Vol. 2: Work-in-progress papers f|ffe 347

THE QUALITATIVE CODING MATRIX: IMPROVINGTHE RIGOUR OF PHENOMENOLOGICAL RESEARCH

IN BUSINESS PURCHASING

Graham, Gary 1 University of Salford

ABSTRACTThe main objective of this research study was to develop understanding by using the IMP approach the ways in which buyer-supplier relations in the UK defence industry are adapting as buyer (monopsonistic) power strengthens, the threat of new entrants increases and the associated competitive rivalry intensifies. The predominant research tradition in business purchasing has been of a quantitative, empirical nature (Knox and White, 1991; Wilson, 1995). However the limitations in explaining the more normative processes of buyer-supplier interaction and interdependence is evident (Ford, 1980, 1982, 1990, 1997; Turnbull and Cunningham, 1981; Hakansson, 1982; Gummesson, 1995; Gronroos, 1997). The lacunae of work at the operational level (Smith and Smith, 1992), and the opportunity for access led to the use of the case study for research purposes (Yin, 1985). Lowe's (1991) "Qualitative Coding Matrix" was adapted to ensure that the qualitative data collected was analysed in a rigorous manner.

1 Dr Gary Graham, Department of Business Studies, The University of Salford, The Crescent, Salford, England, M5 4WT (Phone +44 161 745 55336, Fax +44 161 745 55556, E-mail g.graham@business.salford.ac.uk or gary.graham@virgin.net).

348 IjVJ P 14* IMP Annual Conference

1. INTRODUCTION

The Ministry of Defence (MoD) is UK industry's largest single customer.

On the supply side of the market, the UK defence industry comprises of

companies involved in R and D, production, repair and maintenance of

defence equipment for the MoD and overseas governments. The industry

has the capability to design, develop and produce a complete range of

defence equipment including high-technology equipment such as missiles,

combat aircraft, helicopters, nuclear-powered submarines, aircraft carriers

and tanks.

There is a consensus view of opinion among academic researchers, civil

servants, research institutes, defence industrialists and pressure groups that

equipment procurement spending is set to continue falling as a percentage

of defence spending and a recognition of the need to review defence

spending constantly. However, the problem of defence contraction did not

just arrive with the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1990 and the end of the Cold

War. The fall in defence spending can be traced back to 1983 and the

MoD's "value for money" initiatives, which emphasised the increased use

of fixed price contracts and competitive tendering by defence contractors.

In the interests of efficient project management, the MoD has also

tended to place most large defence contracts in the hands of a single prime

contractor. In such cases, the Ministry's role in the day-to-day management

of the contract is a more limited one, the rule being that it is for the prime

contractor to choose its own sub-contractors. Given this devolution of

power to the defence primes and the non-commercial policy of the MoD, it

is largely the purchasing policies of the primes which control the

distribution of defence sub-contracts.

1.1 Industry Analysis, Business Strategy and Buyer-Supplier RelationsIn order to capture both the external and internal dimensions of strategy the

research initially drew heavily on industry analysis (Porter, 1990),

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competitive analysis (Porter, 1980) and value chain analysis (Porter,

1985). For the empirical work supporting Porter's generic strategies (Dess

and Davies, 1984; Miller and Friesen, 1986; Kotha and Vadlamani, 1995),

there has been equally valid work criticising and refining Porter's work. In

particular the works of White (1986), Wright (1987), Speed (1989), Sharp

(1991) and Wright et al., (1991) have all questioned Porter's rigid

typology.

However, as a first step in exploring a possible relationship between

industry structure and strategy in the UK defence industry, it made sense to

proceed by selecting a simple business strategy concept which incorporates

a few critical dimensions, yet has strong theoretical underpinnings (White,

1986). Moreover, the success of the defence firm is significantly influenced

by its relations with the environment in which it functions 1 .

1.2 Methodology

The researcher takes the view of phenomenology that reality is socially

constructed rather than objectively determined (Hunt, 1983). Within this

framework there are many epistemological variations. The four main

versions are interpretative sociology (Habermas, 1974), naturalistic enquiry

(Berger and Luckman, 1966), qualitative methodology (Van Maanen,

1979) and "new paradigm" enquiry (Reason, 1988). This work adopted the

qualitative methodological approach. Van Maanen defines qualitative

research in the following words:

"The label qualitative research has no precise meaning in any of the social sciences. It is best an umbrella term of an array of interpretative techniques which seeks to describe, decode, translate, and otherwise come to terms with the meaning, not the frequency, of certain naturally occurring phenomena in the social world."

(1979: p. 9)

Please refer to the comments of Kenny (1982).

350 Jim 14* IMP Annual Conference

Qualitative investigators tend to describe the unfolding of social

processes rather than the social structures that tend to be the focus of

quantitative researchers (Yin, 1985). These methods range from

ethnography (Stockport and Kakabadse, 1991), participant observation

(Levine, 1980), direct observation (McCall and Simmons, 1969) to semi-

structured and unstructured interviews (Easterby-Smith et al., 1991).

