seminars.

11. TfP should develop human resources thatcould be called on for peace missions.

• It is still relevant that TfP takes part indeveloping a stand-by capacity of personnelwithin Southern Africa that could be used inpeace operations.

• Partner organisations that conduct TfPtraining should keep a tracking record ofparticipants who have undergone training.The tracking record should be fed to thenewly created RPTC Clearing-house and toother TfP partners.

• Participants who have undergone trainingshould routinely be made aware of theSAFDEM (Southern Africa Resource Bankfor Democracy and Human Rights)initiative.

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12. TfP should develop a manual for civilianpeacekeeping training.

• The cumulative experience and expertisegained by those engaged in TfP trainingactivities should be developed into a manualon training peacekeepers. The manualshould be designed with regard to UNrequirements for peace-mission personnel.

13. Norwegian and Nordic co-ordination ofprojects in the field of peace and security inSouthern Africa should be improved.

• The evaluation team recommends that oneof ficial in any one of the Norwegianembassies in Southern Africa be designatedas the regional programme officer and bethe nodal clearing-house for all Norwegian

aid activity in the field of peace and securityin the SADC region.

14. The Exchange arrangement shouldcontinue.

• It is still important to continue theExchange arrangement, in which militaryand police personnel from Southern Africaparticipate in UN courses in Norway.

15. TfP should become more visible.

• A TfP logo should be established, whichshould be used on posters andpresentations related to the project, by allpartner organisations.

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The Evaluation of Training for Peace

In October 1999 the Royal Norwegian Ministryof Foreign Affairs (MFA) commissioned a Fafo-led team to provide an evaluation of the Trainingfor Peace project (TfP) in the period 1995–1999.The mandate for the evaluation iscomprehensive. It includes an assessment of theactivities and output of TfP in relation to theproject’s stated aims and objectives, anassessment of the relevance of the TfPobjectives, and recommendations of furthercourses of action for Norwegian support. TheTerms of Reference are appended as Annex 1.The Fafo Institute for Applied Social Sciencewas asked to carry out the evaluation with aninternational team of experts handpicked by theMFA. The evaluation team consisted of:

• Lena C. Endresen, Researcher Fafo Oslo(team leader)

• Professor Ramesh Thakur, Vice Rector ofthe UN University in Tokyo (mainevaluator)

• Margaret A. Vogt, Special assistant to theAssistant Secretary General for PoliticalAffairs in the UN Department of PoliticalAffairs (main evaluator)

• Ingvild Skinstad, former co-ordinator of theConflict Resolution Training Programme atthe International Peace Research Institutein Oslo (team member)

• Malehoko Tshoaedi, Researcher Fafo SouthAfrica (team member)

The methodology of the evaluation hasconsisted of documents and literature review,interviews in Norway, South Africa, Zimbabweand the UN headquarters in New York, and asurvey of former participants in TfP courses.The evaluation team made a field study tour toSouth Africa and Zimbabwe for two weeks inJanuary and February 2000. Observation was

made throughout the full length of the two-dayConflict Management for Peacekeepers modulein the UN Military Observers Course at RPTCin February 2000, conducted by ACCORD aspart of their TfP activities.

The evaluation team wants to thank the threeTfP implementing organisations, ACCORD, ISSand NUPI, for their valuable contributions to theevaluation. They have offered crucial insightand assistance in the evaluation process andthey have provided thorough responses to adraft report circulated to them.

The evaluation report consists of seven mainchapters, all addressing dif ferent butinterrelated aspects of the topics covered by theevaluation. Due to the need for brevity, fulljustice has not been done to the entire range ofactivities and experiences gained through TfP.

Introduction

The Training for Peace (TfP) project wasinitiated in the context of changes in the globaland Southern African regional order, and insecurity contexts. Nelson Mandela took over asthe head of the first majority government inSouth Africa after the general election of 1994.That was also the year of genocide in Rwandawhen the world stood silently watching as over500,000 people where massacred within a fewdays. With a history of support for the SouthAfrican struggle for liberation from apartheid,Norway was keen to assist in the process oftransformation of South Africa and itsintegration into its own immediate region. TheSouth African security apparatus was the mostnotorious instrument and symbol of apartheid.The continued demand for peacekeeping inAfrica and beyond provided an opportunity totrain the South African security forces inmodern multifunctional peacekeeping. TfPwould help to transform the South Africandefence force from an instrument ofconfrontation with, and destabilisation of, the

1 Background and Context

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Frontline states into a tool for building acomprehensive approach to security inSouthern Africa. South Africa’s mindset andworldview would be changed from a culture ofconflict to one of co-operation.

The TfP objectives as stated in the originalproject document2 were to:

• develop and conduct a series of trainingprogrammes in order to take part inbuilding a realisable stand-by capacity ofpersonnel within Southern Africa that canbe used in peacekeeping operations;

• include in the training programmesparticipants from the Defence, ForeignAf fairs and NGOs of the interestedcountries in the region in order to facilitateor contribute to the development ofconsistency in approach within these threesectors, as well as an appreciation of thediffering and complementary roles of eachsector;

• include participants from as many of thetwelve3 SADC countries as possible in eachtraining session, and thereby contribute to acommon language and a common culture ofpeacekeeping, that will support collectiveapproaches to security and peacekeepingoperations, as well as ef fective conflictmanagement;

• conduct seminars and workshops todevelop new understanding, knowledge andapproaches that will provide the basis formore effective training and education, aswell as enhance policy making and publicawareness of the challenges involved; and

• promote policy development inpeacekeeping in order to formulate,document, analyse and apply innovativeideas from overseas, as well as local

concepts and techniques, to improvepeacekeeping within the region.

When the project started in late 1995 a firstphase timeframe was set until the end of 1999,i.e. almost five years. Awaiting the evaluation, aninterim period of one additional year has beengranted to the project.

A brief history of TfP

The idea of a TfP project was conceived at theNorwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MFA)and NUPI in 1994–1995. Early in 1995, the FirstPolitical Of fice of the MFA approached theDirector of the newly established NUPI UNProgramme, Mr. Åge Eknes, to discuss thepossibility of having a Norwegian peacekeepingcapacity-building project established inSouthern Africa. In the period that followed,three individuals in particular developed the TfPidea. They were the Director and one Adviserfrom the First Political Office in MFA (CecilieLandsverk and Bård Hopland), and Åge Eknes.In a letter dated May 2 19954 from the MFA tothe UN Programme, the former engaged theUN Programme to design a project for co-operation with South Africa within training forpeacekeeping and in co-operation with theSouth African authorities, and in co-operationwith South African partners, in consultation withMFA and UN/DPKO.

The UN Programme Director and an assistant,Torunn L. Tryggestad (later to become NUPI’sTfP Project Co-ordinator) took the idea further.They consulted with various individuals andorganisations, among them the UN systemthrough DPKO (Sashi Tharoor), the BritishForeign Office, the International Institute forStrategic Studies (IISS) (Mats Berdal), theRoyal Institute of International Affairs (RIIA)(Jack E. Spence), and OAU’s ConflictManagement Centre (Dr. Chris Bakwesegha).

2) The first project document is dated 10 September 1995, and sent as an attachment to the letter “Grant Application: TfP inSouthern Africa”, from NUPI/ACCORD/IDP to MFA.3) The SADC membership has expanded since then to fourteen.4) Letter from MFA to UN Programme at NUPI dated 2 May 1995, signed by Cecilie Landsverk and Bård Hopland for actingDirector Olav Stokke.

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The NUPI team then went on a fact-findingmission to the SADC region 5–16 June 1995.The consultations prior to the trip guided thefact-finding tour. Sashi Tharoor, at that timePolitical Advisor to the Head of the DPKO, KofiAnnan, had visited South Africa in February1995, and compiled a list of non-governmentalorganisations that he considered relevant forpeacekeeping training and development. Basedon this list5 and other consultations, the NUPIteam identified a number of South Africanorganisations that they consulted during thefact-finding mission. The mission’s objectivewas to identify on-going initiatives on PKOtraining in the region, ideas on regional conflictmanagement strategies with regard topeacekeeping (governmental and non-governmental), possible co-operation partners,and possible areas for Norwegian engagement.The team met individuals and organisations inZimbabwe, Botswana, South Africa, SADC, OAUand UN, and concluded in their report (dated 21June 1995) the following:

• The project should be localised in SouthAfrica.

• The project should be placed in anorganisation outside the militaryestablishment, but an organisation that canengage the military establishment in itsactivities, and utilise the competence thatthe military establishment has.

The report concluded that among all theorganisations consulted, ACCORD and IDP inconjunction would provide the best local co-operation partners. IDP was an instituteengaged in facilitating discussions between theopposing armed forces in South Africa and theintroduction of notions of civilian control,representivity and appropriate role definitionsfor the armed forces of a democratic SouthAfrica. ACCORD was a conflict-resolution,activist-oriented, and grass-roots-basedorganisation with a wide network of contacts in

the region. At that time, ACCORD, alone amongthe organisations examined by the NUPI team,had plans for a “School of Peacekeeping”. Theevaluation team learned through its interviewswith the TfP project architects that ACCORD’spolitical connections and backing from the newSouth African regime also were regarded as apositive feature.

After the fact-finding mission and furtherendorsement from the MFA, NUPI, ACCORDand IDP developed a project document. Thedocument refers to UN General Assemblydiscussions on the lessons learned from theUN’s peacekeeping experiences in Somalia,Rwanda and Angola, and called for theenhancement of African capacity in the field ofpeacekeeping at its 49th session in 1994. Itincludes a statement of objectives, a trainingoutline, the agreement between NUPI,ACCORD and IDP regarding TfP, budgets for1996, and for 1997–1999, and presentations ofother organisational elements of TfP, such asagreements regarding joint reporting andauditing. The project document names the threedirectors of the collaborating organisations asthe project’s Steering Committee. It also statesthat an Advisory Board consisting of fiveexperts (from the UN, OAU, the region andNorway) will be established.

It is difficult to assess whether the MFA hadprimarily a regional or a bilateral focus for TfP.TfP was in many ways presented by the MFA asa project for South Africa, but it had a regionalfocus. The First Political Office had severalpolitical objectives they wanted to address withthe project. They wanted to extend a politicalgesture to the new regime in South Africa. Theywanted to help the South African NationalDefence Forces (SANDF) to look at theirfunction in a new way, as their role under theapartheid regime was over, and to enable themto cooperate with neighbouring countries. Thereport from NUPI’s fact-finding mission statesthat the mandate for the mission was primarily

5) The organisations recommended by Sashi Tharoor were the Institute for Democracy in South Africa (IDASA), the AfricanCentre for the Constructive Resolution of Disputes (ACCORD), the Centre for Conflict Resolution (CCR), and the Institute forDefence Policy (IDP), all based in South Africa.

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to assess the situation in South Africa. In theinterviews that the evaluation team conductedwith the MFA and TfP architects the view washeld that one important aspect of TfP was itscontribution to the process of integrating SouthAfrica into the region. After the project wasdesigned, the SADC budget line in NORAD wasidentified as the project’s funding source.

The project itself started in September/October1995. It was launched during the official visit toSouth Africa of the State Secretary fordevelopment co-operation at the time, Mr.Asbjørn Mathisen. In November a workshop tointroduce the TfP project to the SADCcountries, with eleven SADC countries present,was held in South Africa. In March 1996 the firstregional workshop was held, in Zambia.

ISS employed a Project Director, Mark Malan,in January 1996. Simultaneously NUPIemployed Torunn L. Tryggestad as TfP ProjectCo-ordinator6. ACCORD, for its part, did notfind a suitable project director, so Director VasuGounden, with project assistant Hayden Allen,was responsible for TfP within ACCORD, untilApril 1997, when Cedric de Coning wasemployed as Senior Programme Officer for TfPat ACCORD.

The relationship between ACCORD-IDP/ISSand ACCORD-NUPI developed difficulties frommid-1996. After the Tanzania workshop inSeptember 1996 the relationship betweenACCORD and IDP/ISS deteriorated and therelationship between NUPI and ACCORD brokedown. The MFA decided to intervene andconvened a meeting in Pretoria 6–7 November1996 where Adviser Aslak Brun (MFA), Charged’Affairs Aud Marit Wiig (Norwegian EmbassyPretoria), NUPI Director (from 1 January 1997)Sverre Lodgaard, Project Co-ordinator TorunnL. Tryggestad (NUPI), Director Vasu Gounden(ACCORD) and Advisor Jerome Sachane(ACCORD), Director Jakkie Cilliers (IDP) and

Project Director Mark Malan (IDP) andSecretary General Trygve Nordby (NorwegianRefugee Council) participated.

As a result, a new organisation for TfP wascreated, as described in the second projectdocument7. Revisions were made both to theorganisational structure and the projectactivities. On the organisational structure, thetripartite project agreement was replaced with amodel in which NUPI entered into two new andseparate agreements with ACCORD and ISS.Moreover, the Steering Committee, whichconsisted of the directors of ACCORD, IDP andthe project director at NUPI, was replaced bybilateral consultative meetings betweenNUPI/ACCORD and NUPI/ISS. However,NUPI was to summon an annual consultativeand strategic planning meeting withrepresentatives from both partnerorganisations, and from the MFA. TheInternational Advisory Board (which never wasestablished) was replaced by a (Norwegian)Reference Group, consisting of representativesfrom: the MFA, NORAD, the Norwegian ArmedForces International Center (AFIC-N), and theNorwegian Refugee Council (NRC)8. Sincepolice training became part of the main TfPactivities (see below), the Norwegian Police andMinistry of Justice participated in the ReferenceGroup, but this is not referred to in any formaldocument.

On the operational side, the new projectdocument does not state that ISS wascommitted to provide trainers to the ACCORDcourses, but will do so on request. In effect, thenew model divides the work between ACCORDand ISS so that a clearer division ofresponsibilities emerges, in which ACCORDhas the responsibility for the training part of theTfP project, while ISS has the responsibility forresearch and policy development.

6) Tryggestad had been serving as the acting co-ordinator until that time. Towards the end of 1995 the position was announcedand she was employed in accordance with the regular appointment process.7) The revised project document was sent to the MFA from NUPI 12 February 1997.8) The NRC was appointed to keep in touch with NORDEM, in part because Åge Eknes left NUPI for the NRC, and that it wasenvisaged that the NRC could sell expertise to TfP.

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An addition in the second project document isthe Exchange arrangement, in which it issuggested that personnel from the SADC regionshould be invited to attend UN training coursesconducted by the AFIC-N and the NationalPolice Academy in Norway. This “training oftrainers” model should include up to eightparticipants from Southern Africa per yearthrough a cost-sharing model9.

SADC: conflict resolutions andpeacekeeping in the 1990s

The founding of SADC at the Southern AfricanDevelopment Co-ordination Conference(SADCC) summit in 1992 shaped newframeworks for the development of regional co-operation and conflict resolution in SouthernAfrica. The ten member countries: Angola,Botswana, Lesotho, Malawi, Mozambique,Namibia, Swaziland, Tanzania, Zambia andZimbabwe, signed a treaty converting SADCCfrom an organisation co-ordinating regionaldevelopment projects into a developmentcommunity with the aim of promoting social andeconomic development by intensifying regionalco-operation.10 South Africa joined SADC afterthe demise of apartheid in 1994 and theDemocratic Republic of Congo became amember in 1998. By 2000, Mauritius and theSeychelles have also joined. SADC operates insectors, with each sector assigned to oversee amember state. The region also has an Inter-State Defence and Security Committee(ISDSC), which provides a platform formembers to collaborate on issues ofintelligence, defence, cross-border crimes andpolicing. The ISDSC was established in 1975 asa substructure of the Frontline States. SADC isserved by a small administrative secretariatbased in Botswana, under an ExecutiveSecretary whose role has remained moreadministrative than political.

The establishment of SADC and the subsequentdissolution of the Frontline States were

designed to reflect the new dispensation createdby the end of apartheid and to integrate SouthAfrica fully into the fold. SADC set up the“SADC Organ on Politics, Defence andSecurity” in 1996, opting for a “two-column”political-institutional structure with thecomplete development agenda under the SADCumbrella as before, and political and securitymatters as a separate column. The controversyon how to relate to the political and securityagenda of SADC initially centred on whetherthis was to be treated as a sector, assigned toZimbabwe to organise and lead, but reporting toSADC through its Chair, then South Africa, orwhether Security and Defence issues should behandled by a separate structure, following thelines of the Frontline States, but operating andreporting through a separate SADC Summitrather than under the responsibility of onemember-state such as the other SADC sectors.The ISDSC was incorporated as an institutioninto the organ. Further tensions wereexperienced over the leadership of the SADCOrgan between Zimbabwe’s President Mugabe,who was elected the first SADC OrganChairman on the one hand, and South AfricanPresident Mandela, who had been electedSADC Chairman. At the SADC 1997 Summit,the two disagreed on the autonomy of the organ,which led to a standstill in its development. Thematter was left to the ad-hoc committee ofSADC Ministers to resolve. This developmenthas greatly slowed any progress in the attemptto institutionalise the defence and securityaspects of the SADC.

Southern Africa has made progress in manyareas in building regional co-operation and jointsecurity during the 1990s. The transition todemocracy in South Africa, the peaceagreement in Mozambique, and a strengtheningof the regional commitment to seek politicalsolutions to intra-regional conflicts are allillustrations of important changes in the region.Progress has, however, been uneven and wehave seen setbacks with increased tension and

9) NUPI covers travel costs, whereas the Norwegian Army and Police cover in-country costs.10) See Meyns, Peter. 1999 Political Integration: Whither Southern Africa?, and Singh, Meena, (ed.). 1995 Redefining Security inSouthern Africa. Common Security Forum: Centre for History and Economics.

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violent intra-regional conflicts in some areas,with the region unable to provide a cohesivestand. SADC members were unable to agree ona common stand over the management ofconflicts in Lesotho and the DemocraticRepublic of Congo (DRC), for example. In thecase of Angola, where there is a common SADCposition against UNITA, some of the membersare accused of turning a blind eye to UNITAcross-border activities. The conflict in the DRCfurther divided the SADC members, many ofwhom deployed troops to the DRC in support ofthe government of President Kabila, while somewere accused of being sympathetic to the DRCrebels.

The Summit in Maputo in August 1999, and thetransfer of the SADC Chair to Mozambique,may provide a new political momentum toseriously address the controversy over thetreatment of regional security issues. TheMaputo Summit decided not only to remove theExecutive Secretary on the basis of an alleged

lack of competence, but also repeated its call fora complete review of the way SADC functions,and to recommend ways of further regionalisingand institutionalising the organisation, includingthe management of its various sectors. Ininterviews at the Zimbabwean and SouthAfrican ministries of Foreign Affairs, seniorofficials expressed clear confidence that theproblem with the SADC Organ may soon beresolved, referring to the progress report of thecommittee charged with the restructuring andreview of all SADC institutions, which wassubmitted to the Council of Ministers at theirmeeting in Swaziland on February 17, 2000.The positive optimism over the future of theorgan in both capitals visited by the evaluationteam, as well as the growing convergence ofviews in the region with respect to themanagement of the conflict in the DRC set bythe Lusaka Accord on the DRC, and in Angola,makes one hopeful that the organ will indeed beinstitutionalised.

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Introduction

The TfP project design is one of a tripartitestructure of implementing organisations,consisting of NUPI, ACCORD and ISS. On theNorwegian side, the MFA and NORAD are theresponsible actors. AFIC-N, the NorwegianPolice and Ministry of Justice, and theNorwegian Refugee Council have participatedin the TfP Reference Group, and provideresource persons and other input to the project,but do not provide direct policy direction orinfluence the framework of TfP.

The TfP activities have been divided in two maincategories, training and policy development.This is the distinction used in the originalproject document and it is still valid. However, amore detailed description of activities hasemerged, and in the project’s annual reports,activities are now as a rule divided into fourcategories; training, policy development,research and publications and advocacy. Belowboth TfP actors and activities are described insome detail.

TfP Actors

The Royal Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs

(MFA) and the Norwegian Agency for Development

Cooperation (NORAD)

In the Royal Norwegian Ministry of ForeignAffairs, two departments, the Department ofSecurity Policy, and the Bilateral Department,through its Africa Desk, are involved with TfP.The project, as other projects related topeacekeeping, is the responsibility of theDepartment of Security Policy (former FirstPolitical Office). The Africa Desk does not haveany formal position, such as instructionauthority or funds, with respect to TfP. Theproject, however, comes under their area of

concern, as the Desk is responsible for theNorwegian policy formulation for SADC, andthe Desk is invited to TfP’s Reference Group.TfP, then, has one potential “home” based on athematic classification and another based on ageographic classification in the MFA. TheNorwegian embassies in Southern Africa11 donot have a formal position with respect to TfP.

TfP is funded under NORAD’s SADC budget.NORAD transfers the project funds to NUPI,which in turn transfers the funds to ACCORDand ISS.12 NORAD receives the reports onfunds spent and the activities under TfP andoversees the administration and progress of theproject. NORAD manages this responsibility inco-operation with the Department of SecurityPolicy in the MFA, and is represented in the TfPReference Group.

TfP was the first Norwegian project on securitypolicy in SADC to be financed through adevelopment budget. The appreciation thatpeace, security and development are inter-related has grown in NORAD during the early1990s, and is now firmly rooted in the institutionand its policies, including its policy on supportto SADC countries.

Implementing Organisations

In Oslo, TfP is run by the “UN Programme13” atNUPI. NUPI is regarded as the leading researchinstitute in Norway on peacekeeping issues.The UN Programme was established in 1994. Itis an applied research program dedicated topolicy research on peacekeeping, conflictresolution and conflict prevention, and post-conflict peacebuilding. The UN Programmereceives its core funding from the MFA andindividual project funding, amongst others, fromthe Ministry of Defence, the NorwegianResearch Council and international sources.

2 Description of Training for Peace

11) Norway is represented by an embassy in the following SADC countries: Angola, Malawi, Mozambique, South Africa, Tanzania,Zambia and Zimbabwe.12) This is a somewhat unusual model in Norwegian development assistance, as NORAD usually seeks to transfer the fundsdirectly to the implementing organisation in the recipient country.13) The UN Programme on Peacekeeping and Multilateral Operations.

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The mandate of the UN Programme is, inaddition to concentrating broadly on theconcept of “wider peacekeeping”, to focus onNorwegian participation in internationaloperations. As a consequence of the latter muchof the research in the 1990s has beengeographically concentrated on the Balkans.

ISS is an applied social science researchinstitute based in Pretoria, with a smaller officein Cape Town. The institute was originallyestablished as the Institute for Defence Studies(IDP) in 1991, and is a non-profit trust. Since1991 ISS has grown in size, scope andorientation. Today it employs approximately 40people, has an international network bothregionally and globally, and is among the largeststrategic studies institutes in Africa. The annualbudget is approximately 26 million ZAR. TfP,then, currently accounts for less than four percent of its budget. ISS’ mission, as stated in itspresentations, is to conceptualise, inform andenhance the security debate in Africa. TfPcomprises the main substance of ISS’ PeaceMissions Programme, one of seven mainprogrammes at the institute. The institutepublishes extensively, with about 60–70different publications per year. ISS is presentlyraising funds from various governments toestablish a network of African applied policyinstitutes for conflict management in variousAfrican sub-regions.

ACCORD was established in 1992 as anEducational Trust, with the primary objective toprovide a mechanism to deal with conflictsarising out of the transition from apartheid todemocratic governance in South Africa. Since1992, ACCORD has grown in size, scope andorientation. When the organisation undertookTfP in 1995 it had approximately 5 employeesand an annual budget of 2 million ZAR. In 1999,ACCORD employed 26 full-time employees, andhad an annual budget of approximately 10million ZAR.

The three implementing organisations aredescribed in more detail in Chapters 3 and 7.

TfP Activities

A broad range of activities has been conductedunder TfP by all three implementingorganisations. The training and policydevelopment activities under the TfP project canbe summarised as follows:

• 1 workshop to launch TfP

• 11 TfP workshops (in-country trainingworkshops)

• 16 policy seminars/conferences

• 9 smaller seminars or presentations

• 2 United Nations Police Officers Courses(UNPOC)

• 3 conflict management courses forpeacekeepers at RPTC

• 1 Civilian-Military Liaison Officers Course(CIMIC) at RPTC

• Participation in a major regionalpeacekeeping field exercise (Exercise BlueCrane)

• 21 military and police personnel from theSADC region have participated in UNtraining courses in Norway under TfP’sExchange arrangement.

The TfP Workshop, or Regional PeacekeepingTraining Workshop, represents one core activityunder the TfP project. By 1998, the TfPWorkshop had been arranged in eleven out of 14SADC countries. The security environment inAngola and the DRC has not been conducive toholding workshops in these two countries, whilethe needs of Seychelles can be met in SADCworkshops.

The first six TfP workshops (in Zambia,Mozambique, Zimbabwe, Tanzania, Mauritiusand Botswana) were three-day workshops. Inresponse to the feedback from participants, itwas decided to prolong the workshop and a five-day format was introduced in 1997. The longer

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duration allowed for the inclusion of modules onconflict management, preventive diplomacy andpost-conflict reconstruction, and for moremodules on the various multi-disciplinarycomponents and roles within modern peaceoperations.

The TfP workshops have been attended by onaverage 25 participants from the foreign anddefence ministries, the police forces and NGOs.In total, 272 representatives, of them 45 women,from the various organisations and institutionshave been trained through these workshops.The table below shows the participants bysector and gender.

Sectors Foreign Police Defence Civilian Other G’ment Total Female MaleAffairs Society representatives

Country

Zambia (1996) 7 1 5 8 2 23 5 18

Mozambique (1996) 7 7 3 5 22 3 19

Zimbabwe (1996) 7 1 7 9 2 26 3 23

Tanzania (1996) 5 2 7 11 25 5 20

Mauritius (1996) 2 20 5 27 3 24

Botswana (1997) 6 5 1 9 2 23 5 18

Namibia (1997) 7 5 6 7 25 3 22

Malawi (1997) 6 5 6 10 27 3 24

Lesotho (1998) 4 2 5 14 25 8 17

Swaziland (1998) 4 3 5 10 22 5 17

South Africa (1998) 4 4 7 8 2 25 4 21

Total 59 48 56 96 13 272 45 227

Table 2.1. Participants in TfP Workshops 1996–1998

In addition to the participants in the TfPworkshops, approximately 570 people havebeen trained in other TfP training activities. Thenumber will depend on how training is defined,but includes people who have participated in aTfP activity with an element of training. Ofthese, approximately 62 policemen have beentrained in the two UNPOC courses.Approximately 1130 people have attendedseminars and conferences organised under theTfP project. In total, approximately 1930 peoplehave participated in seminars and trainingunder TfP.

Resource persons have been provided from andby the TfP implementing organisations. Thetraining method is one of modules, case studiesand syndicate exercises that introduce

participants to conflict management, preventivediplomacy, multifunctional PKOs, the politicaland civilian dimensions of PKOs, human rightsand humanitarian dimensions, genderperspectives and peacebuilding.

The initial generic courses have been followedby a second generation of TfP courses (since1998). These have been targeted more oncivilian and military co-operation and conflictmanagement for company commanders, staffofficers, police officers and military observers.This implies more specialised training coursesaimed at homogeneous groups of participantsfrom the military and the civilian sectors.

Both ACCORD and ISS observed the first SADCpeacekeeping field training exercise that was

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held in Zimbabwe in 1997, Operation BlueHungwe, when they were among the few NGOsinvited to participate. They also playedimportant roles in the planning andimplementation of the second SADCpeacekeeping endeavour, Exercise Blue Crane,that was held in South Africa in 1999. ACCORDwas requested by the South African NationalDefence Force (SANDF) to design, plan and co-ordinate the civilian aspects of the exercise.ACCORD selected the civilian participants, andintegrated and managed the civilian contingent.ACCORD was also given the responsibility oforganising the seminar on “The Blue CraneLessons Learned” in Pretoria in July 1999.Norwegian resource persons participated bothin the planning phase and during the exerciseitself, through TfP.

ACCORD has since followed up on this byconcentrating its training on the development ofcivilian and NGO components of peacekeepingmissions and by focusing particularly oncivilian-military relations, especially the trainingof the military at the RPTC in conflict resolutionskills and on the appropriate methods forrelating to civilian staf f and NGOs in peacemissions. ACCORD has thus developed a nichefor itself as the organisation in the region that isin the frontline of enhancing civilianparticipation in PKOs and in facilitating theinter face between the civilian and militarycomponents and relations in PKOs.Furthermore, ACCORD has hosted a seminaron the development of the SADC Organ amongregional policy implementers and internationalexperts.

ISS has arranged a number of seminars onissues related to peacekeeping. ISS training hasbeen focussed on civilian police (CIVPOL) and

is conducted on an agency basis for SARPPCOin Harare. Two UN Police Officers Courses(UNPOC) were conducted, one in 1998 and onein 1999 in collaboration with NUPI. The ISS wasalso responsible for the CIVPOL component ofExercise Blue Crane. The TfP Director at ISShas also participated in training as a resourceperson in the RPTC in Harare, and at the variousmilitary staff colleges, both in South Africa andZimbabwe. ISS also provided support to the1999 Exercise Pegasus, which is the PSOmodule of the senior command and staf fcourses in the SANDF.

Under the Exchange arrangement, 21representatives from Southern Africa haveparticipated in UN Courses in Norway. Anoverview of the Exchange arrangementparticipants is provided in Annex 4. The mainrationale for the arrangement is a “train-the-trainers” principle. Furthermore, the Exchangearrangement provides an excellent opportunityfor officers from the SADC region and Nordicof ficers to be introduced to a multinationalapproach to peace missions.

Annex 4 lists all the core training activitiesconducted under TfP. The project has alsoproduced a substantial amount of research andpublications, which are evaluated in Chapter 4and listed in Annex 3. In addition to theseactivities the TfP project staff have contributedarticles, papers, presentations and training for anumber of activities (seminars, workshops,conferences) locally, regionally andinternationally which are not funded by the TfPproject directly.

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Introduction

The administration of TfP is complex. On theNorwegian side, the MFA, NORAD and NUPIall have their share of control and responsibilityfor the project. Within the MFA, two units, theDepartment of Security Policy and the AfricaDesk, have TfP as part of their area of interest.The Department of Security Policy isresponsible for TfP. NORAD, for its part,handles the funds, but has limited control overthe project. The Norwegian embassies inSouthern Africa do not have a formal position inthe TfP administration. The NorwegianEmbassy in Pretoria has been informallyinvolved when ISS and ACCORD contact themoccasionally, and through the Ministercounsellor the embassy has been kept informedof the TfP project in general. The embassy hasalso participated in all project’s annualmeetings. With no formal position within TfP,however, the embassy does not provide input tothe project direction, and neither do any of theother embassies in the region.

TfP then, to some extent, falls between twostools with regard to Norwegian authority. Ininterviews with the evaluation team, some of theactors, both from Norway and from SouthAfrica, have expressed that they have feltunsure of the division of responsibilities andauthority of the Norwegian actors (MFA -NORAD - NUPI), and that they occasionally findthat Norwegian policy on TfP is lacking.

On the operational side, the partnershipenvisaged in the original project design has notmaterialised. In reality, the institutional linkshave taken the form of a parallel arrangementbetween ACCORD and NUPI on the one hand,and ISS and NUPI on the other. The lack of co-operation between the two South Africanorganisations has affected the project negativelywhen it comes to its visibility and image. Forexample, the “Peacekeeping TrainingWorkshop” package prepared by ACCORDgives prominent acknowledgement to “Trainingfor Peace”. It also lists joint af filiation of

ACCORD and NUPI, but does not mention ISSat all. The ef fectiveness of TfP has beenhampered by the lack of co-ordination,consultation and collaboration by the two SouthAfrican partners in the sense that TfP does notoperate as a single coherent project. At the sametime, the division of responsibilities outlined inthe original TfP project documents, in whichACCORD primarily provides training and ISSprimarily concentrates on the development ofdoctrines, concepts and peacekeeping policyanalysis, has, though somewhat blurred,remained the main division of labour, and hasaccounted for a forceful implementation of theproject. The fact that the project continues torun smoothly along the two tracks defined andwith the division of responsibility it has isattributable to the careful ef for ts of NUPI,especially its TfP Co-ordinator, Torunn L.Tryggestad, who carefully negotiated betweenthe two organisations, providing support andtheoritical background for their activities andsmoothing the path for them in Norway, withoutattempting to dictate the direction of the project.

The decision to use the two South Africaninstitutions over-emphasised the needs of theinternal South African capacity and diluted theneeds of a regional approach and capacity forpeacekeeping operations. Possibly the TfPdesigners assumed that regional securitymanagement issues would be treated as a SADCSector, following the traditional structure ofSADC whereby issues are grouped into sectorsand assigned to a particular member state tochair and manage. This was not to be the caseas defence and regional security was initiallyassigned to Zimbabwe to oversee, at least for aperiod. The ensuing controversy within SADCon how best to manage the defence and securityissues became problematic and divisive. Thisfurther complicated, from a regionalperspective, the choice of the two South Africanorganisations as a vehicle for a regional TfP.

The evaluation exercise clearly indicates thatthe two South African organisations have grown

3 Administration, Management and Effectiveness

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tremendously in the last five years. TfP wasbegun late in 1995. In 1996 it accounted forabout one-sixth of the ISS and ACCORDbudgets. In 1999, in contrast, TfP accounted for7 per cent of ACCORD’s and less than 4 per centof ISS’ budget. Both organisations havedeveloped programmes and capacities whichfurther enhance their ability to fulfil theobjectives of TfP, they have both developed aninstitutional framework to administer andmanage the project in an effective way.

NUPI

According to NUPI, two concepts, “regionalownership” and “train the trainers”, have guidedand informed their administration andmanagement on TfP. These two concepts are inline with the of ficial Norwegian policy withregard to development co-operation during the1990s.

Nevertheless, NUPI played a rather dominatingrole in the early TfP activities both in terms ofdeciding on the content of the workshopprogrammes and in terms of who should givepresentations. The former NUPI/UNProgramme Director, Åge Eknes, wasundoubtedly the driving force behind theproject in the early days. NUPIs role wasparticularly important during the period beforeACCORD appointed a TfP Project Director andACCORD and ISS were both in the process ofbuilding competence in a field new to them. Inthis early phase it can be argued that the policyguidelines and directives from NUPI were strict– some might argue too strict and possiblyimposing. The conflict within the project thaterupted in the autumn of 1996 was related to theleadership role taken by the UN ProgrammeDirector.

From 1997 onwards NUPI’s involvement hasgradually been more focused on the core co-ordinating activities whereas decision makingwith regard to planning and projectdevelopment has been increasingly left to thepartners. Whereas NUPI staff in 1996 could takeresponsibility for up to ten presentations at oneworkshop, together with facilitation of

discussions in both plenary and breakawaygroups, the role and responsibilities of NUPIstaf f have been reduced at the latest TfPworkshops and courses. This is a consequenceof the increasing ability of the African partnersto assume greater responsibility for the trainingprogrammes. The evaluation team considersthis evolution as a positive development, and arecognition of the growing African capacity inthis field.

Particularly with regard to civilian police forpeace missions (CIVPOL), the NUPI role hasbeen pivotal to the success of the activitiesundertaken since 1998. In the field of trainingand preparing of CIVPOL, Norway hasdeveloped professional training courses whichmeet UN standards. Whereas the Norwegianinstructor input was quite heavy during the firstUNPOC and the CIVPOL component ofExercise Blue Crane, their role as resourcepersons had been considerably reduced at thelast UNPOC organised in November/December1999. Provision of resource persons, eitherNUPI staff or staff identified through NUPI’swide network nationally and internationally,accounts for a considerable amount of theresources NUPI provide to TfP. During theperiod of the TfP project, 20 resource personswere provided by NUPI (including project co-ordinators) at 26 TfP activities. These resourcepersons were responsible for more than 100presentations and instructor lessons and havebeen actively involved in the planning andimplementation of the various training activities(programme, curriculum, chaired sessions,moderators of group discussions etc.). Annex 5gives an overview of resource persons providedby NUPI for TfP activities in Southern Africa.Again, this is a clear indication of NUPI’ssuccess in playing an effective facilitating role,and in integrating specialist resources, drawninternationally, into TfP. Again the efforts of theNUPI TfP Co-ordinator, Torunn L. Tryggestad,and the UN Programme Director, Epsen BarthEide, have been critical in this regard. NUPIhas successfully integrated some of its otherprogrammes into TfP, putting some of its in-house resources at the disposal of TfP.

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Because of its location at NUPI’s UNProgramme, the TfP project has had the benefitof drawing from the experience and expertise ofa wide range of researchers, both with regard totraining and policy development. Even thoughmuch of the research at the UN Programme inthe 1990s focused on the conflicts in theBalkans, many of the lessons learned are alsoapplicable to an African environment. But theUN Programme has also been engaged inresearch of generic relevance to peaceoperations. NUPI staf f have been invited asresource persons to TfP activities in theircapacities as experts on among other issues:Nordic peacekeeping co-operation, the conflictin the Balkans, European securityorganisations, security sector reform, the role ofcivilian police in peace operations, gender andpeacekeeping, early warning and preventiveaction and UN peacekeeping policies.

Since 1997, NUPI has also been responsible forco-ordinating the Exchange arrangement bywhich seats at Norwegian UN courses formilitary and police personnel are made availablefor participants from the Southern Africanregion. This has allowed up to eight persons ayear to attend such courses (four at policecourses and four at military courses – two seatsat each course). The Norwegian governmentcovers the costs through the variousimplementing partners. The NUPI respons-ibility has been to assist the Norwegian DefenceForce and the Norwegian Police in theidentification and selection of qualifiedparticipants, as well as to cover travel costs.Over the years, NUPI has gradually delegatedthe selection responsibilities away from the TfPpartners to regional institutions such as theRPTC and the SARPCCO. Nonetheless, theoverall co-ordinating responsibility, for theExchange arrangement and for TfP in generalremains with NUPI.

ACCORD

In the five years of the TfP project ACCORD hasbecome recognised in the SADC region as oneof the frontline institutions and resource centersfor peacekeeping training. The organisation has

regionalised the training, especially since 1996,through courses that have been conducted inseveral countries in the region. ACCORD’s roleis particularly well regarded in the region forthe emphasis provided to the training of civilianresources for peacekeeping and for thepromotion of better understanding of civilian-military relations in peace missions. Theorganisation has a credible reputation in theregion among those producing ideas for andimplementing programmes on regionalpeacekeeping planning.

As a TfP implementing organisation, however,there are certain areas in which there is roomfor improvement in ACCORD. Firstly, ACCORDhas yet to fully develop an appropriate internalcapacity to effectively conduct these trainingprogrammes; it is not sufficiently and effectivelyintegrated into other programmes conducted byACCORD. The recent inclusion of conflictmanagement training is a step in the rightdirection. The increasing co-ordination ofef for ts between the peacekeeping trainingprogramme and the conflict resolutionprogramme has added value to ACCORD’sapproach and input. Ideally, ACCORD shouldseek to strengthen and expand such integrationof its programmes. While acknowledging thecontribution of the trainer in conflict resolution,Ms. Ogunsanya, the involvement of Mr. KweziMngquibisa is also a positive move. A seniorfellow with well-established regional andinternational credentials in peacekeeping wouldstrengthen the staf f. This will become moreimportant if the TfP project is expected tocontinue to conduct broad-based regionalcourses, or a new round of in-country courses inall SADC member states. Capacity inadequaciesat ACCORD may affect the quality of training,even given the fact that external resourcepersons conduct the courses.

Secondly, while ACCORD is right to rely moreon expertise external to the organisation andavailable in the region for the conduct of itstraining seminars, the structure of theprogramme remains tentative and thecurriculum could be developed further. Todaytoo much is left to the discretion and presumed

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expertise of the resource persons, resulting in alack of consistency in the quality and content ofits courses.

Thirdly, the training programmes conducted byACCORD are short, and can only providesufficient time for generalised orientation on thebroad concepts of international and regionalsecurity and peacekeeping. The participants atthe ACCORD seminars will require further,more specialised training to effectively preparethem for peacekeeping operations. In a possiblenext phase of TfP, consideration will have to begiven to longer and more structured courses,using carefully designed curricula and a facultythat is drawn from across the region.

Despite these concerns, the potential forACCORD’s role in TfP training remains high.Of particular importance is the decision tofocus, in a possible next phase of TfP, on civiliantraining and on civilian-military relations.ACCORD is an institution with particularexpertise in this field, especially in the pivotalrole it played in the organisation of OperationBlue Crane. Its gradually expanding regionalnetwork and acceptance, all of which makeACCORD well positioned to conduct this projectin a next phase, further buttress this.

ACCORD has also been engaged in thedevelopment of doctrines and concepts ofpeacekeeping operations in the region. Apartfrom facilitating the integration of the civiliancomponent in Exercise Blue Crane, theACCORD TfP manager participated in theSecond conference of the Chiefs of Staff of theOAU Central Organ in Harare in 1997.ACCORD also contributed to the conceptualdevelopment of the White Paper on SouthAfrican Participation in International PeaceMissions. Over the years, ACCORD has soughtto encourage the use of its platform by Africanpolicy formulators and thinkers in the area ofconflict management. It is envisaged thatACCORD will do more on the civilian-military

aspects of training in the region apart from itsinterest in developing a niche in civilian training.

ISS

ISS is one of the best-endowed andprofessionally managed institutes in the region.In addition to TfP, ISS runs six otherprogrammes which have become flagshipprogrammes in their own right. 14 These cancomplement and enhance the value of the TfPproject in ISS. While ISS’ TfP project is not atraining programme, the TfP Director at ISS iswell integrated into peacekeeping training in theregion, through participation as a resourceperson at the RPTC in Harare, at the variousmilitary staff colleges, both in South Africa andZimbabwe, and in the training of civilian police,especially in the two UN Police Of ficersCourses (UNPOC), held in 1998 and 1999. ISSparticipated in the two regional peacekeepingtraining exercises Blue Hungwe and Blue Craneand helped in the planning of Exercise BlueCrane. Furthermore, ISS plans to support andparticipate in the development of peacekeepingtraining at the University of Witwatersrand inSouth Africa.15

ISS’ most important contribution to thedevelopment of peacekeeping capacity has beenin the evolution of doctrine and concepts ofoperations. ISS played a central role in thepreparation of the South African White Paper onDefence and contributed major aspects of theWhite Paper on South African Participation inInternational Peace Mission. Interviewsconducted confirmed the reliance of both theMinistries of Defence and Foreign Affairs on theintellectual contribution of the TfP Director atISS to the development of policy, to defencepolicy planning, especially in peace missions,and to defence training. One interlocutor in thedefence ministry confirmed that ISScontributed tremendously to the regionalisationof thinking in the South African defence

14) The remaining six programmes are: Arms Management, African Peace and Stability, Corruption and Governance, OrganisedCrime, Africa Early Warning, and Crime, Policing and Prevention Programme.15) The University of Witwatersrand Graduate School of Public and Development Management is about to establish a DefenceManagement Programme with funding from DANIDA.

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establishment through providing them with abetter appreciation of South Africa’s role in theAfrican region. It is this kind of orientation thatwill make it possible for South Africa to committo regional peacekeeping.

As a TfP implementing organisation, however,there are certain problematic issues relating tothe perceptions of ISS. Given the strainedrelations between Zimbabwe and South Africa,ISS is sometimes perceived as assumingpartisan positions on issues relating to peaceand security in the region, particularly inZimbabwe. The evaluation team found in theinterviews that many actors recognise thetremendous resources ISS possesses and theexpertise of its personnel, but treat ISS withcautious pragmatism.

However, all those who held this view of ISS arequick to exempt TfP project Director MarkMalan from this assessment; they had thehighest regard for his contribution andindicated that they would continue to refer toand use his expertise.

Given the implication of this view of ISS for thefuture of TfP, especially if a possible next phaseis to see a greater regionalisation of the project,and given the tremendous facility and expertisethat is resident at ISS, the evaluation teamdecided to pursue this issue further with ISS.Feedback to ISS revealed that they were quiteaware of this view, though they argued that asan independent research institute and not aconflict-resolution organisation, and given thevolatility within SADC, these perceptions wereto be expected.

The problematic issues with the perceptions ofISS do not lie with TfP but may be a result of theactivities of other ISS programmes that throughthe information they issue sometimes present aperception of an organisation that is negativeabout Africa. A greater integration of the outputof all of ISS’ programmes could soften this

perception and would benefit TfP. For example,the Arms Management Programme can helpTfP to evolve doctrines on disarmament andsmall-arms control in peace missions.

Even its strongest critics have acknowledgedthat ISS is an invaluable organisation that hasprovided useful seminars and workshops andhas enhanced the development of knowledgeand understanding in peacekeeping operations.The evaluation team believes that ISS canremain a valuable partner in TfP.

Cost Effectiveness

It is beyond the scope of this evaluation toexamine financial transactions and projectspending in detail. However, in the following thespending will be described and assessed withregard to the achievements of the programme.TfP had a five-year funding timeframe beginningin October 1995. The initial budget was NOK11.3 million (at the time USD 1.7 million). Overthe five years of operation, the budget has beenexpanded by 15 per cent to NOK 12,904,480. Inaddition, NOK 998,300 has been transferredfrom NORAD to specific supplementalprojects16.

The annual TfP budget is approximately NOK 3million. This amount has been divided more orless equally between NUPI, ACCORD and ISS,based on their proposed plans and budgets forthe year. A main expense (39 per cent) consistsof salaries for the TfP ProgrammeDirectors/Co-ordinators in each of theorganisations. ACCORD and ISS both have afull-time Programme Director and an assistantfinanced by the TfP budget, while NUPI has afull-time Project Co-ordinator.

The funds have been channelled from NORADto NUPI, which has, in turn, transferred thefunds to ACCORD and ISS. The two SouthAfrican organisations have provided NUPI withaudited financial statements, and statements

16) The supplemental projects were “Beyond the Emergency” in March 1996 (NOK 380,010) “Role of Civilian Police in ArmedConflict” in February 1998 (NOK 122,940), “UNPOC II” in 1999 (NOK 107,350) and “Blue Crane” in 1998/1999 (NOK 388,000).Source: Telefax from NORAD to NUPI dated 28 March 2000.

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from all three organisations have beensubmitted in annual reports to NORAD. Table3.1 indicates how the funds have been spent17.