Many qualitative researchers after collecting case study data spend a

great deal of time turning it into numbers or other attempts at quantification

(Silverman, 1985; Miles and Huberman, 1989; Patton, 1995). This tends to

fail to give a holistic view that is so important in case study research

(Hosking, 1991). It was my aim to stay close to the data in order to produce

common or contradictory themes or patterns that would act as a basis for

interpretation (Glaser and Strauss, 1967; Strauss and Curbin, 1995).

1.3 Data Sources

The aim of the information gathering was to identify the purchasing

strategies that companies are following, assessing the effects that the

defence industry's structure and environment have on strategic choice.

Case study research was carried out in five suppliers with which the

collaborating institution 1 helped provide access for my inquiry. The main

method of data collection came from in depth interviews; discussing

purchasing strategies, policies and activities in operations, distribution and

R and D. These interviews were supplemented with data collected from a

combination of sources which included reports and accounts, company

brochures and internal purchasing strategy documentation (Bonoma, 1985).

The next section presents background information on the company selected

to illustrate the "Qualitative Coding Matrix" in operation. The basis of

1 The Defence Manufacturers Association. This is a trade association of approximately 300 registered members which supply defence equipment indirectly or directly to the UK MoD.

Vol. 2: Work-in-progress papers 351

selection was the high quality of access to internal processes of

decision making, implementation, and change in the company

(Gummesson, 1991: pp. 21).

2. CASE STUDY SYSTEMCO 1 : PRODUCER OF DEFENCE ELECTRONICS SYSTEMS

Systemco has developed an extensive range of military products in static or

transportable ground based air defence systems, custom designed systems

to support general military operations and a wide range of system

components including universal work stations, high definition colour

display; digital entry and digilux touch entry devices. From Table 1 it can

be seen that the total value of turnover is 323 million pounds and that only

2 million pounds of Systemco's turnover is accounted for by commercial

business.

TABLE 1: Company information in September 1996

Employees (OOO's)

Civil DefenceTotalTurnover (millions)

Civil DefenceTotalCompany ReformationNumber of Years in:

Civil Work Defence Work

0.5 15

15.5

2 3213231991

8 70

1 For reasons of confidentiality the true identity of the firm is hidden by the pseudonym Systemco.

352 I|P 14* IMP Annual Conference

The firm prior to its acquisition in 1983 had a long history in military radar

work and battlefield command and control systems of 70 years compared to

only 8 years in commercial markets. Corporate reorganisation by the

holding company led it to focus on R and D as opposed to the production of

defence and commercial electronic systems.

In terms of access the operations manager 1 provided the initial contact and

2.1 Interview Programme

In terms of access the operai

itinerary arrangements for the case study data collection. Table 2 shows

TABLE 2: Interview programme at Systemco

Stage in the interview programmeFunction Number of consulted Exploratory Primary Review interviews

data data dataAssistant Chief Buyer * 1

Commercial Director * 1

Commercial Manager * 1

Technical Engineer * 1

Engineering Manager * 1

Major Sub-contracts Manager * * 2

Operations Manager * * 2

Purchasing Director * 1

Quality Assurance Manager * 1

Sales and Marketing * 1 Director

N = 12

1 I am gratefully indebted to the amount of time and effort taken by the operations manager who was able to identify people within the organisation who were willing to participate in the research.

Vol. 2: Work-in-progress papers f|jp 353

that a total of 12 interviews were undertaken at Systemco. Initial

exploratory interviews were undertaken with the operations manager and

the major sub-contracts manager 1 . From this exploratory work, subsequent

interviews were arranged as part of the main period of data collection.

Transcripts were faxed to the operations manager to check and review the

findings and the results for their accuracy.

3. THE SYSTEMATIC ANALYSIS OF QUALITATIVE DATA

The "Qualitative Coding Matrix" enabled a systematic way of achieving

the discrimination between data sources and various interpretations of the

different parties (the researcher, perceived wisdom of the academic

community and the respondents themselves). Essentially this approach

creates theory from data (Glaser and Strauss, 1967). In case study analysis

one useful strategy is to use a coding system. Basically, a code is an

abbreviation or symbol applied to a segment of words - more often a

sentence or paragraph of transcribed field notes in order to classify the

words (Miles and Huberman, 1989: p. 78). They work as retrieval

organising devices that allow the analyst to spot quickly, pull out and then

cluster all the segments relating to the unit of analysis. Initially a 'start list'

of codes was developed prior to the fieldwork (refer to Appendix 1).

The list of codes came from the conceptual framework and unit(s) of

analysis. The first column has a short descriptive label for the general

categories and the individual codes (e.g. EC refers to external context). The

second column shows the codes themselves (e.g. CA to competitors

actions). In this study the coding was by hand rather than computer thus the

use of short coding labels. For example, a coding label of IC-HIST was

attached to observations on the company's purchasing history.