ISS and ACCORD have, as a rule, submittedfinancial statements in ZAR, while NUPI’sreports are based in NOK. It has been difficultto produce exact figures in the table (3.1 ) dueto the three currencies involved, and the factthat the currency rates change and havechanged continuously over the TfP period. Thefinancial management of TfP is also complicatedbecause of this, a point that has been reportedto the evaluation team by the NUPI Project Co-ordinator. It has proved dif ficult for theevaluation team to get exact data on the fundsspent for this reason and also because thefinancial statements vary in structure betweenthe three implementing organisations and alsofrom year to year. To isolate funds spent, forexample, on training is difficult because trainingcarries dif ferent headings in the statements,and because the statements are based on broadcategories. “Programme cost”, then, is acategory used by ACCORD that covers variousexpenses involved in the training provided(accommodation, conference fees, travel andper diem for the participants, trainer fees,resource persons and support staff). Overhead,as another example, is given as a separate figurein ISS’ statements (in the table below it has beenadded to the “Salaries and benefits” column), inNUPI’s statements overhead is included as partof the salary, and in ACCORD’s statements it isinvisible. The financial reporting routines

should be improved so that the spendingbecomes more accessible and transparent.

Approximately 1970 Southern Africans haveparticipated in seminars and training inpeacekeeping through TfP. In total 842 of thesehave gone through some kind of TfP training.Considering these numbers and the broadrange of activities that has been conducted, thefunds spent are relatively modest.

ACCORD has attempted to calculate the costs ofthe training provided through the TfPWorkshops. All the TfP Workshops in 1996 andthe first one in 1997 were three-day workshops.It was then decided to change the format to afive-day workshop. Simultaneously theworkshops were changed from residential tonon-residential. ACCORD has calculated thetotal cost of the 1996 TfP three-day workshopsto be on average NOK 160,135 (111,983 ZAR)18.During 1998, ACCORD conducted three five-day TfP Workshops at a cost of on average NOK236,325 (ZAR 149,573)19.

There are two problem areas with the currentway of financial reporting in TfP: First, thereporting is not activity-based. With reportingbased on the activities conducted under theproject it would be possible to manage,administer and assess the output of the projectin a more efficient way. Second, the reportingdoes not follow an identical set up for theimplementing organisations.

17) Exchange rates used are: 1995: 1 ZAR = NOK 1.90 1996: 1 ZAR = NOK 1.43 1997: 1 ZAR = NOK 1.37 1998: 1 ZAR = NOK 1.58,1998: 1 USD = NOK 7.41 (ISS financial statement for 1998 is in USD) 1999: 1 ZAR = NOK 1.32.18) The total cost for the TfP Workshops in 1996 amounted to ZAR 559 917.64 (figures provided by ACCORD).19) The total cost for the TfP Workshops in 1998 amounted to ZAR 448,719.02 (figures provided by ACCORD).

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Table 3.1. Allocation of funds spent 1995–1999 in NOK (Source: TfP Annual Reports)

1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 Total % of total

Salaries NUPI 224 963 489 646 365 830 492 553 522 157 2 095 149

ACCORD 8 934 210 587 255 144 344 844 398 476 1 217 985

ISS 2 850 311 915 408 268 537 486 579 740 1 840 259

Total 236 747 1 012 148 1 029 242 1 374 883 1 500 373 5 153 393 39.3 %

Capital expenditures NUPI 39 073 87 453 3 600 3 816 13 242 147 184

ACCORD 25 796 14 300 20 998 28 593 13 188 102 875

ISS 60 800 - - - - 60 800

Total 125 669 101 753 24 598 32 409 - 284 429 2.2 %

Travel and seminars NUPI 286 646 298 199 584 845

(TfP personnel) ACCORD 4 838 27 264 18 594 22 105 25 684 98 485

ISS 1 580 2 137 28 699 - 32 416

Total 293 064 327 600 18 594 50 804 25 684 715 746 5.5 %

Travel and seminars NUPI 113 519 232 143 223 765 569 427

(“Programme costs”) ACCORD 100 849 675 534 449 635 755 702 731 813 2 713 533

ISS 217 903 484 362 912 581 684 412 2 299 258

Total 100 849 893 437 1 047 516 1 900 426 1 639 990 5 582 218 42.5 %

Indirect costs NUPI -

(office supplies, office ACCORD 16 878 143 463 108 558 163 329 153 593 585 821

rental, audit, etc) ISS 16 588 16 588

Total 16 878 160 051 108 558 163 329 153 593 602 409 4.6 %

Exchange arrangement NUPI 58 073 129 423 27 568 214 964 1.6 %

Publication and research ISS 148 720 105 192 169 785 86 787 510 484 3.9 %

Networking NUPI 26 601 31 341 7 950 65 892 0.5 %

Total 773 207 2 643 709 2 418 374 3 852 400 3 441 845 13 129 535 100 %

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Both ACCORD and ISS have produced anextensive range and list of publicationsoriginating from TfP-related work and activities.Annex 4 gives a comprehensive picture of therange of material published by the twoorganisations under the auspices of TfP. Annex3 provides the references of the publicationsconsulted for this chapter.

ACCORD publishes an Occasional Paper seriesand the magazine Conflict Trends, and has justlaunched a new journal, African Journal onConflict Resolution. ISS publishes OccasionalPapers, Monographs and the journal AfricanSecurity Review. Although not everythingpublished in these outlets originates from TfP,the project has generated a substantial body ofliterature that is considered to be reader-friendly and useful by the intended targetaudience.

The publications from ACCORD and ISS arequite well known and widely used throughoutthe region. They also give due credit andacknowledgement to TfP, the Government ofNorway and NUPI. But, in the absence of anidentifiable logo for TfP in its own right, thepublications tend to be recognised as beingfrom ACCORD or ISS. As for substance, thepublications provide substantial information onissues relating to peace and security, but aretargeted at policy makers and practitionersmore than the academic community. Thepublications tend to be more informationalrather than rigorously analytic.

ACCORD’s Occasional Paper series tends to bebetween 4 and 8 pages. It too is correctly aimedat policy makers and practitioners rather thanacademics, given the objectives of TfP. Thepapers are quite useful and handy publicationsfor their intended audience. Unlike the ISSpublications, however, most of the publicationsin this series are not by in-house staff. This is tobe commended. Of the nine papers examined ina random selection, only one was by anACCORD member (de Coning, 1999).

ACCORD’s Conflict Trends is a glossy colourinformation magazine more than an academic orpolicy journal. Aimed at the lay and interestedpublic readership, it publishes general-interestarticles on conflict and security issues in Africa.

The proposed African Journal on ConflictResolution is self-consciously aimed at bridgingthe gap between academics and policy makersand others interested in the field of conflictstudies in Africa. In the inaugural issue, theeditor af firmed the journal’s “receptivity toscholarly work in the conflict studies field”. Atthe same time, however, he noted that thejournal would not “be made up of high-flowntheoretical study and research material, or ofthat only” (Malan, Jannie, 1999: 6). The AfricanJournal on Conflict Resolution will aim for adiversity of topics, approaches and writingstyles in the field of conflict studies. Should itsucceed, the journal has the potential to reachand engage the international academiccommunity. From the star t, moreover, thejournal hopes to attract authors from across thecontinent, if not further afield.

ISS has published a substantial amount ofmaterial on peacekeeping and conflict studiesthat can be traced directly to TfP. As withACCORD, the volume and policy relevance ofthe material is quite impressive. Furthermore,our discussions lead us to conclude that the ISSpublications have had the greater impact, inSouth Africa and more broadly in the region, onpolicy formulation and security thinking withrespect to peacekeeping.

Nevertheless, two sets of problems can beidentified.

Narrow Base of Authorship

The TfP-related publications by ISS convey theimpression of the organisation being essentiallya one-person show. Mark Malan dominates theauthorship, with almost two-thirds of all work

4 Quality and Policy Relevance of Publications Producedunder Training for Peace

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being in his name either singly or in co-authoredform (Table 4.1). The evaluation team’s visit toISS to some extent disproved this impression.There is considerable synergy between thedif ferent research projects and researchers.The staff talks to one another and feed off oneanother insofar as ideas and results areconcerned. The academic credibility of TfPwould nevertheless improve with a broader andmore diverse stable of authors.

There are two types of additional measures thatISS should consider encouraging to rectify theimpression of an excessively narrow authorialbase. First, it should promote its publications –monographs, occasional papers and the flagshipjournal African Security Review – as the logicalforum of choice for discussions of Africa-relatedpeacekeeping and conflict resolution for authorsfrom around the world. It must not displaceAfrican authors in the quest for a moreinternational pool of writers. But greaterinternational visibility and credibility will begained if increasingly large numbers ofoutsiders begin to submit their research workfor publication in the ISS stable. African SecurityReview also needs to specifically target theAfrican intellectual community and would dowell to be considered as a publication of choiceby African academics writing on these issues.This is not the case at the moment. If this isachieved, the publications of the twoorganisations will provide a useful platform for amuch-needed healthy debate on alternativesystems of regional security management. Thiswill support the search for a consensus position,improve cooperation and collaboration betweenscholars and practitioners in the region, andlead to the publications being read and citedmore frequently in the mainstream internationaljournals.

Academic Rigor vs. Policy Relevance

Second, of the material that was submitted tothe evaluation team, only one ar ticle – aforthcoming article in InternationalPeacekeeping – could be said to meetinternationally accepted academic qualitycontrol criteria. ISS researchers should be

strongly encouraged to submit manuscripts toestablished and reputable peer-reviewed andinternational af fairs journals. All of thepublications can benefit from a rigorous reviewpolicy without losing their policy salience. Thiscomment is not meant to detract from thetremendous value that these publicationsprovide in targeting the policy formulation andimplementation constituencies rather than theacademic community, after all for TfP, this willbe the logical group to target. However, with alittle more academic rigour, the ISSpublications, in particular, contain most of thekey elements required to meet the properstandard. Indeed, perhaps in collaboration withNUPI, someone associated with TfP shouldexplore the possibility of writing a paper on thecompleted first phase of TfP. Any or all of thiswould bring additional visibility, recognition andcredibility to TfP.

Beyond this, however, ISS should maintain itscurrent niche as a centre of excellence for policyadvice more than scholarly output. Academicsemphasise complexity and nuance, and eschewsimplistic solutions based on simple-mindedanalyses. The scholar is more comfortable withthe subtle footnote than with the soundbite.Policy makers demand instant prescriptionswithin the urgency of real-time constraints andincomplete information. They dislike academicjargon.

ISS neither seeks nor pretends to be a leadingscholarly centre of excellence in its publications.Its research and output are directed at policy-relevant and problem-solving themes. Itsprimary target audience is the policycommunity and practitioners, not academia. Forexample, the African Security Review is not peer-reviewed, nor is it the intention of ISS to marketthe journal as a forum for scholarly debate.Instead ISS targets the journal at policy makersin the region. For the journal to be of interestand use to policy makers, it must deal withissues of pressing concern today, not two yearsago. The turnover period between manuscriptsubmission and actual publication therefore hasto be short. It must eschew academic jargon,technical analysis and extended dissection in

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favour of accessible style, easy layout and briefanalysis.

ISS has succeeded in establishing a distinctiveidentity in the minds of the policy makers andpractitioners. We received repeated commenton the usefulness and indispensability of ISSpublications on policy issues of pressingrelevance to Southern Africa. Even interlocutorswho took issue with the views and perceivedbiases of the ISS went out of their way to notethat ISS publications were extremely useful tothem. ISS outreach has also been helped withthe placement of all its publications on theInternet since 1997.

Under these circumstances, any attempt toforce ISS to cater to the academic community aswell the policy community would run the realrisk of reducing their utility to policy makerswithout enhancing their scholarly credentials.In other words, the two constituencies aredif ferent. They have dif ferent interests andpriorities, and they tend to speak dif ferentlanguages. Trying to serve both could meanthat neither is served well. At present there isconsistent evidence that the policy advice sideof the TfP mandate is being performed withexceptional skill and effect. ISS has succeededin injecting its research results into the policyprocess in South Africa and, through the RPTCin particular, into the region. Thanks mainly toISS, the TfP ethos has been instilled and

institutionalised in the regional appreciation ofand preparations for regional, continental andinternational peacekeeping missions. ISSshould be warmly congratulated on this andstrongly encouraged to maintain its niche.

Moreover, given the symbiotic relationshipbetween scholarship and policy, and given thestrong interest of the international academiccommunity in Southern African policy issues,ISS material that is known to be used by policymakers in the region will surely attract thegrowing attention of scholars from around theworld.

Similarly, while many academics tend to dismissnewspaper ar ticles as unworthy of seriousattention and lacking in scholarly merit, policymakers give far greater credence to the qualitypress than to “obscure” scholarly journals.Much of the TfP policy impact has comethrough articles by ACCORD and ISS in SouthAfrica’s main newspapers. They should beencouraged to place more TfP-related articles innewspapers throughout Southern Africa, andindeed in selected quality internationalnewspapers as well, such as the FinancialTimes, the Guardian Weekly and theInternational Herald Tribune. TfP staf f haveinteresting stories to tell, and the world media ishungry for interesting stories from SouthernAfrica.

Table 4.1. ISS Publications under TfP Auspices, 1996–1999

Publication Total No. By Malan*

No. As % of total

ISS Monographs 9 6 67

Articles in African Security Review 24 14 58

ISS Papers 10 7 70

TOTAL 43 27 63

* Including articles co-authored with others.

Recommendation:

All partner organisations should encourage international contributions to their respective journals, andalso themselves publish in international journals.

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Introduction

Among the TfP objectives was: • To conduct seminars and workshops to

develop new understanding, knowledge andapproaches that would provide the basis formore effective training and education aswell as enhance policy making and publicawareness of the challenges involved.

The TfP implementing organisations have rundifferent kinds of courses during the 1995–1999period. The TfP Workshops were three- and five-day workshops aimed at introducing theparticipants to peacekeeping. Nationallyhomogenous but professionally heterogeneousparticipants attended them. By the end of 1998,when these workshops had been conducted ineleven of the SADC countries, it was decided torun more specialised training courses aimed atprofessionally homogeneous, but regionalparticipants from the police and military. Thesehave been United Nations Police Of ficersCourses (UNPOC), conducted by ISS, andConflict Management courses for peacekeepersand Civilian-Military Liaison Officers Course(CIMIC) at RPTC, conducted by ACCORD. Anassessment of the curriculum and pedagogicalmethods used in the courses and seminars, andassessing how much the TfP participantslearned is a great challenge. Learning is hard tomeasure and it has not been possible to follow-up the former participants to see whether theyhave acquired the necessary skills to take partin peace missions. In this chapter the aimtherefore is to take a look at the trainingmethodology and some of the consequences ofthe choices of the educational methods whichhave been used in the training. Besidesinterviews conducted by the evaluation team ofthe implementing organisations, trainers,instructors and participants, observation of theConflict Management module in the UNMOcourse at RPTC in February 2000 has been animportant source of information. Moreover, asurvey of the former workshop participants hasbeen carried out. The questionnaire isappended in Annex 7.

Curriculum and the Contents of the TfPWorkshops

The content of the three-day TfP Workshopsconducted in 1996 remained relativelyunchanged throughout the initial stage of theproject. The manual for the courses, which wascompiled in the beginning of the project period,was only used in the early phase of the project.The content of the workshops has not beencountry specific and covered the following mainthemes:

• New Security threats in the Post Cold WarWorld

• Understanding Peace Operations

• The UN: Structures and Procedures forManagement of Peacekeeping

• The Role of Various Actors in PKOs

• African Peace Operations

• Training Arrangements for UN PKOs

• Negotiations and Communication Skills.

There was little time set aside for evaluation andreflection, and it appears that the participantshad little influence regarding the contents of theworkshops. Emphasis was on theory and less onpractice.

The longer five-day TfP Workshops allowed abroader perspective and includedpeacebuilding, preventive diplomacy andgender aspects, in addition to the themescovered in the initial workshops.

All TfP Workshops were divided into modules.Each module covered one of the main themesand was approximately six hours long. One hourwas set aside for interactive activities. The restof the training was based on lectures anddiscussions in sessions of 45 minutes. A

5 Pedagogical Methods, Curriculum and Learning for Training-for-Peace Participants

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maximum of two hours was spent on activitiesbased on the methodology of experientiallearning. The training was conducted within anormal working-day framework. The coursesstarted around 08:00 and finished around 16:00.The course programmes allowed for breaks,and refreshments were provided.

Group exercises used in the workshops gavethe participants insight into real-life settings ofpeacekeeping operations and gave them anopportunity to try some of the skills required indifferent peacekeeping situations.

The modules of the TfP Workshops focused onthe history and development of peaceoperations and they gave an outline of theorganisational framework of peace operations inAfrica. This was done to heighten the awarenessof the capabilities and limitations of the UN,SADC and the OAU with regard to PKOs.Theoretical inputs to doctrinal questions relatedto peacekeeping have also been given. Therehave been lectures on the situation ofdemocratisation and conflict in Africa and thegroup exercises presented a real-life relevantsetting for the participants. In order to exposethe participants to the complexity ofcontemporary conflicts and contexts of peaceoperations, lectures were given with a lessons-learned perspective by representatives fromrecent peace operations in Africa (UNOSOMand UNAVEM). In order to examine themultidimensional nature of peacekeeping,lectures related to the political and civilian rolesin modern peace operations, gender andpeacebuilding were also included.

Overall, the participants give a highly positiveevaluation of the courses. In the evaluationsurvey, only five per cent state that theobjectives of the course they attended, as theysaw them, were not met. Another ten per centfound this question difficult to answer.

Professionally-targeted Courses

The first attempt to introduce peacekeepingrelated issues to the civilian police in TfP wasundertaken when ACCORD arranged a seminar

in 1998 on the role of the civilian police in peaceoperations. This seminar gave 27 senior policeofficers (mainly commissioners) from twelveSADC countries their first opportunity to learnabout civilian police issues. ISS continued thecivilian police training with UNPOC I in 1998,where 34 police officers were trained. ISS alsoco-ordinated the civilian police component ofExercise Blue Crane and the police officers whoparticipated in UNPOC I were called back tocomplete the second practical phase of theirtraining along with the military. A secondUNPOC was conducted in 1999. The focus ofthe second UNPOC was to provide the policeof ficers with the knowledge and skills fordeployment, and to train them to train nationalcivilian police contingents in their owncountries. The representatives in the twoUNPOC courses came from twelve of the SADCcountries and ranged from Lieutenant Colonelor Superintendent to Assistant Commissionersof Police in addition to a number ofCommandants of Police Colleges.

Based on the experiences from thePeacekeeping Exercise Blue Crane, ACCORDhas developed a conflict management trainingcourse for peacekeepers. ACCORD realised thatnot enough time was spent on negotiation andmediation skills in the traditional training forpeacekeeping courses. In 1999 the conflictmanagement course was presented as a modulein the UN Company Commanders Course andthe UN Staf fs Of ficers course at the RPTC.Later in 1999 ACCORD designed andimplemented a Civilian-Military LiaisonOfficer’s Course as a module in the UN StaffsOfficer’s Course.

Training for peace should ultimately seek todevelop skills and knowledge and to buildrelationships both within and across groups ofpeople involved in peace missions. Frominterviews with the former participants in theTfP workshops, the evaluation team learnedthat the participants had ample opportunity tonetwork, an opportunity they appreciated. Aheterogeneous learning environment providesan opportunity for participants to learn abouteach other’s activities and approaches and

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facilitates a co-ordination of ef for ts. Theinterviews show that the participants havebenefited from the professionally hetero-geneous environment in the courses. Interviewswith civilian participants in Exercise Blue Craneshow that the participants were able to increasetheir level of understanding of the division ofroles and the need for co-operation andinformation exchange across divisions of labourin peacekeeping operations. A homogenouslearning environment, such as the one providedin an UNPOC course, has other qualities. Onerecommendation is to have balance betweenprofessionally heterogeneous and homogenousapproaches in the training courses.

The co-ordination requirements needed tosustain professionally heterogeneousrelationships are elaborate. Increased focus onsustainability in this respect would imply thatthe TfP project in a next phase should openmore extensively for interdisciplinarynetworking and co-operation through invitingthe former participants to follow-up trainingevents or seminars. The plan for 2000 toconcurrently run civilian peacekeeping coursesand UN Staff Officers Courses to integrate theparticipants in the joint Command Post Exerciseat the end of the course is an important initiativeto ensure interdisciplinary learning.

Survey of Former Participants – Main Findings

The evaluation team has carried out a surveyamong former participants from the followingTfP activities20:

• TfP Workshop Tanzania, September 1996

• TfP Workshop Botswana, April 1997

• TfP Workshop Namibia, June 1997

• TfP Workshop Malawi, July 1997

• TfP Workshop Lesotho, May 1998

• TfP Workshop Swaziland, July 1998

• TfP Workshop South Africa, August 1998

• Blue Crane CIMIC Seminar at SA ArmyBattle School, April 1999

• Conflict Management Course for CompanyCommanders (Coy CO) at RPTC,September 1999

• Seminar on the Operationalization of theSADC Organ, 27–29 October 1999, Durban

• CIMIC (Civilian-Military Liaison) Coursefor UNSOC (United Nations Senior OfficersCourse) at RPTC, November 1999

• UNPOC II, November/December 1999

A total of 324 questionnaires were sent to allformer participants of these courses. In spite ofrepeated reminders the response to the surveywas quite low. Overall the response rate was 34per cent, however, as high as 50 per cent fromthe UNPOC participants. It is thus possible thatthe estimates are somewhat biased. Althoughwe cannot be certain that the results reflect theviews of all participants, we believe that they areworth our attention, as they draw an interestingpicture of the courses from the users’perspective.

Sixty-five per cent of the respondents arebetween 31 and 45 years of age. Only ten percent are women. Sixty-four per cent representthe army or police forces, 20 per centgovernmental institutions, twelve per cent non-governmental institutions and four per centhumanitarian organisations. Twenty-one percent are from South Africa, while another 55 percent come from Namibia, Zimbabwe, Lesotho,Tanzania or Botswana. About half of theparticipants report that they are presently

20) It was not possible to trace the participants from the TfP Workshops in 1996, as the implementing organisations did not havedetailed information about these participants. The TfP Workshops in 1996 were conducted in Mauritius, Mozambique, Zambia andZimbabwe. Similarly, the list of participants in the UNPOC course in November 1998 was not available, and these participants aretherefore not included in the survey.

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working in institutions that in some way areinvolved in conflict resolution or peacekeeping.These perspectives were least reported by theUNPOC participants and most relevant for theparticipants of Exercise Blue Crane.

In the questionnaire, the former participants areasked how they chose or were selected for the

course they attended. The results show that 87per cent of the respondents were nominated bytheir organisation or institution, while very fewreport they were selected because theyexpressed interest themselves. An exception isthe UNPOC participants, where almost onequarter say they expressed interest themselves,and an additional twelve per cent wererecommended the course by colleagues (Table5.1.)

Table 5.1. How did you choose or how were you selected for the course?

Table 5.2. How did you find the length of the workshop?

UNPOC TfP Workshop Blue Crane Other TfP courses All

Nominated by organisation/institution 65% 97% 88% 86% 87%

Expressed interest 24% 3% 6% 11% 9%

Recommended by colleague 12% 6% 3%

Other 4% 1%

17 37 16 28 98

100% 100% 100% 100% 100%

None of the participants found the course theyattended to be too long, a little less than 50 percent thought the length was adequate, while thelast half wanted the course to last longer. Ananalysis of the level of the various courses

shows that 60 per cent of the TfP Workshop andUNPOC participants thought the course was tooshort, while (understandably) only 31 per centof the Blue Crane participants wanted it to belonger (Table 5.2).

UNPOC TfP Workshop Blue Crane Other TfP courses All

adequate 41% 40% 69% 42% 46%

too short 59% 60% 31% 58% 54%

N 17 37 16 26 96

100% 100% 100% 100% 100%

Seven of the 101 respondents state that theyhave taken part in peacekeeping operationssince they attended the course, two fromUNPOC and Blue Crane respectively and threefrom the TfP Workshops. Three of these werefrom the national defence force, two from thepolice service while two were from non-governmental organisations (Red Cross andChannel Africa Radio).

Sixty-two per cent of the respondents answerthat there have been changes in the policy oftheir organisation as a result of theirparticipation in the course. In most cases thischange is a commitment to sending others tofuture training for peace workshops. Only 23 percent say that the workshop has led to newinitiatives in their organisation, and 11 per centstate that it has improved internal conflictresolution.

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About 40 per cent of the respondents wereinterested in a follow up workshop of a similarscope and breadth. As many as 66 per cent ofthe Blue Crane participants expressed such awish. The UNPOC participants were mostinterested in other peacekeeping courses thatare provided in the region (41 per cent) and only18 per cent of this group were interested inanother similar course. The participants of theTfP Workshops were equally distributedbetween wanting a similar workshop and aworkshop more targeted at their institution.

The Conflict Management Module of the UN Military Observers Course

One of the lessons learned from Exercise BlueCrane was that the military and civilianpersonnel lacked the ability to solve conflicts.This constraint was discussed with the RPTC,and ACCORD proposed to develop a conflictmanagement course for peacekeepers. Thecontent and curriculum of the conflictmanagement course was based on ACCORD’sbasic conflict management course, but adaptedto the peacekeeping environment.

The evaluation has included observations of theConflict Management module in the UnitedNations Military Observers Course (UNMOC)at RPTC in February 2000. The course wasattended by almost 40 participants andconsisted of examples of negotiation andmediation situations, which were based on real-life settings and tailor-made for militaryobservers in peacekeeping operations. Animportant component of the training was roleplay. Interviews with the participants showedthat they generally enjoyed the interactivemethod of teaching. They expressed that theopportunity to take an active part in the learningprocess was like a breath of fresh air in the longperiod of lectures and passive listening. In thedebriefings and evaluations, the participantsexpressed that they were eager to learn moreabout conflict management and they thoughtthe module was too short.

ACCORD’s approach to the training was basedon the recognition of the importance of

involving the learner in activities by gaining asubjective link to them through their ownperception of the need and value of theseactivities.

The purpose of the conflict managementtraining workshops is to give the participantsskills to manage conflicts, and it is thereforeimportant that the training interactively coversthemes like communication skills, root causesof conflict, basic human needs, negative andpositive consequences of interventions, andgives examples of dif ferent approaches toconflict management. Due to time constraintsthis was not done explicitly enough in themodule which was observed. It is also importantthat the groups are small (maximum 20participants) in order to fully meet therequirements of experiential learning. Thetrainers indicated that they would have likedmore time. One of them said that they weremore likely to reach the objectives of learning ifthe training was conducted over five rather thantwo days. The participants were generallycontent with the training, but said they neededmore time to exercise negotiation and mediationskills.

Training Material

Handbooks and dif ferent briefs for groupexercises comprise the TfP training materialused in most TfP courses. The theoretical partof the training is presented by slides. Coursesarranged by ACCORD include exercises thatare tailor-made for the dif ferent groups andseem to function well. The students areprovided with the training material on arrival.Interviews with former participants show thatthey have been able to use the material in theirwork. This is supported by the survey, in which78 per cent say they have been able to use thematerials received (most participants receivedbooks and handouts, five per cent receivedsoftware) in their work. Among the UNPOCparticipants surveyed 88 per cent say they haveused the material after the course. Books andsoftware were more commonly used thanpapers and handouts.

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The slides and handbooks that are being used inconflict management workshops could form thebasis for the development of a manual fortraining peacekeepers. This would require aprocess of revision of the current trainingmaterial when it comes to language andconceptualisation. The manual should bedesigned with respect to UN requirements forpersonnel for peace missions. It should be clearand flexible and use appropriate educationalmethods. This kind of a tool should includeprinciples of experiential learning to ensure adynamic training process.

Recommendation:

TfP should develop a manual for civilianpeacekeeping training.

Trainers and Resource Persons

Allocating regional trainers and resourcepersons to the workshops has been a challengefor the TfP project. The implementingorganisations explained that the reason is lackof relevant competence and experience in thefield of peacekeeping in the region.

According to the initial project document, NUPIhas been obliged to provide at least oneresource person for each TfP activity uponrequest by the parties. Twenty resourcepersons have been provided by NUPI andseveral of them have been used in more thanone activity. The resource persons haverepresented either NUPI’s staf f or NUPI’snational and international network. (Annex 6gives an overview of resource persons providedby NUPI.) The basis for selecting the resourcepersons has been the wishes and needs of theco-operating project partners.

The resource persons who have been used havetheoretical competence in areas of peaceresearch or practical experience from peacemissions. In the TfP Workshops, resourcepersons were used 62 times. Female resourcepersons were used nine times. Only one of thefemale resource persons was from the SADCregion, the remaining were from Norway. Forty-

three (almost 70 per cent) of the resourcepersons represented civilian society, the restwere generally military representatives. Theevaluation interviews indicate that some of theresource persons have limited reflectionregarding the use of training methodology. Animportant premise for reflection and ongoingevaluation of a training project such as TfP is anarticulated educational philosophical base forthe training. Such an ar ticulation is helpfulwhen it comes to institutionalising the project,thereby making it less dependent on theindividual’s training capacity.

The TfP project has clearly contributed to thebuilding of capacity when it comes to training inpeacekeeping related subjects in South Africa.An example of this is ACCORD’s and ISS’current confidence to take responsibility formost of the training and seminars without anygreat need of Nordic resource persons.

The method of internal course evaluation thathas been used, in addition to short debriefingsafter each session, involved each participant’sown assessment immediately after the training.The evaluation sheets are not related to thespecific content of the workshops or trainingmodules or each individual’s objectives.Although the organising partners have notformally analysed the evaluation forms andthere is limited recorded evidence of the effectsof the evaluation procedures, the evaluationsseem to have been used to change the TfPpractices to meet the needs of the participants.There is a need to make the evaluationprocedures more elaborate to ensureinstitutionalised learning, give the participantsample opportunity to continuously influence theworkshop contents and methods, and give theresource persons the chance to discuss in depththe consequences of their choices regardingtraining methodology and contents. Theevaluation procedure should be an ongoingdynamic process taking into account the hereand now, as well as what can be done in order toimprove future practices.

A greater emphasis and understanding of therole of the trainer needs to be in place to ensure

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reflection on educational methodology. Givingthe trainers the opportunity to meet to re-examine their methods of teaching and therebylearning from their own experience could openfor discussion on education methodology andimprove the courses. This kind of a forum forsharing experiences would provide anopportunity for the trainers to be more aware ofthe pedagogical choices they make. Trainerswho do not undergo this kind of evaluation andreflection risk developing a static role based onold routines or habits.

Recommendations for further action are amethodology that encourages and incorporatesaction, dialogue, involvement, co-operation andparticipation. Participatory-oriented teachingensures learning about peace missions and atthe same time for sustainable peace.

Recommendation:

Consideration should be given to longer and morestructured courses, using carefully designedcurricula and a faculty that is drawn from acrossthe region.

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TfP has aimed at enhancing the capacity forconflict management and peacekeeping in theSADC region. In this chapter, each of the TfPobjectives, as they are stated in the originalproject document, are assessed.

TfP Objective (1)

• To develop and conduct a series of trainingprogrammes in order to take part inbuilding a realisable stand-by capacity ofpersonnel within Southern Africa that canbe used in peacekeeping operations.

The first, and one of the most important, pointsto note here is the exceptionalism, if not theuniqueness, of TfP. Most peacekeeping trainingaround the world is conducted by governmentinstitutions directly. NGOs typically cater tonon-government constituencies. In contrast, TfPis an NGO-driven project that has beenintegrated into the SADC peacekeeping trainingregimes without resistance. TfP is distinctive forthe prominent NGO role in training military,police and civilian peacekeepers. SouthernAfrican governments have freely nominatedmilitary and police officers, as well as defenceand foreign officials, for peacekeeping trainingby NGOs funded by a foreign government.NGO-driven civilian training for peacekeepinghas been integrated into the overallpeacekeeping capacity-building ef fort in theSADC region. This is a tribute both to theregional governments’ commitment to civiliansociety and to the ready acceptance of Norwayas a disinterested donor in this specialised field.Because of the Nordic countries’ long expertisein international peacekeeping and because oftheir support for the anti-apartheid struggle, theregion’s “comfort level” in working with them isvery high. Some other high-profile initiatives, incontrast, have attracted suspicions about hiddenagendas.

Many training programmes have beenconducted throughout Southern Africa.

Capacity has been built in the region formeaningful contribution to modern,multifunctional peace operations. A SouthAfrican foreign ministry of ficial in Pretoriaremarked that “From the government’sposition, we couldn’t have done withoutassistance from Norway under TfP” which,through ISS and ACCORD, brought theknowledge of multifunctional peacekeeping tothe policy-making tables of Southern Africa.Within the short timeframe of five years, thanksto TfP, the complexities of modern peaceoperations have been communicated togovernments, media and the public.

Exercise Blue Crane in particular seems to havebeen a seminal event in the region. It wasmentioned frequently in discussions withinterlocutors throughout the evaluation team’sfield trip, and almost always positively. (Theoccasional critical comments were more in thecontext of protocol-related lapses than aimed atthe relevance and usefulness of the exercise.)ACCORD was tasked to design, plan and co-ordinate all the civilian aspects of the exercise,while ISS was tasked with responsibility for theCIVPOL component.

Participants in TfP training programs typicallyhave vertical career paths. Today’s middle levelofficers are tomorrow’s command officers andpolicy makers. We received independentconfirmation of the horizon-broadening impactof TfP-related training on middle-ranking/senior military and police officials and foreignand defence officials.

It is gratifying that the TfP Project Manager atACCORD, Mr. Cedric de Coning, was himselfchosen to serve with the UN peace mission inEast Timor for three months (in 1999–2000). Inturn, the field experience will enhance hiscredibility in future TfP training programmesback in Southern Africa.

Moreover, in Pretoria the evaluation team wasinformed by a Director of the South African

6 Relevance and Institutionalisation

44

Police Service (SAPS) that four of his personnelhad just been approved for deployment in EastTimor. He hoped that another four couldperhaps be deployed in Kosovo, leaving fourbehind in the country as the pool of trainers.

The degree of institutionalisation can be gaugedfrom the fact that of the four South Africanpolice trainees from the first UN Police OfficersCourse (UNPOC), two are being used astrainers (plus another three from othercountries in the region). CIVPOL is now beingwritten into the SAPS budget. The goal is tohave a stand-by capacity of 20–100 policeof ficers for deployment in peace missionsoverseas.

However, the goal of having created an easilyidentifiable and usable stand-by capacity inSouthern Africa cannot be said to have beenrealised until such time as a comprehensive andreliable database of trainees has been created.At the same time, there would be little point to anumber of different organisations creating theirown separate databases. The evaluation teambelieves that an integrated database of traineesfor the civilian components of peacekeepingshould be kept.

Recommendations:

The evaluation team recommends that Partnerorganisations that conduct TfP training shouldkeep a tracking record of participants who haveundergone training. The tracking record shouldbe fed to the RPTC clearing-house.

Participants who have undergone training shouldroutinely be made aware of the SAFDEM(Southern Africa Resource Bank for Democracyand Human Rights21) initiative.

TfP Objective (2)

• To include in the training programmesparticipants from the Defence and ForeignAf fairs Ministries and NGOs of theinterested countries in the region in orderto facilitate or contribute to thedevelopment of consistency in approachwithin these three sectors, as well as anappreciation of the dif fering andcomplementary roles of each sector.

This objective has been fully met. Reflecting alonger history, the classical military aspects ofpeacekeeping are far more developed thancivilian aspects of contemporary peaceoperations. In conducting its training courses,the TfP implementing organisations haveundertaken to develop appreciation among theparticipants for the differing but complimentaryroles of each sector involved. ACCORDdesigned and presented the first Civilian-Military Liaison Officers Course (CIMIC) as amodule at the RPTC’s UN Staff Officers Coursein November 1999 – the first time that a CIMICcourse was presented in Africa. While theevaluation team did not have the opportunity toassess the degree of consistency of approachesbetween the different sectors, we were able togauge the appreciation of the dif fering andcomplementary roles of each sector.

Peacekeeping was something totally new andunknown for the Southern African police. At thetime of Exercise Blue Crane, not one SouthAfrican police of ficer was familiar with theconcept or had any experience of it. ExerciseBlue Crane was a “marvellous success” as thefirst CIVPOL training exercise in the region.

UN human rights and humanitarian agencies inthe region also expressed appreciation of theskill with which ACCORD and ISS had instilledthe need to factor in humanitarian elements inPSOs in the developing African doctrines ofpeacekeeping. An official of the UN Office of the

21) The SAFDEM resource bank will support international humanitarian operations with a particular focus on human rights anddemocratisation by identifying candidates suited to serve on international missions. SAFDEM will be a regional establishment. Theoffice will be set up under the guidance of the Legal Resource Foundation (LRF) in Zimbabwe, and the goal of an independent andneutral regional institution will be achieved in time.

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High Commissioner for Human Rights inPretoria commented that on his third visit to theRPTC, ACCORD had already spent a couple ofdays with their training module, and “thedifference was enormous… between night andday” from the previous two occasions whenACCORD had not been involved.

ISS has taken the position that Africanscontribute little by way of civilian components incurrent peacekeeping partnerships, not theleast because most African countries lack avibrant civil society. The key players withrespect to humanitarian and civilian action areinternational agencies and NGOs from theNorth. Therefore ISS decided to work throughestablished government institutions to helpthem initiate appropriate peacekeeping coursesthat included civilian participation, includingpolice personnel. NGO-led training was left toACCORD. Unfortunately, this seems to havereinforced regional perceptions of ISS as anadjunct of of ficialdom at times or on someparticularly sensitive issues. Although ISS wasprepared and committed to working withregional inter-governmental institutions, suchas the RPTC and SARPCCO, the negativeperception has in turn had a deleterious effecton the willingness of these multilateralinstitutions to work with ISS as often or asclosely as they might have wished22.

TfP Objective (3)

• To include participants from as many of theeleven23 SADC countries as possible in eachtraining session, and thereby contribute tothe creation of a common language andcommon culture of peacekeeping that willsupport collective approaches to security,peacekeeping operations and ef fectiveconflict management.

Again, this objective has been met, broadlyspeaking. Both ACCORD and ISS have tried toinclude representatives from most of the SADCcountries in all their training activities.ACCORD’s eleven TfP Workshops have eachbeen conducted in a different SADC country.The contributions of ACCORD to conflictresolution training and the importance ofcivilian components, including NGOs, in peacesupport operations, and of ISS to the doctrinalaspects of multifunctional PSOs, cannot be over-emphasised. The net result is the steadydevelopment of a common culture and sharedvocabulary of peacekeeping in the SADCregion, which is already interacting with theOAU with a view to a possible African doctrineon peacekeeping.

ACCORD’s country-specific TfP Workshops areaimed at a class size of 25. This promotescontact between different departments of onecountry, but mutes networking and cross-fer tilisation between the same sectors ofdif ferent countries. The regional SADCdimension cannot be realised in such a format.Instead, country-specific workshops may needto be rotated with SADC workshops.

Recommendations:

The evaluation team recommends that the TfPPeacekeeping Training Workshops conducted byACCORD alternate between in-country andSADC formats.

The evaluation team further recommends that theregional identity of TfP be given greater form andsubstance through an appropriate geographicspread of instructors and venues as well asparticipants.

22) The ISS has published a comprehensive manual entitled “Peace Support Operations: A Draft Working Manual for AfricanMilitary Practitioners”. The aim of this manual is to develop a common doctrine to meet the challenges of contemporary peaceoperations in Africa. This working draft is a compilation of lessons from past operations in Europe and Africa, and is a directconsequence of a TfP seminar held at the RPTC in Harare in August 1999.23) The SADC membership has expanded since then to fourteen.

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TfP Objective (4)

• To conduct seminars and workshops todevelop new understanding, knowledge andapproaches that will provide the basis formore effective training and education aswell as enhance policy making and publicawareness of the challenges involved.

The full list of training workshops and seminarsconducted under the TfP auspices is appended(Annex 5). They are known in the region, theirquality is appreciated, and consequently theyare well attended. Unfortunately, from the donorcountry point of view, however, they are seenmore as ACCORD and ISS activities than ageneric TfP activity. There is no instantlyrecognisable TfP logo or label.

This is not to deny the impact or influence ofTfP. A South African foreign ministry officialdescribed TfP as having been “extremelyvaluable”. Exercise Blue Crane was the largestpeacekeeping exercise in Africa; both ACCORDand ISS were heavily involved under TfP; theirinvolvement was crucial to the civiliancomponents of the exercise; and the civiliancomponents were pivotal to the great success ofthe exercise. TfP has been the seed from whichawareness of the whole concept of resolvingconflict through non-military means hasflowered in the South African consciousness,from the military to the police to the media andpublic. A two-star general in the ZimbabweanArmy, with field experience in UN peacekeepingin Angola and Somalia, remarked that TfP “mustbe continued”, perhaps with more emphasis onthe humanitarian and political aspects of thecauses of conflict and approaches to conflictresolution.

TfP provided the forum from which the wholerange of issues associated with the civiliancomponents of modern peace missions havebeen discussed in Southern Africa. Itsimportance therefore transcends its size. TfPhas been important in educating the military ontheir roles and limitations, the supremacy ofcivilian control, the number and interactions ofstakeholders, the reasons for keeping withinrespective boundaries, and so on. That is, TfP

has been instrumental in transforming theSouth African military mindset. As a father, oneSouth African military of ficer said to us, hewould be happier to see his son join the Armyand be deployed on a PSO under a commanderwho has gone through TfP courses than onewho has not.

TfP has been an enlightening and educationalexperience for the two partner institutions, aswell as broadening and deepening theirunderstanding of civilian peacekeeping andconflict resolution issues. ACCORD hasambitious plans to establish a new Africa Centrethat will concentrate on peacekeeping andpreventive diplomacy as two of its three corecompetencies.

One example of TfP having been mainstreamedinto ISS projects lies in their project on childrenin armed conflict. Interestingly, the first phase ofthis recently completed project was fundedprimarily by the Norwegian Embassy inPretoria.

TfP has also been instrumental in developingboth partner institutions’ regional profile,though perhaps this is especially true ofACCORD.

TfP Objective (5)

• To promote policy development inpeacekeeping in order to formulate,document, analyse and apply innovativeideas from overseas as well as localconcepts and techniques to improvepeacekeeping within the region.

This is the area in which TfP can be said to haveexceeded expectations. The tributes paid to Mr.Mark Malan, the TfP Director at ISS, for his roleand assistance in drafting the White Paper onSouth African Participation in InternationalPeace Missions, were fulsome and widelyacknowledged. ACCORD too, through Mr.Cedric de Coning, provided a significant input tothe White Paper on the civilian roles inpeacekeeping. Most TfP seminars conducted byISS have included attendance by senior officials

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and diplomats. It is clear that ISS has been at thevery heart of conceptual and policydevelopment in South Africa with regard topeacekeeping; that Mr. Malan is at the heart ofISS expertise in this area; and that TfP has beenthe core from which, as TfP Director in ISS, Mr.Malan has spread the message of multi-functional PKOs. Furthermore, it can beexpected that doctrinal evolution in South Africawill play a catalytic role in shaping theformulation of peacekeeping in the SADCregion because of the economic and politicalweight of the Republic in the region; and thatPSO innovations in SADC will permeate to therest of the African continent either directly orindirectly.

The evaluation team received independentconfirmation that in the drafting of ministerialspeeches and statements of ficials use ISSmaterial. Malan’s TfP has had “a profoundef fect” in part because of the quality of theproject, and in part because of the existingvacuum on the subject in the country and

region. It had a profound effect on the SouthAfrican National Defence Force and theDepartment of Defence in familiarising peoplein these two organisations with the concept ofmultifunctional PSOs and the development ofthe peacekeeping doctrine. The impact on thedevelopment of the peacekeeping doctrine overthe years is measurable, culminating in theWhite Paper. Its impact on practitioners in thearmed forces and the defence ministry is veryvisible. In sum, TfP managed “to get inside thepolicy loops” in South African security circlesand “has been mainstreamed in the policydiscourse” (ibid.).

TfP has also permeated the SADC inter-governmental institutions in the security sector.Both ISS and ACCORD have been invited to andinvolved in military training and exercisesmandated by inter-governmental authoritiesdue primarily to their TfP work. The same istrue of their work for the OAU on the continentas a whole.

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TfP cannot be divorced from the regional andinternational context. In some respects theprogress with regard to regional integration inSouthern Africa has been more disappointingthan many observers were expecting in 1995.The crises in Lesotho and the DRC in particularhave been major drags on the development of asense of a regional security community withinSADC. Regional peacekeeping capacity buildinghas undoubtedly been impeded by the impasseover the SADC Organ for Politics, Defence andSecurity.

TfP was innovative and cutting edge whenestablished in 1995, but not any longer. Nor is itthe most substantial externally fundedpeacekeeping training activity in the SADCregion today. That role has been overtaken inparticular by the DANIDA-funded RPTC inHarare. There is a natural partnership betweenthe RPTC and TfP. The RPTC has the advantage,but also the constraint, of being an inter-governmental institution located within thecomplex of the Zimbabwen Army. TfP-sourcedresource persons, seminars and trainingworkshops have helped to raise awareness thatpeacekeeping operations are complex,multidimensional and multifunctional. This hasled to efforts to increase the number of coursestaught at the RPTC and to broaden the trainingthere to cover topics and issues beyond just themilitary dimensions of peacekeeping. Like theTfP, the RPTC has been struggling toconsolidate its regional identity by taking itscourses outside the premises of the RPTC andother SADC countries. TfP can and shouldcooperate in this. There is some appreciation ofthe fact that the location of the RPTC in amilitary compound impacts negatively onefforts to broaden its activities.

Recommendation:

The evaluation team recommends that TfPpartner institutions actively explore the possibilityof mounting in-country training workshops and

seminars throughout the SADC region conjointlywith the RPTC.

Partner Institutions

There is an interesting complementarity ofidentity, history and links to the political processbetween TfP’s two “partner” institutions inSouth Africa. In their infancy in 1995 both werefledgling institutions with relatively small staffand modest budgets. TfP assistance was a farmore substantial component of the budget andactivities of both in 1995 than is the case today.Now both are well-known and reasonablysubstantial institutions, confident of their statusand role and poised to pursue still moreambitious goals and agendas.

We would also like to reiterate that the TfPdirectors in both institutions, namely Mr. Cedricde Coning in ACCORD and Mr. Mark Malan inISS, received universal praise for theirprofessionalism, knowledge, instructional andorganisational skills, enthusiasm andwillingness to assist whenever called upon to doso. TfP has been fortunate in the public face ofits two project directors in the region.

With hindsight, the choice of both ACCORDand ISS may have reflected a degree ofconfusion in Oslo over two sets of objectives tobe pursued through TfP rather than a cleardecision based on a logical division of labour.

First, the Norwegian government wished bothto assist South Africa in the process of transitionfrom a quasi-military apartheid state to arepresentative majority government with thesupremacy of civilian rule; and to assist SouthAfrica to integrate into the Southern Africanregion. Hence the decision to enter intopartnerships with two South Africaninstitutions, but to give them both an explicitlyregional mandate. Focussing on civilian

7 Further Needs and Future Course

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components of peacekeeping enabled Oslo tofudge the issue by pointing to an area in whichit had acknowledged international comparativeadvantage.

For capacity building, South Africa offered alevel, volume and sophistication ofinfrastructure that was simply not availableelsewhere in the region. Nevertheless, theprimacy of political over development co-operation criteria meant that back in the homecapital of Oslo, “ownership” of TfP wasbifurcated between the Ministry of ForeignAf fairs and NORAD. And within the MFA,ownership was shared between the Africa Deskand the Department of Security Policy.

The consequences of the confusion have beenfelt, to varying degrees, throughout the five-year history of TfP. The MFA and NUPI had tostep in to avoid permanent rupture between theTfP partners in 1996. The relationship betweenthe two current TfP directors has generallyworked well, but not well enough to overcomethe dif ferences in history, philosophy andapproach.

On the one hand, TfP facilitated further contactsand links between the dif ferent coreconstituencies represented by ISS andACCORD. On the other hand, there were limitsto how much could be achieved under such aforced marriage. ACCORD Deputy DirectorKarthi Govender described their relations withISS as civil and correct, but not cordial. Theevaluation team heard nothing during the entirefield trip to indicate anything to the contrary.ACCORD is basically positive about Africa’sfuture, and believes that ISS tends to benegative. (ISS disputes this assertion, ratherarguing that critical commentary is an acceptedpart of the academic tradition in maturedemocracies.) The ISS Africa Early WarningProgramme issues critical public statements aspart of its task of identifying problem countriesand leaders early. To the extent that ACCORD isidentified as a partner institution, this cancomplicate ACCORD’s ef forts in the field atneutral third-party mediation.

ACCORD is accepted widely throughout theregion, and Cedric de Coning has universalcredibility (as does Mark Malan). ISS hasproblems with its institutional acceptability attimes because of public criticism of some SADCcountries and leaders. To be fair to ISS, this maybe due to a lack of civil-society space andtradition in other countries rather than intrinsicdefects in the methods of ISS operations.Nevertheless, the fact that the perception doesexist, and is not an isolated sentiment in theregion, does have an adverse impact on theability of ISS to deliver on the regional mandate.A regional network linked to ISS, let alone onethat had ISS at its centre, would always be asensitive matter in SADC, according to asignificant number of people interviewed by theevaluation team.

ACCORD

ACCORD would appear to have closer links tothe ruling political party and through that to thelegislature and the political executive. It has ahistory of an activist NGO. It has no historical orcontemporary links to the old apartheid regimeor security elite. It takes essentially a positivestance on Africa’s future. Being orientedtowards conflict resolution, it approachesproblems from the point of view of a neutralthird-party mediator. Public pronouncements onconflicts and the responsibility of variousleaders and countries can be fatal for problem-solving organisations.

On training, ACCORD conducted several three-day and five-day in-country workshops in 11 ofthe 14 SADC countries during the five-yearperiod of evaluation. These initial genericcourses have been followed by more targetedcourses on conflict management for companycommanders, staff officers, police officers andmilitary observers.

On policy development, ACCORD hasconducted seminars on the role of civilian policein PSOs (February 1998 – the first time thatpolice officers met to discuss CIVPOL issues inSADC and Africa), another on lessons learnedfrom Exercise Blue Crane (July 1999), and a

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third on the operationalisation of the SADCOrgan (October 1999).

Research has been conducted on Africancapacity and experience in peace missions andcivilian-military relations, and disseminatedthrough occasional papers, as well as articles inthe in-house journal Conflict Trends, and othermagazines and journals.

Advocacy has been carried out at the SADCOrgan, the OAU and ECOWAS in West Africa.ACCORD also represented TfP at theInternational Association of PeacekeepingTraining Centres (IAPTC). The internationalrecognition of TfP and ACCORD is indicated bythe fact that NUPI was the first IAPTC Chair in1998, and ACCORD is the third Chair currentlyin 2000. Staff from ACCORD’s PeacekeepingProgramme have also assisted as resourcepersons at the second meeting of the OAUChiefs of Staff (1997) and given guest lectures atvarious military colleges.

ISS

In his briefing to the evaluation team, Dr JakkieCilliers, Director of the Institute for SecurityStudies, described ISS as an institutiondedicated to “applied policy research at seniorlevels”. ISS is professional, well-resourced and acredible think tank in the field of securitystudies. It is efficient in its methods of work anddissemination. Its staff is well trained and highlycompetent. Its location in Pretoria gives itaccess to policy makers and practitioners, andits links with senior policy makers in the SouthAfrican government are as obvious as they areintimate. ISS aims to build on its core ofexcellence in research and analysis to create acritical mass of regional expertise on Africanpeacekeeping. For the purposes of influencingpolicy development, therefore, ISS has been aninvaluable partner institution for TfP.

ISS describes the primary objectives of TfP asbeing to support existing and anticipatedcivilian-military initiatives in SADC for the

creation and improvement of existingmechanisms and processes of civilian control;and to advocate the adoption of processes,practices and structures that will consolidateand enhance civilian-political overseeing.Secondary objectives are to strengthen existingand develop new networks of civilian-militaryrelations in SADC, to foster links between theseand similar networks elsewhere in Africa, tostrengthen the analytical and policy advocacycapabilities of existing institutions in the SADCregion with regard to civilian-military relationsand defence policy issues, and to assist asappropriate in the design of educational materialrelevant to Southern African needs andexperiences.

ISS has fulfilled its mandate in South Africa withexemplary efficiency, but its regional outreachhas been complicated by the tensions betweenSouth Africa and Zimbabwe, given the differentfunctions of a research institute (ISS) asopposed to a conflict resolution NGO(ACCORD). ISS is considered to be at thecentre of policy and political debate in Pretoriainsofar as security policy is concerned, andthrough the provision of expert resourcepersons during both meetings of the OAUChiefs of Staff meetings has been able to impactthinking at a continental level. This wideregional impact has arguably been lesssuccessful within SADC.

The perceived dif ficulty regarding ISSnotwithstanding, an RPTC representativedescribes the existing input from ISS andACCORD into the RPTC as “excellent”. As itproceeds with the development of a regionalpeacekeeping doctrine, the RPTC will needmore active co-operation from TfPimplementing organisations.

In a possible second phase, therefore, ISS needsto consolidate core competencies and extendand expand its reach into the region. ISS hasacknowledged strengths in research andanalysis. It now needs to develop a critical massof expertise for giving it regional influence andrelevance. It should also seek to rationalise its

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programmes vis-à-vis other SADC-regionprogrammes (for example the plannedDANIDA-supported project by the new Centrefor Defence and Security Management at theUniversity of Witwatersrand in Johannesburg),and the choice of countries in which to conductits operations. There remains a pressing needfor research and policy development withregard to the adoption of a common set ofprinciples and guidelines for peace supportoperations in Southern Africa.

Goals are still to be achieved in the politicaldecision-making circles in South Africa, and inthe region. South Africa is a modern, stable,cohesive state with developed infrastructure incommunications, transportation and energy. Italso has an established civil society that isrobust, vigorous and occupies quite a largespace in the country. Not all other SADCcountries share all these attributes.

Not all countries are equally receptive at anygiven time to TfP-type activities. In the nextphase, TfP should target key countries in theSADC region, identify and target core groupsand constituencies, and tailor and adapt existingprojects and activities to their needs and modesof receptivity to the message of civilianpeacekeeping. TfP would achieve greaterimpact by focussing and targeting instead ofdissipating resources and energy to everyone.

Similarly, there is some resistance to too manyregional policies coming out of South Africa. Inpart this may simply be inter-country rivalry.But there is also a deeper problem, namely thefear that precisely because of itsdisproportionate weight, South Africa coulddrive the agenda and dominate the proceedings.Too many donors have been driven by the“Mandela Effect” to locate everything in SouthAfrica and then develop policies towards otherSouthern African countries based on Pretoria’sperspectives and the Mandela line.

The rivalry between South Africa and Zimbabwehad a personal edge to it, and the situation hasimproved with the election of South AfricanPresident Thabo Mbeki. But there was also an

element of trade disputes, with the feeling in theregion that South Africa was deciding, if notdictating, the terms of trade policy in SADC.The choice of two partner institutions in SouthAfrica as “the vehicle for entry into SouthernAfrica” was problematic for the same set ofreasons.

An additional partner?

A name that came up frequently during ourefforts to identify a potential third partner in theregion located outside South Africa wasSARIPS, the Southern African Institute forRegional Policy Studies, located in Harare. Forreasons not dissimilar to those accounting fortensions and past problems between ACCORDand ISS, SARIPS too could have dif ficultyworking with ISS. At the same time, ourconclusion is that there are manycomplementarities between ACCORD andSARIPS. Both pursue research, training,interventions and advocacy as part of theiridentity. ACCORD’s five-day skills trainingworkshops would be nicely complemented bythe month-long educational training workshopsthat SARIPS conducts under its trainingprogram. SARIPS was also involved, incollaboration with Danish and Austrianpartners, in an effort at conflict resolution andpeacemaking with regard to the DRC conflict.

While ACCORD is focussing on the continent asa whole, SARIPS is more clearly branding itselfas a Southern African institution. SARIPS hasreceived formal recognition as a regionalinternational organisation. About three-quartersof its professional staff are non-Zimbabweans,mostly from the rest of Southern Africa,reflecting a conscious policy decision to achieveand maintain a regional base. The policydevelopment work done at SARIPS is for SADCand the OAU. The formal separation of SARIPSfrom its parent body SAPES (the SouthernAfrican Political Economy Series Trust) seemsto have helped its image among the Nordicembassies by giving it a more professionalidentity.

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SARIPS receives substantial funding fromNorway24 and also from Denmark, amongothers. Is SARIPS, the “darling of donors”,overstretched in terms of its intellectual andmanagerial capacity to deliver on still moreprojects? Some of our interlocutors in Harareexpressed a degree of concern on this score,and on the high salary structures of SARIPSstaff.

Another name that came up was of a plannedinstitute in Zimbabwe led by Mr. LeonardKapungu who has just submitted his retirementfrom the United Nations as Director of the UNLesson-Learned Unit, after several years ofservice with DPA and DPKO and on severalpeace missions. The institute of research andtraining will draw on his broad peacekeepingexperience and experience dealing withinternational academic constituencies.

NUPI

NUPI’s role in TfP was critical in the initialstages of the project. TfP was the first, most

original and most advanced project onpeacekeeping in SADC. NUPI was a source oftraining and a link and outlet to otherinstitutions and research in the Nordiccountries and further afield. That role is nowless crucial as capacity has been transferred andcreated in South Africa. According to one view,the direction and conceptualisation of projectscan be decided in-house by both ACCORD andISS, and NUPI might support such developmentthrough collaboration on research, conceptualdevelopment and continuation of the Exchangearrangement.

The responsible ministry in Oslo(MFA/NORAD) should provide policy directionto NUPI, and NUPI should conceptualise theframework, with institutions in the region beingthe operational partners.

Recommendation:

Authority and management of TfP should beclarified and structured.

Figure 7.1. A proposed model for the relationship between TfP donors and partners

Ministry à NUPI à ISS/ACCORD/New partner?

â â â

Policy à Framework à Operational Implementation

In the final analysis, Southern Africa cannotdevelop self-suf ficient capacity for trainingsuccessive generations of peacekeepers –civilian, police and military – without fosteringan indigenous research culture. This is sobecause fundamental realities, local andregional contexts and the internationalenvironment all change over time. Analystsfrom within the region need to have thetheoretical and analytical tools to comprehendthe world through appropriate conceptual

frameworks. Otherwise Southern Africa willforever remain a net consumer of peaceresearch performed by outsiders.

NUPI is primarily a research institution. Its rolewith TfP so far has been mainly to act as anorganisational/administrative filter. Its knownresearch strengths and research culture shouldbe utilised to promote more original theoreticaland conceptual research by Southern Africansin the area of peacekeeping, peace support

24) SARIPS receives NOK 7.5 million from NORAD to support research and information for the period 1999–2002. In addition,SARIPS will receive NOK 1.5 million for institutional cooperation with a Norwegian institute (NIBR) on a project related to the landreform process in Zimbabwe.

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operations, peace research and conflictresolution. The ISS reputation has been built onempirically oriented research, not on theoreticaland conceptual research. In TfP as a whole,nevertheless, there is a need to strike a balancebetween empirical and theoretical research.

Two potentially fruitful areas for theoreticallyinformed research under the auspices of TfP,identified by Dr. Sverre Lodgaard, Director ofNUPI, are human security and theinstitutionalisation of regionalism in SouthernAfrica.

NUPI could also assist ACCORD in re-packaging and marketing its results to the widerinternational policy and academic communities.ACCORD’s practical training seminars in thefield of conflict resolution have been greatlyappreciated, and must be deemed a success. ForACCORD’s cumulative expertise andexperience to be institutionalised, someoneneeds to convert individual memory intoinstitutional memory by writing down thelessons learned. This could most usefully takethe form of a manual on training peacekeepersin the art and skills of conflict resolution. Such amanual, if properly made, would be of greatinterest and use to the United Nations and otherpeacekeeping training centres.

The continued partnership with ACCORD, ISSand, if implemented, a third regional partner,would also bring greater benefits to NUPI and,through that, to Norway. As argued in thisreport, both ACCORD and ISS have achievedrecognition, maturity of status and expertise intheir respective specialised fields. For the samereason, they can now contribute to enrichingNUPI’s Southern Africa expertise and resourcebase.

Nordic Cooperation

Since 1997 NUPI has been advocating Nordicco-operation in the field of capacity building forpeace operations in Southern Africa. The first

time the importance of increased Nordic co-operation was discussed was during an ISSpolicy seminar in November 1997. The projectco-ordinator Torunn L. Tryggestad and the UNProgramme Director Espen Barth Eide hadinformal discussions with the NorwegianSpecial Advisor on Peacekeeping, AmbassadorHelga Hernes, and the senior Danish militaryadviser seconded to the RPTC in Harare, Col.Kurt Mosgaard. The following years Nordiccooperation has been an issue for TfP, andmeetings between representatives from thevarious Nordic embassies in SouthAfrica/Zimbabwe, and between the TfP projectpartners, representatives from the RPTC andthe Armed Forces International Centre –Norway (AFIC-N), have taken place. Nordiccooperation, however, remains under-developedand informal.

A number of Western countries compete toprovide peacekeeping aid to South Africa.Nordic embassies in Pretoria and Hararemaintain a regular, if ad hoc, dialogue on variouspeacekeeping-training activities. Informal co-operation and information exchange is feasibleand practised. Currently, Nordic co-operationcan be said to be personalised by Col. KurtMosgaard. At his level, Col. Mosgaard engagesin some information exchange on a networkbasis. There is an urgent need to move from thepersonalised to the institutionalised level.

The evaluation team encountered somescepticism to the notion of co-ordination amongthe Nordic countries back in their own capitals.At the same time, we were reinforced in ourconviction of the need for a degree of co-ordination of the Nordic projects in SouthernAfrica between Denmark, Norway and Sweden(Finland is not a major aid donor in this regionof the world). The solution that most appealed tous was the idea of a SADC regional programmeofficer being posted by each of these threeNordic countries at any one embassy in theregion. The MFA/NORAD of ficial sodesignated would not necessarily be restrictedto a regional co-ordinating role, since this isunlikely to take up a full-time position. But, inaddition to performing other tasks, s/he would

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have the line responsibility for co-ordinating allNorwegian co-operation activities related topeace and security throughout SADC. All theNorwegian embassies in the region, as well asthe MFA and NORAD back in Oslo, would thenknow whom to turn to in the first instance as theclearing-house for information with respect toNorway’s development co-operation in theSADC region. The three to four (depending onwhether Finland participated or not in thisscheme) regional programme officers – whowould likely be located in different countries inthe region – could then exchange informationwith one another regularly and meetannually/periodically if they felt it worthwhile todo so.

Recommendation:

The evaluation team recommends that oneof ficial in any one of the Southern Africanembassies be designated as the regionalprogramme of ficer and be the nodal clearing-house for all Norwegian aid activity related topeace and security in the SADC region.

Timeframe and Budget

The five-year timeframe for the first phase ofTfP provided assurance and predictability to allthree project partners. On the other hand, it alsomeant that the initial problems between the twoSouth African “partner” institutions could not besorted out earlier. Eventually ACCORD and ISSwere kept in a “shotgun marriage” dictated bydonor convenience. This should not, however,detract from the significant benefits to TfPgained from two South African organisationsworking separately in a complementaryframework.

The period of establishment is over. In manyrespects consolidation has also been achieved,both by ACCORD and ISS. Of course, the sequelof moving TfP more directly into the region willentail fresh start-up costs for a third partnerinstitution. But in the main the goal of thesecond and final phase of TfP should be tocomplete the process of creating a self-sustaining capacity for civilian peacekeepingtraining.

The dilemma of training for a self-sustainingcapacity building is this: If the project is notsuccessful it should be terminated for the veryfact that its a failure. But if it is successful itshould still be terminated for the very fact that itsucceeded in creating the capacity. In the caseof TfP, the general consensus among officersand officials was that it had been successful, butthat five years is too short a timeframe forcompletion of a project of this nature. Manyunresolved issues remain on the agenda ofresearch, policy formulation and training,including regionalisation of peacekeeping,privatisation of peacekeeping, children in armedconflict, and so on.

Recommendations:

In the light of our findings and analysis, theevaluation team recommends that TfP should beextended for a second phase of three years to allowthe emergence of a self-sustaining capacity for thetraining of peacekeepers from the SouthernAfrican region, with special emphasis on thecivilian dimensions of contemporary peacemissions in Africa.

The second phase would require funding of atleast the same level as today, at a minimumexpanded to accommodate a four th par tnerorganisation.

Annexes

Annex 1 Terms of Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

Annex 2 List of Contacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61Norway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61South Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61Zimbabwe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62New York . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

Annex 3 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65Publications Consulted in the Preparation of Chapter 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65Other Publications Consulted or Cited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

Annex 4 Publications under the Auspices of Training for Peace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69Publications under the auspices of TfP at ISS: Comprehensive list . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69Publications under the auspices of TfP at ACCORD: Comprehensive list . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

Annex 5 Training for Peace Training and Policy Seminars 1995–1999 . . . . . . . . . . . 77Training for Peace Exchange Arrangement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

Annex 6 Resource Persons Provided by NUPI in Support of Training for Peace . . . . . 83

Annex 7 Survey Questionnaire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

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EVALUATION OF “Training for Peace inSouthern Africa”

Background

In the mid-nineties Norway was one of the firstcountries to promote capacity building in peace-keeping in Southern Africa through the project“Training for Peace in Southern Africa” (TfP).Other countries (Sweden, Denmark, the UK,the US and others) are also supporting similaractivities in the region.

The TfP project star ted in 1995, under aframework agreement between the Norwegianand the South African Ministries of ForeignAf fairs. The temporary timeframe for theproject was until the end of 1999, i.e. almost fiveyears. It has been decided to prolong the projectperiod by one year, i.e. until the end of 2000. TheNorwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MFA)would like to consider a possible continuation ora phase II for the project based on an evaluationof experience gained during the almost fiveyears of operation of the project. Thecomponents of the project have been seminars,workshops, training courses, research anddocumentation, including policy formulation.The project was designed to have primarily acivilian approach, but also aimed to integratemilitary representatives. Government officials,civilian police, NGOs as well as militarypersonnel have participated in the courses, bothas instructors and participants.

The project has been run by three institutions.The Norwegian Institute of International Affairs(NUPI) in Oslo has had a co-ordinating function,and been responsible for budgeting andreporting to the MFA. The two other co-operating institutions have been the AfricanCentre for the Constructive Resolution ofDisputes (ACCORD) in Durban, South Africa,which has been the leading organisation withregard to training, and the Institute for SecurityStudies (ISS) in Johannesburg, (now moved to

Pretoria), South Africa, which has taken the leadon the research and conceptual developmentcomponent of the project.

The initial budget was NOK 2.5 million per year,i.e. a total of NOK 11.3 million for the entireperiod. However, the budgetary framework hasbeen expanded to approximately NOK 15million totally until the end of 1999.

The objectives of the project, as mentioned inthe original project document, were

• To develop and conduct a series of trainingprogrammes in order to take part inbuilding a realisable stand-by capacity ofpersonnel within Southern Africa that canbe used in PKOs.

• To include in the training programmesparticipants from Defence, Foreign Affairsand NGOs of the interested countries in theregion in order to facilitate or contribute tothe development of consistency in approachwithin these three sectors, as well asappreciation of the dif fering andcomplementary roles of each sector.

• To include participants from as many of theeleven SADC countries (now 14) as possiblein each training session, and therebycontribute to the creation of a commonlanguage and common culture of peace-keeping that will support collectiveapproaches to security, PKOs and effectiveconflict management.

• To conduct seminars and workshops todevelop new understanding, knowledge andapproaches that will provide the basis formore effective training and education aswell as enhance policy making and publicawareness of the challenges involved.

• To promote policy development in peace-keeping in order to formulate, document,analyse and apply innovative ideas from

Annex 1 Terms of Reference

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overseas as well as local concepts andtechniques to improve peacekeeping withinthe region.

The more specific planned outputs and activitieswere listed as follows:

• to enhance institutional capacity within theSADC region for training and policy makingin peacekeeping

• to provide training in peacekeeping andthereby assist in the establishment of aresource pool of trained persons that can bedeployed in peacekeeping operations

• to encourage the development of a commonpeacekeeping doctrine within the region,and

• to produce publications documenting localconcepts, trends and techniques in peace-keeping and conflict resolution

Objectives of the evaluation

The main purpose of this evaluation is toprovide information to the Norwegian MFA andother actors involved on the outcome of thisparticular pioneer project in relation to its mainaims mentioned above. The evaluation shouldalso assess the extent to which the aims are stillrelevant, taking into consideration changes inthe region during the project period (i.e.increased activities in this field by SADC, theUN and other actors, changes in capacity ofcertain SADC countries, activities of otherdonors etc.). Based on the findings, theevaluation should recommend a further courseof action with regard to the future of the projectand provide recommendations on howNorway’s support to capacity building in thefield of peacekeeping, peacebuilding andconflict management should be directed toaddress the needs of the Southern Africanregion in the future. This includes anidentification of the plans of the governments inthe region regarding peacekeeping and conflictmanagement, and an analysis of the extent to

which TfP has been an integral part of theseplans.

In this respect, the tripartite model of NUPI, theISS and ACCORD, and the dif ferent rolesassigned to each institution, should be assessed,including the relationship between policyformulation, research and training, as well asthe relationship between military and civilianparticipation.

To avoid overlap with other actors in the field,the evaluation may identify a sharper focus forNorwegian support to this sector in the future.This could mean focussing on certain aspects ofonly peacekeeping and conflict management ina phase II of the project. The possible inclusionof institutions in SADC countries outside SouthAfrica as operators/co-operating partnersshould also be considered in a future project.

The specific objectives of the evaluation will be :

• To assess the quantity, academic quality (tothe extent possible) and policy relevance ofpublications produced under the auspices ofthe project

• To assess the curriculum and pedagogicalmethods used in the courses and seminars

• To assess the usefulness and relevance forthe participants of workshops, seminarsand conferences conducted by the projectpartners, as well as courses conducted inNorway (including length and content ofthe courses, teaching methods etc.)

• To assess the compatibility of theparticipants in the workshops and courses,and whether they have been representativeactors in their respective countries (alsoratio between military/civilian andmen/women should be assessed)

• To assess the contribution of the project indeveloping policy formulation andcompetence in Southern Africa formeaningful participation of the countriesconcerned in peacekeeping operations

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• To assess the institutionalisation in theSADC countries of the competenceacquired through the TfP project byindividual participants, including thedegree to which the countries concernedhave used these individuals’ knowledge tobuild up internal capacity for furthercompetence building

• To assess the possible need for more directstate participation in the project, particu-larly with regard to institutionalisation ofacquired competence

• To assess the cost ef fectiveness of theproject

• To assess the donor’s administration andmanagement of the project, including therole of the dif ferent actors, (the MFA,NORAD and the embassies concerned)

Scope and method

The evaluation should cover the entire projectperiod from 1995 to date, and also consider it inview of activities of other similar projects in theSADC region initiated later to see whether eachdonor has found its niche and complementedeach other, or whether there has beenconsiderable overlap.

All relevant background material at the MFA inOslo (which had the overall responsibility forthe project), NORAD (which provided thefunds), the Norwegian embassy in Pretoria, andthe operators NUPI, ACCORD and ISS should

be studied. All these institutions should bevisited and interviews conducted. Relevantpeople in the MFA and Ministry of Defence inSouth Africa, and (to the extent possible) inother SADC countries should be interviewed asto the utility and impact of the project. A surveycovering all earlier participants and a selectionof key presenters/speakers, including theNorwegian military and police personnel shouldbe undertaken.

If found useful, other institutions such as theZimbabwe Staff College in Harare should alsobe visited.

Evaluation team

The evaluation should be conducted by aninternational, multi-ethnic and multi-disciplinary team of three to five people,comprising expertise in security studies andpeacekeeping, social sciences (conflictmanagement/prevention, communicationskills/pedagogy, ethnic relations, gender), aswell as knowledge of the region, and be familiarwith evaluation methodology.

The team will be identified by the staff of thePolicy Planning and Evaluation Department,MFA.

Timing and reporting

The evaluation should start early in November1999. The final report should be submitted tothe MFA on April 28th 2000 at the latest.

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Norway

Royal Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs

Department for Security Policy: Special Adviser peacekeeping operations Knut TøraasenDeputy Director General Jan Arve KnutsenExecutive officer Geir Jostein Horten

Deputy Director General Cecilie Landsverk(OSCE co-ordination unit)

Bilateral Department, Africa DeskDeputy Director General Eli JonsvikGunnar Holm (Adviser)

Ambassador Helga Hernes, former SpecialAdviser peacekeeping operations(now Royal Norwegian Embassy in Austria)

Aslak Brun, former Adviser, Department forSecurity Policy(now embassy secretary Royal NorwegianEmbassy in Holland)

Bård Hopland, formerly Department forSecurity Policy (telephone interview)

NORAD

Adviser Helge Stange Adviser Svein DamsgaardTrainee (MFA) Bjørn Svenungsen

NUPI

Director Sverre LodgaardProject Coordinator Torunn TryggestadTfP acting Project Coordinator (May 1998–July1999) Anita Kristensen KrokanChief Superintendant Tor Tanke Holm (PoliceAdvisor, NUPI)

Åge Eknes, former Director of UN Programme

Institute for Human Rights

Project Director (NORDEM) Kristin Høgdahl

AFIC-N (Armed Forces International Center)

Chief International Logistics Branch Lt.Colonel Egil Lie Senior Executive Officer, InternationalOperations Branch Stein Ellingsen

South Africa

Royal Norwegian Embassy

Ambassador Per Grimstad Minister counsellor Aud Marit Wiig

Royal Danish Embassy

First secretary Malene Hedlund

Embassy of Finland

Counsellor Pekka Orpana

Embassy of Sweden

First Secretary Karin Høglund Second Secretary Ulrika Soneson

Zambian High Commission

Mr. Ngenda Lindunda

Mozambique High Commission

Mr. Tamele

Zimbabwe High Commission

High Commissioner Nelson MoyoCol. Ncumbe, former Director of the RegionalPeacekeeping Training Center

Institute for Security Studies (ISS)

Executive Director Jakkie CilliersProject Director Mark Malan (Training for Peace)Program leader Virginia Gamba (Arms Management Programme)Researcher Marthino Chachiua (Arms Management Programme and ISRIliaison officer)Programme leader Antoinette Louw (Crime Prevention and Policing Programme) Dr. Rocky Williams (Africa Peace and Security Programme)

Annex 2 List of Contacts

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Program leader Richard Cornwell (Africa Early Warning Program)Senior field researcher Jakkie Potgieter (Africa Early Warning Programme)

Department of Foreign Affairs

SADC: Political AffairsMr. Horst BrammerOAU Politics and SecurityDeputy Director Betsie SmithAfrica DeskDeputy Director General Welile Nhlapo

Department of Defence

Defence SecretariatChief Director of Defence Policy Tsepe Motumi

UNHCHR Office

Mr. David Johnson

UNOCHA Office

Obi AnyadikeRobin Schofield

University of the Witwatersrand

The South African Institute of Foreign Affairs(SAIIA)Douglas BrooksDepartment of International RelationsProfessor John J. StremlauGraduate School of Public and DevelopmentManagement, Regional Defence and SecurityManagement ProgrammeDirector Professor Gavin CawthraAnthony Van Nieuwkerk

South African Staff College

Lt. Col. Adrè Ellis

Centre for Conflict Resolution (CCR)

Laurie Nathan (telephone interview)

South African Police Service

Director Riaan van Staden

South African National Defence Forces

Headquarters

Col. Johan van der Walt

African Center for the Constructive Resolution of

Disputes (ACCORD)

Executive Director Vasu GoundenDeputy Director Karthi GovenderDeputy Director Jerome SachaneProject Director Cedric de Coning (Trainingfor Peace)Kwesi MngqibisaTraining Officer Kemi OgunsanyaManager Public Sector Programme Pravina Makan-LakhaManager IT Programme Ian Henderson

Professor Jairam ReddyChair, UN University

Zimbabwe

Royal Norwegian Embassy

Minister Counsellor Kåre Stormark.

Royal Danish Embassy

Counsellor, Dep. Head of Mission Lars Kjellberg

Embassy of Sweden

Jan OlssonFirst Secretary Irina Schoulgin

Ministry of Defense

General Nyambya

Ministry of Foreign Affairs

Undersecretary David Hamadziripi

Regional Peacekeeping Training Center (RPTC)

Colonel Daniso Muziri, DirectorColonel Kurt Mosgaard, Senior MilitaryPeacekeeping Advisor

British Military Advisory and Training Team (BMATT)

Southern Africa

Brigadier G. de V W Hayes CBE, CommanderLieutenant Colonel Gary Donaldson RA, Chiefof Staff

Southern African Regional Police Chief’s

Coordinating Organisation (SARPCCO)

Liason Officer Anton M. Ferreira

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LRF (Legal Resources Foundation)

National Director Eileen Sawyer

SAPES Trust and SARIPS (Southern African Regional

Institute for Policy Studies)

Director Ibbo Mandaza (SAPES)Director Professor Sam Moyo (SARIPS)Professor Mwesiga Baregu (SARIPS)

New York

United Nations

Lessons Learned Unit , Department of PoliticalAffairsDirector Leonard Kapungu

Deputy Permanent Observer of the OAU to theUnited NationsDr. Christopher Bakweisega, former Head ofthe Conflict Management Unit of the OAU

UNDP (United Nations DevelopmentProgramme)Dr. Augustino Zacharias, formerly teaching atACCORD Training Programme

65

Publications Consulted in the Preparation of Chapter 4

Publications by ISS

African Security Review, 1997. 6:4.

African Security Review, 1999. 8:6.

Angola update, 1999, December.

Berman, Eric G and Katie E Sams, 1998.Constructive Disengagement: Westernefforts to develop African peacekeeping.ISS Monograph Series No. 33, December.

Cilliers, Jakkie, 1999. Building security inSouthern Africa: An update on the evolvingarchitecture. ISS Monograph Series No. 43,Nov.

Cilliers, Jakkie and Greg Mills, eds, 1999. FromPeacekeeping to Complex Emergencies:Peace Support Missions in Africa.Johannesburg and Pretoria: South AfricanInstitute of International Af fairs andInstitute for Security Studies.

Gamba, Virgina, 1999. Small arms in SouthernAfrica: Reflections on the extent of theproblem and its management potential. ISSMonograph Series No. 42, Nov.

Government of the Republic of South Africa,1998. White Paper on South AfricanParticipation in International PeaceMissions, as approved by Cabinet on 21October.

Malan, Mark, 1997a. “A Concise ConceptualHistory of UN Peace Operations”, AfricanSecurity Review 6:1.

Malan, Mark, 1997b. “Treading Firmly on theLayered Response Ladder: From PeaceEnforcement to Conflict TerminationOperations in Africa?”, African SecurityReview 6:5.

Malan, Mark and Jakkie Cilliers, 1997. SADCOrgan on Politics, Defence and Security:Future Development. ISS Occasional PaperNo. 19, March.

Malan, Mark et al., 1997. African Capabilities forTraining for Peace Operations. A Report forthe Secretary-General of the Organisationof African Unity.

Malan, Mark, 1998. SADC and SubregionalSecurity: Unde Venis et Quo Vadis? ISSMonograph Series No. 19, February.

Malan, Mark, 1998b. Peacekeeping in Africa –Trends and Responses. ISS Paper No. 31,June.

Malan, Mark, 1998c. “Peacekeeping in the NewMillennium: Towards ‘Fourth Generation’Peace Operations?”, African SecurityReview 7:3.

Malan, Mark, 1999a. The OAU and AfricanSubregional Organisations – A closer lookat the “peace pyramid”. ISS Paper No. 36,January.

Malan, Mark, ed., 1999b. Towards an Under-standing of Contemporary Armed Conflictsin Africa. ISS Monograph Series No. 36,April.

Malan, Mark, 1999c. Integrated Principles forPeace Support Operations. Pretoria: IISS,Work in Progress.

Rossouw, Braam, 1998. “A South AfricanPerspective on the Place of Peace SupportOperations Within Broader PeaceMissions”, African Security Review 7:1.

Annex 3 Bibliography

66

Seymour, Vernon, 1996. Burundi and the Futureof Humanitarian Intervention. IDP PaperNo. 9, September.

Publications by ACCORD

ACCORD Handbook in Advanced ConflictResolution.

ACCORD Handbook in Basic ConflictResolution.

ACCORD Handbook in Facilitation.

Adeniji, Olu, 1997. Mechanisms for ConflictManagement in West Africa: Politics ofHarmonization. ACCORD Occasional PaperNo. 2/97.

African Journal on Conflict Resolution, 1999. 1:1

Alden, Chris, 1997. United Nations Peace-keeping in Africa: Lessons for the OAU andSADC. ACCORD Occasional Paper No.1/97.

Aning, Emmanuel Kwesi, 1999. Negotiation,conflict and compromise – the Liberianchallenge to a sub-regional security system.ACCORD Occasional Paper No. 2/99.

Conflict Trends, 1998–1999. Issues 1–4.

de Coning, Cedric, 1999. Preparing for the ThirdMillennium: Towards a Policy Frameworkfor the OAU Conflict ManagementMechanism. ACCORD Occasional PaperNo. 4/99.

Harleman, Christian, 1998. Civilian Peace-keepers – A Future Challenge. ACCORDOccasional Paper No. 1/98.

Landry, Lt. Col. Remi, 1999. The EuropeanCommunity Monitor Mission (ECMM) informer Yugoslavia: Lessons Learned forOAU Civilian Missions. ACCORDOccasional Paper No. 5/99.

Malan, Jannie, 1999. “Foreword”, AfricanJournal on Conflict Resolution 1:1.

Mekenkamp, Monique, Paul van Tongeren andHans van de Veen, eds, 1999. Searching forPeace in Africa: An Overview of ConflictPrevention and Management Activities.Utrecht: European Platform for ConflictPrevention and Transformation incooperation with ACCORD.

Mzizi, Joshua Bhekinkosi, 1999. The AfricanCharter on Human and Peoples’ Rights andHuman Rights in Africa. ACCORDOccasional Paper No. 1/99.

Peacekeeping Training Workshop: A “Trainingfor Peace” Project.

Rossouw, A. J., 1998. Towards a New Under-standing of the Terms and Definitions forInternational Peace Missions. ACCORDOccasional Paper No. 2/98.

van Nieuwkerk, Anthoni, 1999. Implications forSouth Africa’s foreign policy beyond theLesotho crisis. ACCORD Occasional PaperNo. 3/99.

67

Other Publications Consulted or Cited

Breytenbach, W.J., 1999. Security in the SADCRegion: What Performance of the Organ tellsabout Co-operation and Integration. Paperfor SADC Workshop arranged by KonradAdenauer Foundation, Zimbabwe, 1–3March 1999

Brock-Utne, Birgit, 1994. The Power to Definethe Curriculum. Oslo: Universitetet i Oslo,Pedagogisk Forskningsinstitutt rapport nr.4 1994.

Centre for Defence and Security Managementand Southern African Defence and SecurityManagement Network. Graduate School ofPublic and Development Management,University of the Witwatersrand. Projectproposal submitted to the Danish Ministryof Foreign Affairs and DANIDA. ChristianMichelsen Institute. January 1999.

DANIDA Support of Regional PeacekeepingTraining Cooperation in Southern Africa(SADC) through the Regional Peace-keeping Training Centre, Zimbabwe. AJoint Review. Christian Michelsen Institute.Draft Report, June 1999.

Draft White Paper on South AfricanParticipation in International PeaceMissions, October 1998.

House, Ernest R.., 1993. ProfessionalEvaluation: Social Impact and PoliticalConsequences. Newbury Park: SagePublications

Legal Resources Foundation, 1999. SouthernAfrican Resource Bank for Democracy andHuman Rights (SAFDEM) Project proposal.Zimbabwe

Meyns, Peter, 1999. Political Integration:Whither Southern Africa?

Reardon, Betty, 1988. Comprehensive PeaceEducation. Education for Global Respons-ibility. New York: Teachers College Press.

Singh, Meena, (ed.), 1995. Redefining Security inSouthern Africa. Common Security Forum:Centre for History and Economics.

Stenhouse, Lawrence, 1975. An Introduction toCurriculum Research and Development.Newcastle upon Tyne: Athaneum Press Ltd.

Taylor, James; Marais, Dirk; Kaplan Allan, 1997.Action Learning for Development. CapeTown: Juta & Company Limited

69

Publications under the auspices of TfP at ISS:Comprehensive list

ISS Monographs

M. Malan (ed.), New Partners in Peace:Towards a Southern African PeacekeepingCapacity, IDP Monograph No. 5, 1996.

V. Gamba and J. Potgieter, MultifunctionalPeace Support Operations: Evolution andChallenges, ISS Monograph, No. 8, January1997.

M. Malan, (ed.), Conflict Management,Peacekeeping and Peace-Building: Lessonsfor Africa from a Seminar Past, ISSMonograph, No 10, April 1997.

M. Malan, W. Nhara, and P. Bergevin, AfricanCapabilities for Training for PeaceOperations, ISS Monograph, No. 17,November 1997.

M. Malan, SADC and Sub-Regional Security:Unde Venis et Quo Vadis?, ISS Monograph,No. 19, February 1998.

M. Malan (ed.), Resolute Partners: BuildingPeacekeeping Capacity in Southern Africa,ISS Monograph, No. 21, February 1998.

E. Berman and K. Sams, ConstructiveDisengagement? Western Ef forts toDevelop African Peacekeeping, ISSMonograph, No. 32, December 1998.

D. Henk, Peace and Security in Africa:Contributions by the United States, ISSMonograph, No. 35, March 1999.

M. Malan, (ed.), Whither Peacekeeping inAfrica?, ISS Monograph, No. 36, April 1999.

Articles in African Security Review

M. Malan, Foundations for Regional Security:Training for Peace in Southern Africa,African Security Review, Vol. 5, No. 1,1996.

J. Cilliers and M. Malan, A RegionalPeacekeeping Role for South Africa:Pressures, Problems and Prognosis,African Security Review, Vol. 5, No. 3, 1996.

M. Malan, Peacebuilding in Post-Conflict SouthAfrica: The Need for a ComprehensiveDemobilisation and RemobilisationProgramme, African Security Review, Vol. 5,No. 4,1996.

K. Monnakgotla, The Naked Face of UNPeacekeeping: Noble Crusade or NationalSelf-Interest, African Security Review Vol. 5,No. 5,1996.

K. Kingma, The Role of Demobilisation in thePeace and Development Process in Sub-Saharan Africa: Conditions for Success,African Security Review Vol. 5, No. 6,1996.

M. Malan, A Concise Conceptual History of UNPeace Operations, African Security Review,Vol. 6, No. 1, 1997.

M. Malan, Towards Sounder Investments inAfrican Peacekeeping Capabilities, AfricanSecurity Review, Vol. 6, No. 2, 1997.

R. Evans, The Humanitarian Challenge: AForeign Policy Perspective, African SecurityReview, Vol. 6, No. 2, 1997.

M. Malan, The Principle of Non-Interferenceand the Future of MultinationalIntervention in Africa, African SecurityReview, Vol. 6, No. 3, 1997.

L. Forster, Training Standards for UnitedNations Military Observers: The

Annex 4 Publications under the Auspices of Training for Peace

70

Foundation of Excellence, African SecurityReview, Vol. 6, No. 4, 1997.

M. Malan, Treading Firmly on the LayeredResponse Ladder: From PeaceEnforcement to Conflict TerminationOperations in Africa, African SecurityReview, Vol. 6, No. 5, 1997.

P. Steyn, South Africa and Peace SupportOperations: Limitations, Options andChallenges, African Security Review, Vol. 7,No. 1, 1998.

B. Rossouw, A South African Perspective on thePlace of Peace Support Operations withinBroader Peace Missions, African SecurityReview, Vol. 7, No. 1, 1998.

F. McFarlane and M. Malan, Crisis andResponse in Central African Republic: ANew Trend in African Peacekeeping?African Security Review, Vol. 7, No. 2, 1998.

M. Malan, Keeping the Peace in theNeighbourhood and Abroad: Lessons forSouth Africa from the Russian Experience?African Security Review, Vol. 7, No. 3, 1998.

M. Malan, Peacekeeping in the NewMillennium: Towards “Fourth Generation”Peace Operations? African Security Review,Vol. 7, No. 3, 1998.

M. Cahchiua and M. Malan, Anomalies andAcquiescence: The Mozambican PeaceProcess Revisited, African Security Review,Vol. 7, No. 4, 1998.

M. Malan, “Peace Enforcement”: The RealPeace Support Challenge in Africa, AfricanSecurity Review, Vol. 7, No. 5, 1998.

H. Haugerudbraaten, Peace-building: SixDimensions and Two Concepts, AfricanSecurity Review, Vol. 7, No. 6, 1998.

Pierre du Toit, Peacebuilding in Africa:Prospects for Security and Democracy

beyond the State, African Security Review,Vol. 8, No. 1, 1999.

M. Malan, Police Reform in South Africa: Peace-Building without Peacekeepers, AfricanSecurity Review, Vol. 8, No. 3, 1999.

M. Malan, Leaner and Meaner? The Future ofPeacekeeping in Africa, African SecurityReview, Vol. 8, No. 4, 1999.

J. Selebi, Building Collaborative Security inSouthern Africa, African Security Review,Vol. 8, No. 5, 1999.

S. Maninger, Atrocities and Retreat: RethinkingAfrican Conflict Management Strategies,African Security Review, Vol. 8, No. 6, 1999(forthcoming).

ISS Papers

M. Malan, Surveying the Middle Ground:Conceptual Issues and Peacekeeping inSouthern Africa, IDP Paper, No. 2, March1996.

V. Seymour, Burundi and the Future ofHumanitarian Intervention, IDP Paper, No.9, 1996.

J. Potgieter and V. Gamba, Evolution of aNational Doctrine for Peace SupportOperations, Occasional IDP Paper,September 1996.

M. Malan and J. Cilliers, SADC Organ onPolitics, Defence and Security: FutureDevelopment, ISS Papers, No. 19, March1997.

R. Williams, Don’t Hold the African CrisisResponse Force Hostage to UnrealisticDemands, ISS Papers, No. 21, April 1997.

M. Malan, US Reaction to African Crises: AnOverview and Preliminary Analysis of theAfrican Crisis Response Initiative, ISSPapers, No. 24, August 1997.

71

M. Malan, Peacekeeping in Africa: Trends andResponses, ISS Papers, No. 31, June 1998.

M. Malan, Regional Power Politics Under Coverof SADC: Running Amok With a MythicalOrgan, ISS Papers, No. 35, October 1998.

M. Malan, The OAU and Sub-RegionalOrganisations: A Closer look at the “PeacePyramid”, ISS Papers, No. 36, January 1999.

M. Malan, “Renaissance Peacekeeping”: ASouth African Solution to Conflict in theDRC?, ISS Papers, No. 37, January 1999.

Non-ISS/TfP Publications1

Op Eds

M. Malan, Transforming the Military, The NatalWitness, 25 January 1996.

M. Malan, The Bloody Mess That is Africa, TheStar, 30 May 1996.

M. Malan, UN Price Tag Reduced, Salut, Vol. 3,No. 6, June 1996.

M. Malan, A Long Way to Go, Salut, Vol. 3, No. 6,June 1996.

M. Malan, Tangible Achievements TowardSustainable Peace, Salut, Vol. 3, No. 6, June1996.

M. Malan, Defence must not be ignored, The Star,4 July 1996.

M. Malan, Can Nzo & Co “Walk the Talk”?, TheStar, 16 July 1996.

J. Cilliers and M. Malan, SADC Organ Formed toEnsure Stability, Business Day, 24 July 1996.

M. Malan, Security Firms or Private Armies?,The Star, 30 August 1996.

M. Malan, Big Problems for Africa Crisis Force,The Star, 14 October 1996.

M. Malan, Reining in the Armies of Africa:Keeping the Military in Order withoutCompromising its Effectiveness Poses a BigProblem, The Star, 28 April 1997.

M. Malan, SADC Objectives Being Shackled, TheStar, 4 February 1997.

M. Malan, Respect Should Be Conditional: Nomatter how popular Kablila’s accession mayseem, it was still a military take-over, TheStar, 2 June 1997.

M. Malan, Democracy in Sierra Leone anUnlikely Dream, The Star, 5 June 1997.

M. Malan, UN’s Brazzaville Pleas Ignored, TheStar, 1 July 1997.

M. Malan, Laager Mentality Alive and Well:Building fortified villages is not the way toensure safety in crime-ridden SA, The Star,24 July 1997.

M. Malan and J. Cilliers, Genuine outreachprojects can be given a mercenary tag,Business Day, 3 September 1997.

Journal Articles

J. Cilliers and M. Malan, South Africa andRegional Peacekeeping: Problems andProspects, CSIS Africa Notes, No. 18,August, 1996.

J. Cilliers and M. Malan, From Destabilisation toPeacekeeping in Southern Africa: ThePotential Role of South Africa, Africa Insight,Vol. 26, No. 4, 1996.

J. Cilliers and M. Malan, Old Habits Die Hard:Can SADC Counter Military Intervention inSouthern Africa?, Indicator South Africa,Vol. 13, No. 3, 1996.

1) Publications that are not funded by TfP, but contributed by the TfP project leader at ISS and with policy/public informationimplications.

72

M. Malan, The Privatisation of Security and“Peacekeeping” in Africa, Indicator SouthAfrica, Vol. 14, No.2, Winter 1997.

M. Malan, Sixes and Sevens: South AfricanPeace Operations, Indicator South Africa:Crime and Conflict, No. 10, Spring 1997.

M. Shaw and M. Malan, Guarding the Guards:Regulating South Africa’s Private SecuritySector, NEDCOR ISS Crime Index, No. 1,1997.

M. Malan, Training for Peace in Africa, DefenceAffairs of Africa and the Middle East, Vol. 1,No. 1, May 1998.

M. Malan, Keeping the Peace in Africa: ARenaissance Role for South Africa? IndicatorSouth Africa, Vol. 15, No. 2, Winter 1998.

M. Malan, Can They Do That? SADC, the DRCand Lesotho, Indicator South Africa, Vol. 15,No. 4, Summer 1998.

M. Malan, Peacebuilding in Southern Africa:Police Reform in South Africa andMozambique, International Peacekeeping,Special Edition, 1999 (forthcoming).

M. Malan, South Africa and the Limits ofPeacemaking in Southern Africa,International Peacekeeping (KluwerAcademic Publishers), No. 6, December1999 (forthcoming).

Book Chapters

M. Malan, Prospects for Keeping the Peace inSouthern Africa, in R.I. Rotberg and G.Mills (eds.), War and Peace in SouthernAfrica: Crime, Drugs, Armies and Trade,World Peace Foundation/ BrookingsInstitution Press, Washington, D.C./Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1998.

M. Malan, The Crisis in External Response, in J.Cilliers and P. Mason (Eds.) Peace, Profit,or Plunder? The Privatisation of War and

Security in Africa, ISS, Johannesburg,March 1999.

M. Malan, Peacekeeping in Africa: Trends andResponses, in H. Purkitt (Ed.) AnnualEditions: World Politics 1999/00, DushkinMcGraw-Hill, 1999.

M. Malan, Debunking Some Myths AboutPeacekeeping in Africa, in J. Cilliers and G.Mills (Eds.), From Peacekeeping toComplex Emergencies: Peace SupportMissions in Africa, SAIIA and ISS,Johannesburg, July 1999.

M. Malan, Peacekeeping in Africa, in G. Mills(Ed.), The South African Yearbook ofInternational Affairs: 1999/2000, SAIIA,1999.

M. Malan, Civil-Military Relations in Africa:Soldier, State and Society in Transition, in H.Solomon and I. Liebenberg (Eds.), TheConsolidation of Democracy in Africa,(Howard Academic Publishers,forthcoming).

Ad Hoc Reports

M. Malan, W. Nhara and P. Bergevin, AfricanCapabilities for Training for PeaceOperations: A Report for the Secretary-General of the Organisation of AfricanUnity, ISS, Johannesburg, 1997.

M. Malan and J. Cilliers, Mercenaries andMischief: The Regulation of Foreign MilitaryAssistance Bill, ISS Papers, No.25,September 1997.

M. Malan, Integrated Principles for PeaceSupport Operations, ad hoc ISS Report,September 1999.

73

Publications under the auspices of TfP at ACCORD:Comprehensive list

Occasional Papers

1997:

No. 1: Alden, Dr. Chris, United NationsPeacekeeping in Africa: Lessons for theOAU and SADC.

No 2: Adeniji, Ambassador Olu, Mechanisms forConflict Management in West Africa:Politics of Harmonization.

1998

No. 1: Haarleman, Christian, Civilian Peace-Keepers – A Future Challenge.

No. 2: Rossouw, A. J., Towards a NewUnderstanding of the Terms andDefinitions for International PeaceMissions.

1999

No. 1: Mzizi, Dr. Joshua Bhekinkosi, TheAfrican Charter on Human and Peoples’Rights and Human Rights in Africa.

No. 2: Aning, Emmanuel Kwesi, Negotiation,conflict and compromise – the Liberianchallenge to a sub-regional security system.

No. 3: van Nieuwkerk, Anthoni, Implications forSouth Africa’s foreign policy beyond theLesotho crisis.

No. 4: de Coning, Cedric, Preparing for theThird Millennium: Towards a PolicyFramework for the OAU ConflictManagement Mechanism.

No. 5: Landry, Lt.-Col. Remi, The EuropeanCommunity Monitor Mission (ECMM) in

former Yugoslavia: Lessons Learned forOAU Civilian Missions.

No. 6: de Coning, Cedric, Breaking the SADCOrgan Impasse: Report of a Seminar on theOperationalisation of the SADC Organ.

No. 7: Graeger, Nina, Security Organisations inEurope – Lessons Learned from theEuropean Experience.

No. 8: Yoroms, Joses Gani, Mechanisms ForConflict Management in ECOWAS.

No. 9: Tapfumaneyi, Lt.-Col. Asher Walter, TheSADC Organ on Politics. Defence andSecurity: Interpreting the Decision of theMaputo 1997 SADC Summit.

Articles in Conflict Trends Magazine

de Coning, Cedric, A New Lease On Life for theSADC Organ, Conflict Trends, Issue 5,February 2000, Durban.

Mngqibisa, Kwezi, International Involvement inthe DRC after the Lusaka Agreement, Issue 4,December 1999, Durban.

de Coning, Cedric, Lessons Learned fromExercise Blue Crane, Conflict Trends, Issue3, September 1999, Durban.

de Coning, Cedric, Peacekeeping in the DRC – ANew Role for the United Nations, ConflictTrends, Issue 2, April 1999, Durban.

de Coning, Cedric, Exercise Blue Crane – AUnifying Moment for SADC, ConflictTrends, Issue 2, April 1999, Durban.

de Coning, Cedric, The White Paper on SAParticipation in Peace Missions – A UniqueBeginning, Conflict Trends, Issue 2, April1999, Durban.

de Coning, Cedric, Conditions for Intervention:DRC and Lesotho, Conflict Trends,ACCORD, Issue I, October 1998, Durban.

74

Publications under the TfP banner in non-ACCORD publications

de Coning, Cedric, The Role of the OAU inConflict Management in Africa, ConflictManagement, Peacekeeping and Peace-Building, Lessons for Africa from a SeminarPast, ISS Monograph Series, No. 10, April1997, Midrand.

Chapters in Books

de Coning, Cedric, Neo-Interventionism: AnAfrican Response to Failed Internationalism,South African Yearbook of InternationalAffairs, SAIIA, 1999, Johannesburg.

de Coning, Cedric, Civil-Military Cooperation inUN Peace Missions – The Need for a NewHolistic Mission Approach, Cornwallis IV:Analysis of the Civil Military Inter face,Pearson Peacekeeping Centre, 1999, NovaScotia.

de Coning, Cedric, African Perspectives onIntervention: The Rising Tide of Neo-Interventionism, Chapter 7, NUPI/PRIOBook Project on Sovereign Intervention,International Peace Research Institute(PRIO), February 1999, Oslo.

Professional/Research Magazines andNewsletters

de Coning, Cedric, South African Blue Helmetsin the DRC, Global Dialogue, Vol 4.2,August 99, Johannesburg.

de Coning, Cedric, Making Peace in Africa:South Africa’s Role in the Organization ofAfrican Unity, Foundation for GlobalDialogue, Global Dialogue, Vol. 2.1,February 1997, Johannesburg.

Newspaper Commentary

de Coning, Cedric, SA has Vital Role to Play inSecuring Peace, Sunday World, 4 July 1999,p. 15

de Coning, Cedric, Joint SADC Army ExerciseWill Test Region’s Ability to Keep the Peace,The Sunday Independent, 14 March 1999,p.5

de Coning, Cedric, Congo Cease-fire will beWorthless if Parties Lack Political Will toImplement It, The Sunday Independent, 27December 1998, p. 4.

de Coning, Cedric, Crisis in Comoros RequiresHolistic Approach, The Star, 16 December,p. 10.

de Coning, Cedric, Military Intervention in theComoros: A Tricky Decision, Pretoria News,17 December, p. 7.

de Coning, Cedric, Any Intervention should beAuthorised, The Star, 1 October 1998, p. 10.

de Coning, Cedric, Intervention’s PerceivedLegitimacy, Daily News, 29 September 1998,p. 8.

de Coning, Cedric, Congo Conflict ExposesRegional Rifts, The Star, 24 August 1998, p.11.

de Coning, Cedric, Conflict Challenge OAU’sExistence, Daily News, 25 June 1998, p.8.

de Coning, Cedric, Time to Debate OAU GoldenRule, The Star, 24 June 1998, p.11.

Conference Papers

de Coning, Cedric, The Future of Peacekeepingin Africa, paper presented at Seminar onPeacekeeping from an African Perspectiveorganized by the Norwegian Institute ofInternational Affairs (NUPI) on 17 March1999 in Oslo, Norway.

de Coning, Cedric, Lesotho Intervention:Implications for SADC – MilitaryInterventions, Peacekeeping and the AfricanRenaissance, Africa Dialogue Series,ACCORD & University of Pretoria, Pretoria,10 November 1998.

75

de Coning, Cedric, The Political and CivilianRole Players in Peace Operations, paperdelivered at the second Workshop with CivilSociety on White Paper on Peace SupportOperations, State Guest House, Pretoria, 11November 1997.

de Coning, Cedric, The Changing Environmentand the Role of Peace Support Operations,paper delivered at the first Workshop withCivil Society on the White Paper on PeaceSupport Operations, Union Buildings,Pretoria, 12 August 1997.

de Coning, Cedric, The Role of NGOs inSituations of Armed Conflict with SpecialReference to Children in Africa, paper

delivered at the Continental Conference onChildren in Situations of Armed Conflict inAfrica, Addis Ababa, 24–26 July 1997.

de Coning, Cedric, The SADC Organ for Politics,Defence and Security – The Southern AfricanExperience, Report of the Workshop onConflict Management in West Africa,AFSTRAG, 21–24 May 1997, Ogere,Nigeria.

de Coning, Cedric, Should South AfricaParticipate in Peacekeeping Operations, key-note address to the Annual GeneralMeeting of the Cease-fire Campaign, 6 May1997.

77

The following tables show the core TfP activitiesfrom 1995 to 1999. For the years 1995 and 1996ACCORD and ISS activities are shown in thesame table. For the years 1997, 1998, and 1999,there are separate tables for ACCORD and ISS

activities. The activities under the Exchangearrangement, in which personnel fromSouthern Africa participate in UN courses inNorway, are given in a separate table.

Annex 5 Training for Peace Training and Policy Seminars 1995–1999

1995

Date and location Activity

Workshop to introduce TfP to SADC countriesParticipants

44 (from 11 SADCcountries)

21–22 November,South Africa

Half-day seminar on small arms, disarmament,and conflict resolution in Southern Africa

Approx. 15December,Norway, Oslo, NUPI

1996

Date and location Activity

Policy seminar: Contemporary issues in UNpeacekeeping

Participants

3018 March,South Africa, PretoriaISS

TfP Workshop (3 days) 2319–22 March,Zambia, Manchini Bay Lodge ACCORD, ISS and NUPI

TfP Workshop (3 days) 2214–16 AugustMozambique, MaputoACCORD, ISS and NUPI

TfP Workshop (3 days) 2619–21 August,Zimbabwe ACCORD, ISS and NUPI

Policy seminar: Peace Operations in ExerciseMorning StarModule of Senior Command and Staff Course

204 (local, regionaland international)

9–13 September,SA Army College,PretoriaISS, with ACCORD and NUPI

TfP Workshop (3 days) 2518–20 September,Tanzania, Arusha ACCORD, ISS and NUPI

TfP Workshop (3 days) 2723–25 September Mauritius, Port LouisACCORD, ISS and NUPI

78

1997, ISS

Date and location Activity

One day workshop for the SA Army College:Contemporary Issues on the Southern AfricanPeacekeeping Agenda

Participants

156 May SA Army CollegePretoria

Presentation to SA Medical Services AcademyConcept and Conduct of Peace Operations inAfrica

2318 JuneSA Medical Services Academy

Presentation to SA Air Force College AnAgenda for Peace and peacekeeping in Africa

3214 JulySA Air Force College

One day workshop for under-graduate andgraduate students at the SA Military AcademyContemporary Issues on the Southern AfricanPeacekeeping Agenda

305 SeptemberSA Military CollegeSaldana

Presentation to SA Defence College ThePrivatisation of Security and Peacekeeping inAfrica

439 SeptemberSA Defence CollegePretoria

Assistance to the SA Army College on theprogramme for Exercise Pegasus

15–16 SeptemberSA Army CollegePretoria

Meeting of Technical Experts and the OAUChiefs of Staff Meeting

Approx. 12020–25 October,Zimbabwe, HarareACCORD and ISS in co-operation with OAU

Policy seminar on Multinational PeaceOperations: The Evolution of Policy and Practicein Southern Africa

42 (closed round tablewith local, regionaland internationalparticipants)

4–6 November,Pretoria

Public conference on Multinational PeaceOperations: The Evolution of Policy and Practicein Southern Africa

1505 November,Pretoria

Presentation to SA Army CollegePeacekeeping in Africa: The Role of the OAUand SADC

7411 NovemberSA Air Force College

1997, ACCORD

Date and location Activity

TfP Workshop (3 days)Participants

2321–23 AprilBotswana, GaboroneIn co-ordination with NUPI

TfP Workshop (5 days) 2523–27 JuneNamibia, WindhoekIn co-ordination with NUPI

TfP Workshop (5 days) 2714–18 JulyMalawi In co-ordination with NUPI

Meeting of Technical Experts and the OAUChiefs of Staff Meeting

Approx. 12020–25 October,Zimbabwe, HarareACCORD and ISS in co-operation with OAU

79

1998, ISS

Date and location Activity

Policy seminar on The Role of Civilian Police inPeace Operations

Participants

2725–27 February,South Africa, DurbanACCORD in co-ordinationwith NUPI and ISS

Seminar on building African peacekeepingcapacity

5020 MayPretoria

Regional Round-table on peacekeepingtraining for police officers

28 - police commis-sioners from12 SADCcountries and Nordiccountries

13–14 AugustISS

Symposium on International Peace andSecurity: The African Experience

14221–23 SeptemberSouth Africa, Saldanha

The first United Nations Police Officers Course(UNPOC I)

34 (45 includinginstructors)

4–14 November,Pretoria Police CollegeIn co-ordination with NUPI

1998, ACCORD

Date and location Activity

Policy seminar on The Role of Civilian Police inPeace Operations

Participants

2725–27 February,South Africa, DurbanACCORD in co-ordinationwith NUPI and ISS

TfP Workshop (5 days) 2525–29 May,Leshoto In co-ordination with NUPI

TfP Workshop (5 days) 2220–24 July,Swaziland

TfP Workshop (5 days)(called “the Blue Crane training workshop”)

2517–21 August,South Africa In co-ordination with NUPI

80

1999, ISS

Date and location Activity

Seminar on South Africa White Paper Participants

312 March Civilian Police (CIVPOL) component of BlueCrane

3318–28 AprilIn co-ordination with NUPI

First International Workshop on IntegratedMilitary Doctrine: Towards a Global Consensuson Peace Support Operations

28–31 MayPrague, Czech Republic

Regional Doctrinal Workshop 2024–26 AugustHarare

Exercise Pegasus 160 studentsattended Pegasus

14 September–1 October

2nd International Workshop: Towards a GlobalConsensus

approx. 3521–23 October

UNPOC II 3122 November–3 DecemberIn co-ordination with NUPI

1999, ACCORD

Date and location Activity

Blue Crane Instructors Training CourseParticipants

328 April Blue Crane Civilian-Military Liaison OfficerCourse (CIMIC) (module in UNSOC course)

3218–20 April

Blue Crane Seminar on Civil-MilitaryCooperation

699 July

Conflict Management Course forPeacekeepers at the RPTC

288 SeptemberHarare

Seminar on the Operationalisation of theSADC Organ

4127–29 OctoberDurban

Conflict Management Course forPeacekeepers at the RPTC

approx. 259–10 NovemberHarare

Civilian-Military Liaison Officer Course (CIMIC)at the RPTCConflict Management Course forPeacekeepers (module, UNPOC II) at the RPTC

approx. 30

31

21–24 NovemberHarare30 NovemberHarare

81

Military

1997

UNLOC II 1–19 SeptemberLt. Col. Mutero Johane Masanganise(Zimbabwe)

INTCOC 29 September–10 NovemberMr. Mark Malan (ISS, South Africa)Mr. Cedric de Coning (ACCORD, South Africa)

UNLOC III 24 November–12 DecemberSqn. Ldr. Lazarus Nyaundi (Zimbabwe)Lt. Col. Trevor Keith Dawes (South Africa)

1998

UNLOG 31 August–19 SeptemberFlt. Grey Muromo (Zambia)Capt. Clements Mabwinye (Zambia)

INTCOC 12–23 OctoberLt. Col. Louis Kajawu (Zimbabwe)

1999

UNLOC 2/99 30 August–17 SeptemberCapt. Lingililani Joseph (Botswana)

UNLOC 3/99 15 November–3 DecemberCapt. S. M. Magile (Tanzania)Wing Cdr. Govero, PM (Zimbabwe)

Total 11

Police

1997

UNPOC 4–15 AugustAleck Moyo (Zimbabwe)Rajie Murugan (Truth and ReconciliationCommission, South Africa)

1998

UNPOC 16–27 MarchDirector John Serfontein (South Africa) Commandant Peter Kivuyo (Tanzania)

UNPOC 27 July–7 AugustCommissioner T. H. M’Lukenti (Namibia)Commandant Salomon Jere (Zambia)

1999

UNPOC 2Assistant Superintendant Lazarous Mbuzi(Zambia)Bernard Ntaote (Lesotho)

UNPOC 3Superintendent Jeffrey Takawira Mahachi(Zimbabwe)Superintendent Kedikilwe Dikgang (Botswana)

Total 10

Training for Peace Exchange ArrangementParticipants from Southern Africa at UN training courses in Norway

Distribution of participants (military and police) per country

Military (11) Police (10)Botswana . . . . . . 1 Botswana . . . . . . 1

South Africa . . . . 3 Lesotho . . . . . . . . 1

Zambia . . . . . . . . 2 Namibia. . . . . . . . 1

Zimbabwe. . . . . . 4 South Africa . . . . 2

Tanzania . . . . . . . 1 Tanzania . . . . . . . 1

Zambia . . . . . . . . 2

Zimbabwe. . . . . . 2

83

Resource persons provided by NUPI(directly or indirectly) at TfP workshops andpolicy seminars

1995

21–22 November, Workshop to introduce TfP to SADC countriesÅge Eknes (Director UN Programme, NUPI)

• Presentation on peacekeeping concepts• Presentation on expected international

support to the TfP ProjectColonel Toralv Nordbø (Norwegian DefenceForce)2

• Presentation on operational challenges

1996

18 March, Policy Seminar on Contemporary Issues in UNPeacekeepingÅge Eknes

• Presentation and moderatorColonel Toralv Nordbø

• Presentation and moderator

20–22 March, TfP Workshop, Zambia (3 days)Åge Eknes

• Presentation on the understanding of peaceoperations

• Introduction to Syndicate Exercise: Civilian-military relations in peace operations

• Introduction to Syndicate Exercise:UNOSOM I/II and UNITAF

• Facilitation of group discussions, feedbackand plenary discussions

Colonel Toralv Nordbø• Presentation on the United Nations:

Structures and Procedures for Manage-ment of Peacekeeping

• Presentation on the Concepts of Operationsand Standard Operating Procedures

• Presentation on the Role of Various Actorsin Peacekeeping Operations (with MarkMalan)

• Presentation on the Training Requirementsfor Peacekeeping in the Southern AfricanContext (with Mark Malan)

• Presentation on National Arrangements forUN PKOs – the Nordic Experience

• Negotiation and Mediation (with VasuGounden)

14–16 August, TfP Workshop, Mozambique (3 days)Åge Eknes

• Presentation on the Establishment andStrategic Direction of PeacekeepingOperations

• Introduction to Syndicate Exercise(UNOMOZ and UNAMIR)

• Presentation on Contemporary Multi-functional Peacekeeping Operations

• Presentation on the UN and Regional Stand-by Arrangements

• Presentation on Nordic and AfricanExperiences (with Dr. Chris Bakwesegha,OAU)

• Facilitator of discussions in plenary

19–21 August, TfP Workshop, Zimbabwe (3 days)Åge Eknes

• Presentation on the Higher Management ofPeacekeeping Operations: Structures,Procedures and Problems

• Introduction to Syndicate Exercise:Relationship Between Mandates andImplementation (UNOMOZ and UNAMIR)

• Presentation on the Conceptual Challengesof Multi-Functional Peacekeeping Opera-tions

• Presentation on the Importance of RapidReaction Capacities: UN and Regional

Annex 6 Resource Persons Provided by NUPI in Support of Training for Peace

2) Col. Nordbø became involved in TfP in 1995. At that time he had just returned from New York where he had spent four yearsas Military Advisor to the Norwegian UN Delegation. At the time there were few Norwegians with as comprehensive a backgroundon military and diplomatic issues pertaining to peacekeeping at the Headquarters level.

84

Experiences and Initiatives with Regard toStand-by Arrangements

• Presentation on the Operationalisation ofStand-by Arrangements: Modus andConcepts for National Responses: TheNordic Experience

• Presentation on the Training for PeaceOperations: Nature, Scope andOrganisation of Pre-deployment Training

• Presentation on the Emerging Issues on theInternational Peacekeeping Agenda

• Facilitator of evaluation and closing

9–13 September, Policy Seminar on Peace Operations, Module ofExercise Morning StarÅge Eknes

• Responsible for the seminar programme(with Jakkie Cilliers, dir. IDP)

• Three presentations on various topics• Introduction to Syndicate Exercise

18–20 September, TfP Workshop, Tanzania (3 days)Åge Eknes

• Presentation on the Higher Management ofPeacekeeping Operations: Structures,Procedures and Problems

• Introduction to Syndicate Exercise: TheRelationship between Mandate, Means andImplementation (UNOMOZ and UNAMIR)

• Presentation on Conceptual Challenges ofMulti-functional Peacekeeping Operations

• Presentation on the Importance of RapidReaction Capacities: UN and RegionalExperiences and Initiatives with Regard toStand-by Arrangements

• Presentation on the Operationalisation ofStand-by Arrangements: Modus andConcepts for National Responses: TheNordic Experience

• Presentation on the Emerging Issues on theInternational Peacekeeping Agenda

23–25 September, TfP Workshop, Mauritius (3 days)Torunn L. Tryggestad (Project Co-ordinator,TfP)

• Presentation on the Higher Management ofUN Peacekeeping Operations: Structure,Procedures and Problems

• Presentation on the Operationalisation ofStand-by Arrangements: Modus andConcepts for National Response – theNordic Experience

• Facilitator of group discussions

1997

21–23 April, TfP Workshop, Botswana (3 days)Sverre Lodgaard (Director NUPI)

• Presentation on War and Peace: SecurityChallenges and Conflict ResolutionApproaches

Major Bjørn Skjærli (The Armed ForcesInternational Centre, AFIC-N)3

• The Bir th and Death of PeacekeepingOperations: Establishment, Conduct andTermination of a Peacekeeping Operation

• The Role of Dif ferent Actors in PeaceOperations: NGOs, Diplomats, Police andthe Military

• Training for Peace Operations: Nature,Scope and Organisation of Pre-deploymentTraining

Torunn L. Tryggestad (TfP project co-ordinator)

• Presentation on the Relationship betweenPeacekeepers, Host Governments andLocal Populations

• Facilitator of group discussionsLt. Col. Rune Ihle (AFIC-N)4

• The Importance of Rapid ReactionCapacities: UN and Regional Experiencesand Initiatives with Regard to Stand-byArrangements and the Nordic Experience

3) Major Bjørn Skjærli from the then newly established Armed Forces International Centre-Norway (AFIC-N) had both broadexperience from UN peacekeeping and experience as a trainer in Africa. 4) Lt. Col. Rune Ihle attended the workshop as an AFIC-N observer. He was sent to Botswana because AFIC-N wanted tostrengthen their competence on Africa. He was invited by ACCORD and NUPI to give one presentation in order to have him betterintegrated into the group. Costs related to his participation were paid for by AFIC-N.

85

23–27 June, TfP Workshop, Namibia (5 days)Torunn L. Tryggestad (TfP project co-ordinator)

• Presentation on the Relationship betweenPeacekeepers, Host Governments andLocal Populations

• Presentation on the Higher Management ofPeace Operations

• Presentation on the UN, Regional and Sub-regional Experiences with Regard to Stand-by Arrangements (with Brig. Muzonzini)

• Presentation on Utilising developmentassistance for Preventive Action

• Facilitator of group discussionsChief Superintendant Thorstein Bratteland(Police Advisor, NUPI)5

• Presentation on CIVPOL: The Role ofCivilian Police in Peace Operations

14–18 July, TfP Workshop, Malawi (5 days)Major Bjørn Skjærli (AFIC-N)

• Presentation on the Higher Management ofPeace Operations

• Presentation on CIVPOL: The Role ofCivilian Police in Peace Operations

• Presentation on the Establishment,Conduct and Termination of a PeaceOperation

• Presentation on UNMO: UN MilitaryObservers in Peace Operations

• Presentation on the UN, Regional and Sub-regional Experiences with Regard toStandby Arrangements (with Brig.Muzonzini)

5–7 November, Policy Seminar on Multinational PeaceOperations: The Evolution of Policy and Practicein Southern AfricaSir Marrack Goulding (Former USG forPolitical Affairs, UN)6

• The Case for an Integrated Approach toPeace and Security

Espen Barth Eide (Director of UN Programme,NUPI)

• Presentation on Harmonising PeaceOperations’ Policy and Practice: The NordicExperience

Ambassador Helga Hernes (Norwegian MFA)7

• Nordic Perspectives on African CapacityBuilding

1998

25–27 February, Policy Seminar on the Role of Civilian Police inPeace OperationsO.P. Rathor (Police Advisor to the UNSecretary General)

• Presentation on An Overview of Formerand Ongoing CIVPOL Missions

• Presentation on Selecting CIVPOL Officersfor Deployment

• Presentation on The Training of CIVPOLOfficers

Halvor Hartz (Police Commissioner for the UNCivilian Police Support Group in EasternSlavonia (UNCPSG)8

• Presentation on CIVPOL Tasks in ModernPeace Operations (The Smart Concept)

• Introduction to Case Study: FormerYugoslavia (with Barth Eide)

5) Thorstein Bratteland was working as a police advisor at the NUPI UN Programme from May 1997–May 1998. He workedparticularly on conceptual and empirical questions related to the role of civilian police in peace operations (CIVPOL). The purposeof his participation in Namibia was twofold: First, he was there as a trainer and moderator of group discussions. Second, he wasinterviewing a range of local people on the role of the UN mission in Namibia, which is regarded as the “mother” of modern CIVPOLmissions. His field trip not only benefitted his NUPI research but also policy development under the TfP umbrella. 6) Sir Marrack Goulding was centrally involved in the NUPI project Development Assistance as a Means of Conflict Prevention.NUPI thus found it to be a good idea if TfP policy discussions were also informed by the findings in Sir Goulding’s research, and wasinstrumental in providing him as a resource person to this TfP seminar organised by ISS. 7) Ambassador Helga Hernes was appointed the Special Advisor on peacekeeping by the Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs(MFA) in 1997. That same year she was heading the Nordic fact-finding mission on peacekeeping to Africa. NUPI was instrumentalin co-ordinating this fact-finding mission with the TfP policy seminar organised by ISS.8) During his assignment as CIVPOL co-ordinator at the Norwegian Ministry of Justice, Mr. Halvor Hartz was instrumental indeveloping the United Nations Police Officers Courses (UNPOC) in Norway (1996/97). Hartz thus played an important role asadvisor on CIVPOL policy development within the TfP framework. In November 1999 Hartz was appointed as the CIVPOL Advisorto the UN Secretary General.

86

Espen Barth Eide (Director UN Programme)

• Presentation on The Public Security Gap inModern Peace Operations

• Introduction to Case Study: FormerYugoslavia (with Hartz)

• Facilitator of Panel DiscussionTorunn L. Tryggestad (Project Co-ordinator)

• Chaired discussions

25–29 May, TfP Workshop, Lesotho (5 days)Major Bjørn Skjærli

• Presentation on the Strategic, Operationaland Tactical Management of PeaceOperations

• Presentation on Civilian-Military Relations:The Crucial Interface

• Presentation on UNMOS: UN MilitaryObservers in Peace Operations

• Presentation on UN, Regional and Sub-Regional Experiences with regard to Stand-by Arrangements

Anita Kristensen Krokan (Project Co-ordinator)9

• Presentation on Preventing ConflictResurgence: Early Warning and ConflictAnalysis

20–24 July, TfP Workshop, Swaziland (5 days)Anita Kristensen Krokan (Project co-ordinator)

• Presentation on Early Warning and ConflictAnalysis

• Presentation on Gender and Peacebuilding

13–14 August, Blue Crane Roundtable on UNCIVPOL, SouthAfricaChief Superintendant Tor Tanke Holm (PoliceAdvisor, NUPI)Chief Inspector Dag Roger Dahlen (NorwegianPolice)Inspector Torgrim Moseby (Norwegian Police)

17–21 August, TfP Blue Crane Workshop, South Africa (5 days)Anita Kristensen Krokan (Project co-ordinator)

• Presentation on Early Warning: Conceptsand Methods

• Presentation on Gender and PeacekeepingMajor Bjørn Skjærli (AFIC-N)

• Presentation on the Strategic, Operationaland Tactical Management of PeaceOperations

• Presentation on Civilian-Military Relations:The Crucial Interface

• Presentation on UNMOS: UN MilitaryObservers in Peace Operations

• Presentation on UN, Regional and Sub-Regional Experiences with regard to Stand-by Arrangements

Chief Superintendant Tor Tanke Holm (PoliceAdvisor, NUPI)

• Presentation on CIVPOL: The Role ofCivilian Police in Peace Operations

4–14 November, UNPOC I, South AfricaInspector Torgrim Moseby (Norwegian Police)

• CIVPOL in Peace Operations: Introductionto the SMART concept

• Monitoring Police Investigation and Arrest(with David Johnson)

• Monitoring the Use of Force and Firearms(with Dag R. Dahlen)

• Post-Mission Procedures and Processes(debriefing etc. on return home frommission)

• Hijacking and Detainment• Mines, Sniper fire, Lost Radio Contact

Chief Inspector Dag R. Dahlen• CIVPOL: Roles, Duties, Privileges,

Immunities and Responsibilities• Ethical Police Conduct and Policing in a

Democracy: Intro to the CIVPOL handbook• Monitoring the Use of Force and Firearms

(with Torgrim Moseby)• Monitoring the Human Rights of Women

(with David Johnson)• General Security Measures• Hijacking and Detainment (with Torgrim

Moseby)• Use of UN Vehicles, Authorisation,

Documentation

9) Anita Kristensen was acting project co-ordinator from 1 May 1998 to 31 July 1999 while Torunn L. Tryggestad was on maternityleave.

87

• Observation Techniques and Vehicle SafetyControl

Chief Superintendant Tor Tanke Holm (PoliceAdvisor, NUPI)

• Project Co-ordinator of UNPOC I• Cultural Challenges (with Wayne Martin)

21–23 September, Policy Seminar on International Peace andSecurity: the African Experience, South Africa Espen Barth Eide (Director UN Programme)

• Presentation on the Limits of UN Capacityand the Trend Towards Chapter VIII

1999

18–28 April, Civilian Police Component of Blue CraneChief Superintendant Tor Tanke Holm (PoliceAdvisor, NUPI)

• Advisor during planning and conduction• Umpire

Chief Inspector Dag R. Dahlen• CIVPOL: Roles, Duties, Privileges,

Immunities and Responsibilities• The Essential Monitoring Tool: Using the

CIVPOL Handbook and other Instruments• Monitoring During Civil Disorder, States of

Emergency and Armed Conflict (withTorgrim Moseby)

• UmpireInspector Torgrim Moseby (Norwegian Police)

• Monitoring Police Investigations and Arrest• Monitoring During Civil Disorder, States of

Emergency and Armed Conflict (withDahlen)

• Umpire

18–20 April, Blue Crane Civilian-Military Liaison OfficerCourse (CIMIC)Major Stein Ellingsen (AFIC-N)

• Presentation on Civilian-Military Co-operation

• Advisor during the planning of the course

28–31 May, First International Workshop on IntegratedMilitary Doctrine, PragueAnita Kristensen Krokan (Project Co-ordinator)

• Chaired sessionsDr. Mats Berdal (Oxford University/NUPI)

• Presentation on the experience of peaceoperations in the Balkans

21–23 October, 2nd International Workshop: Towards a GlobalConsensus, Pretoria Espen Barth Eide (Director UN Programme)

• Presentation on Present and Future PeaceSupport Environments in the Balkans

Annika Hansen (Researcher, NorwegianDefence Research Institute)

• The Limits and Boundaries of PeaceSupport

27–29 October, Seminar on the Operationalisation of the SADCOrganTorunn L. Tryggestad (Project Co-ordinator)

• Chaired Session• Resource Person in Group Discussions

Nina Græger (Researcher, NUPI)• Presentation on Security Organisations in

Europe: Lessons Learned from theEuropean Experience

21–24 November, Civilian-Military Liaison Officer Course, RPTCMajor Stein Ellingsen (AFIC-N)

• Advisor• Presentations

22 November–3 December, UNPOC II, PretoriaChief Superintendant Tor Tanke Holm (Policeadvisor, NUPI)

• Advisor During Planning and ConductionInspector Torgrim Moseby (Norwegian Police)

• Advisor During Planning and Conduction• Presentations

Annex 7 Survey Questionnaire

QUESTIONNAIRE FOR FORMER PARTICIPANTS OF TfP WORKSHOPSEvaluation of the Training for Peace Project

Introduction: You have participated in a workshop organised by the Training for Peace project. Thisproject is now being evaluated, and we would therefore like to ask you some questions about theworkshop you attended. All the former participants in Training for Peace workshops are being askedthese questions. It will take about 20 minutes for you to fill in the information. We would appreciate itvery much if you would take the time to answer this questionnaire.

Background

1. Gender:

2. Age:

3. Nationality:

4. Profession:

5. Institute/Organisation:

6. Can you please make a short comment about the workshop you attended? What was it about?

7. How did you choose or how were you selected for the course? (give alternatives)

¨ Nominated by organization/institution

¨ Expressed interest

¨ Recommended by colleague

¨ Other, please explain

89

8. Have you participated in other similar workshops?

¨ Yes ¨ No

If yes, please indicate which and who organised them:

9. Did you have any knowledge about or experience with international peacekeeping operationsbefore you came to the workshop?

¨ Yes ¨ No

If yes, please indicate what kind of knowledge and experience:

10. Does your work presently involve conflict resolution, management or transformation in apeacekeeping context?

¨ Yes ¨ No

If yes, please explain:

Teaching Methods

11. What kind of teaching methods were used in the workshop, and did you find them effective?(please tick off in the relevant boxes)

Yes? Effective or not

¨ Lectures ¨ Yes ¨ No

¨ Demonstrations ¨ Yes ¨ No

¨ Electronic media ¨ Yes ¨ No

¨ Group discussions ¨ Yes ¨ No

¨ Group exercises ¨ Yes ¨ No

¨ Case studies ¨ Yes ¨ No

¨ Role plays ¨ Yes ¨ No

¨ Problem solving ¨ Yes ¨ No

¨ Tests ¨ Yes ¨ No

90

12. Did any of the exercises simulate a real-world setting?

¨ Well

¨ Adequately

¨ Not so well

13. What kinds of material did you get from the course?

¨ Books

¨ Handouts

¨ Papers

¨ Presentations

¨ Software

¨ Electronic media

¨ Other

14. Were you able to use any of this material later in your work?

¨ Yes ¨ No

If yes, please give an example:

15. Did you have the opportunity to influence the workshop process? For instance the topicspresented, the amount of time spent on particular topics, or the types of teaching methods used?

¨ Yes ¨ No

16. Do you consider the workshop to be related to an/a:

¨ International peacekeeping setting

¨ Regional SADC peacekeeping setting

¨ African peacekeeping setting

91

Outcomes

17. Have there been any changes in the policy of your organization as a result of your participationin the workshop?

¨ Yes ¨ No

If yes, did the changes which occurred relate to:

¨ The start of new initiatives

¨ Improved internal conflict resolution

¨ Commitment to sending others to future training for peace workshops

18. Do you generally feel that your own ability to prevent, resolve or manage conflicts was improvedby the workshop through increased:

¨ Knowledge

¨ Skills

¨ Motivation

If not, please indicate why not:

19. Please indicate what areas, if any, concerning peacekeeping training which in your opinion werenot (adequately) covered by the workshop.

20. Have you participated in peacekeeping operations since you went to the workshop?

¨ Yes ¨ No

If yes, which?

21. (If yes,) did the course help you in relation to the peacekeeping operation?

¨ Yes ¨ No

92

22. Have you been able to pass on any of your learning to others, by for instance:

¨ Running workshops/training events?

¨ Briefing work colleagues

¨ Writing articles

¨ Organizing conferences or meetings

¨ Giving presentations/lectures

¨ Other

General about the workshop

23. What were in your opinion the main objectives of the workshop you attended? Please write a fewlines reflecting your views:

Were these objectives met?

¨ Yes ¨ No

24. Do you think the objectives could be better served in a different way than by the workshop youattended?

¨ Yes ¨ No

If yes, please explain:

93

25. Did you find the teachers:

¨ Knowledgeable ¨ Yes ¨ No

¨ Prepared ¨ Yes ¨ No

¨ Had practical hands-on experience ¨ Yes ¨ No

¨ Able to communicate effectively ¨ Yes ¨ No

¨ Encouraged alternative viewpoints ¨ Yes ¨ No

¨ Encouraged feedback and input ¨ Yes ¨ No

¨ Did not encourage feedback and input ¨ Yes ¨ No

¨ Available for help outside the classroom ¨ Yes ¨ No

¨ None of the above, please explain ¨ Yes ¨ No

26. What did you like most about the workshop?

27. What did you like least about the workshop?

28. Would you recommend the workshop to a colleague?

¨ Yes ¨ No

Networking

29. How much chance did you have to do networking with the other course participants (readalternatives)?

¨ Substantial

¨ Some

¨ Not at all

94

30. If yes, have you maintained contact with any of those whom you met?

¨ Yes ¨ No

31. Did any co-operation result from meeting them?

¨ Yes ¨ No

Follow up

32. Please indicate any areas covered by the course you would like to work on more? (alternatives)

¨ a follow-up workshop of a similar scope and range

¨ a more targeted workshop tailor-made for your institution/organisation’s/subgroup’s needs

¨ other courses in peacekeeping which are provided in the region

¨ other, please explain:

Logistics

33. How did you find the length of the workshop.

¨ adequate

¨ too long

¨ too short

Other comments?

34. Do you have any additional information or comments you would like to make about theworkshop/course/seminar? Is there any other relevant information you would like to share withus? Please give us details below:

95

1.87 The Water Supply Programme in Western Province, Zambia2.87 Sosio-kulturelle forhold i bistanden3.87 Summary Findings of 23 Evaluation Reports4.87 NORAD’s Provisions for Investment Support5.87 Multiateral bistand gjennom FN-systemet6.87 Promoting Imports from Developing Countries

1.88 UNIFEM - United Nations Development Fund for Women2.88 The Norwegian Multi-Bilateral Programme under UNFPA3.88 Rural Roads Maintenance, Mbeya and Tanga Regions,

Tanzania4.88 Import Support, Tanzania5.88 Nordic Technical Assistance Personnel to Eastern Africa6.88 Good Aid for Women?7.88 Soil Science Fellowship Course in Norway

1.89 Parallel Financing and Mixed Credits2.89 The Women’s Grant. Desk Study Review3.89 The Norwegian Volunteer Service4.89 Fisheries Research Vessel - “Dr. Fridtjof Nansen”5.89 Institute of Development Management, Tanzania6.89 DUHs Forskningsprogrammer7.89 Rural Water Supply, Zimbabwe8.89 Commodity Import Programme, Zimbabwe9.89 Dairy Sector Support, Zimbabwe

1.90 Mini-Hydropower Plants, Lesotho2.90 Operation and Maintenance in Development Assistance3.90 Telecommunications in SADCC Countries4.90 Energy Support in SADCC Countries5.90 Intentional Research and Training Institute for Advancement

of Women (INSTRAW)6.90 Socio-Cultural Conditions in Development Assistance7.90 Non-Project Financial Assistance to Mozambique

1.91 Hjelp til Selvhjelp og Levedyktig Utvikling2.91 Diploma Courses at the Norwegian Institute of Technology3.91 The Women’s Grant in Bilateral Assistance4.91 Hambantota Integrated Rural Development Programme,

Sri Lanka5.91 The Special Grant for Environment and Development

1.92 NGOs as Partners in Health Care, Zambia2.92 The Sahel-Sudan-Ethiopia Programme3.92 De Private Organisasjonene som Kanal for Norsk Bistand,

Fase l

1.93 Internal Learning from Evaluations and Reviews2.93 Macroeconomic Impacts of Import Support to Tanzania3.93 Garantiordning for Investeringer i og Eksport til Utviklingsland4.93 Capacity-Building in Development Cooperation Towards

Integration and Recipient Responsibility

1.94 Evaluation of World Food Programme2.94 Evaluation of the Norwegian Junior Expert Programme with

UN Organisations

1.95 Technical Cooperation in Transition2.95 Evaluering av FN-sambandet i Norge3.95 NGOs as a Channel in Development aid

3A.95 Rapport fra Presentasjonsmøte av «Evalueringen av deFrivillige Organisasjoner»

4.95 Rural Development and Local Govemment in Tanzania5.95 Integration of Environmental Concerns into Norwegian

Bilateral Development Assistance: Policies and Performance

1.96 NORAD’s Support of the Remote Area DevelopmentProgramme (RADP) in Botswana

2.96 Norwegian Development Aid Experiences. A Review ofEvaluation Studies 1986–92

3.96 The Norwegian People’s Aid Mine Clearance Project inCambodia

4.96 Democratic Global Civil Governance Report of the 1995Benchmark Survey of NGOs

5.96 Evaluation of the Yearbook “Human Rights in DevelopingCountries”

1.97 Evaluation of Norwegian Assistance to Prevent and ControlHIV/AIDS

2.97 «Kultursjokk og Korrektiv» – Evaluering av UD/NORADsStudiereiser for Lærere

3.97 Evaluation of Decentralisation and Development4.97 Evaluation of Norwegian Assistance to Peace, Reconciliation

and Rehabilitation in Mozambique5.97 Aid to Basic Education in Africa – Opportunities and

Constraints6.97 Norwegian Church Aid’s Humanitarian and Peace-Making

Work in Mali7.97 Aid as a Tool for Promotion of Human Rights and Democracy:

What can Norway do?8.97 Evaluation of the Nordic Africa Institute, Uppsala9.97 Evaluation of Norwegian Assistance to Worldview International

Foundation10.97 Review of Norwegian Assistance to IPS11.97 Evaluation of Norwegian Humanitarian Assistance to the Sudan12.97 Cooperation for Health Development

WHO’s Support to Programmes at Country Level

1.98 “Twinning for Development”. Institutional Cooperationbetween Public Institutions in Norway and the South

2.98 Institutional Cooperation between Sokoine and NorwegianAgricultural Universities

3.98 Development through Institutions? Institutional DevelopmentPromoted by Norwegian Private Companies and ConsultingFirms

4.98 Development through Institutions? Institutional DevelopmentPromoted by Norwegian Non-Governmental Organisations

5.98 Development through Institutions? Institutional Developmentin Norwegian Bilateral Assistance. Synthesis Report

6.98 Managing Good Fortune – Macroeconomic Management andthe Role of Aid in Botswana

7.98 The World Bank and Poverty in Africa8.98 Evaluation of the Norwegian Program for Indigenous Peoples9.98 Evaluering av Informasjonsstøtten til RORGene

10.98 Strategy for Assistance to Children in Norwegian DevelopmentCooperation

11.98 Norwegian Assistance to Countries in Conflict12.98 Evaluation of the Development Cooperation between Norway

and Nicaragua13.98 UNICEF-komiteen i Norge14.98 Relief in Complex Emergencies

1.99 WlD/Gender Units and the Experience of GenderMainstreaming in Multilateral Organisations

2.99 International Planned Parenthood Federation – Policy andEffectiveness at Country and Regional Levels

3.99 Evaluation of Norwegian Support to Psycho-Social Projects inBosnia-Herzegovina and the Caucasus

4.99 Evaluation of the Tanzania-Norway Development Cooperation1994–1997

5.99 Building African Consulting Capacity6.99 Aid and Conditionality7.99 Policies and Strategies for Poverty Reduction in Norwegian

Development Aid8.99 Aid Coordination and Aid Effectiveness9.99 Evaluation of the United Nations Capital Development Fund

(UNCDF)10.99 Evaluation of AWEPA, The Association of European

Parliamentarians for Africa, and AEI, The African EuropeanInstitute

1.00 Review of Norwegian Health-related Development Cooperation1988–1997

2.00 Norwegian Support to the Education Sector. Overview ofPolicies and Trends 1988–1998

3.00 The Project “Training for Peace in Southern Africa”

EVALUATION REPORTS

Published byThe Royal Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs7. juniplassen 1/Victoria TerrasseP.O. Box 8114 Dep., 0032 OsloNORWAY

Evaluation reports may be ordered from:E-mail: eval@mfa.noFax: +47 22 24 27 51Tel: +47 22 24 35 01