1 As a general guideline procurement contracts over 50,000 pounds were classified as major sub-contracts.

354 14* IMP Annual Conference

The "Qualitative Coding Matrix" includes three levels of codes; 'open',

'axial' and 'selective'. 'Open' codes are low level descriptive labels. They

entail no interpretation, but simply, the attribution of a class of phenomena

to a segment of text. An explanation of the three types of 'open' codes is

given in Figure 1.

Issues raised from the topic guide using the researcher's own interpretation:

Issues raised from the literature as interpreted by the researcher:

Issues raised from field notes used following periods of direct observation:

FIGURE 1: Explanation of 'open' codes

O'Axial' codes are created by the researcher using their own judgement on

those 'open 7 codes which have similar characteristics.

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At the end of the 'axial' coding phase the relationship of one 'axial' code

with another is drawn as a diagram. The final stage is 'selective' coding.

These codes are up-graded 'axial' codes which have been drawn together

from different sources where triangulation can be established.

AEach of the data sources mentioned in i 'e previous section are open to a

range of different interpretations. Lowe identified three:

i) My own pre-understanding.ii) The respondents views as the research unfolds.iii) A priori constructs.

(1991: p. 8).

The "Qualitative Coding Matrix" shows the discrimination between data

and various interpretations which could be made by the different parties

(the researcher, perceived wisdom of the academic community and

thesources respondents themselves). Figure 2 shows that at each stage of

the research process the data sources and interpretations are coded with a

unique symbol and alphanumeric code which allows the reader to penetrate

the researcher's intuition and judgement as they move from analysis to

synthesis and finally interpretation. The process of discrimination between

356 14* IMP Annual Conference

data sources and interpretation occurs at three levels of the research

process:

1. Analysis 'open' coding.

2. Analysis/synthesis 'axial' coding.

3. Synthesis/interpretation 'selective' coding.

(ibid.,: p. 9).

DATA SOURCES INTERPRETATIONS

SELECTIVE CODES

FIGURE 2: The qualitative coding matrix

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The alphanumeric coding matrix provided in Figure 2 enables data

to be presented in ways which increase the reader's comprehension without

losing the complexity of the phenomena being studied.

3.1 The "Qualitative Coding Matrix" in Operation

The "Qualitative Coding Matrix" will be shown in operation using the three

levels of 'coding'. The section of text in Figure 3 illustrates the footprint

effects of the 'open' coding when they are overlaid on the text . This

extract is taken from an interview with the Major Sub-contracts Manager at

the first case study company. The number inside the circle relates to the

chronological sequence that the issue was raised in the interview. For

instance, 14 refers to issue 14, 15 refers to issue 15) The 'open' codes have

been chosen from the verbatim transcripts of a series of interviews with

procurement personnel at Systemco. The next stage involved the

development of an integrative diagram shown in Figure 4 which illustrates

the footprint effects of the codes overlaid on the text.

The codes are clustered into key themes (e.g. industry structure) and sub-

themes (e.g. new entrants). Job titles are abbreviated and placed inside the

alphanumeric codes and a full list is presented in Table 3 (page 18). From

the analysis of 'open' coding the beginnings of the next stage 'axial'

coding - is indicated by the arrow linkages between separate clusters. Then

at the end of the synthesis of 'axial' coding, the codes were compared with

'axial' coding of other data sources. Final interpretation results in

'selective' coding where the evidence from direct observation, archival

sources and procedural documentation were triangulated and are illustrated

in Figure 5.

358 14th IMP Annual Conference

Job Title Transcript Data Sources/ (Abbreviation) Interpretations

Sub- Buying from the right Contracts supplier is 90 percent Manager 'gut feeling', this job is (SCM) about experience not

qualifications.

Interviewer How might the sales and (GG) marketing personnel of

prospective biddersseek to try and influenceyour decision?

SCM The sales people always paint a beautiful picture about their company and product, I frankly do not believe anything sales people tell me!

GG Is this more true of new suppliers?

SCM In the case of a new supplier, I like to visit the premises. In some cases I have wandered in through the 'back door' rather than reception. This gives me an underlying picture of working conditions and the standards of operations. I'll even chat with the shop floor personnel to help assess the firms capabilities.

14

15

16

FIGURE 3: Interviewee remarks - coding illustration

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INDUSTRY STRUCTURE

Civil Exports

1 Cl

*13

CM

14 1CM 12

S GG • £

* 10*^ ^ CM

v« / V,, l'

OM OM OM

STRATEGY

Business Function

5r 9 ^J^^ CDr^--^7.f.N /-iiGG " ***•

•" if \--QO": CM ^~iOM \ * • *

NOi^~ sc

BUYER/SUPPLIER New Entrants

FIGURE 4: The footprint effect of 'open' codes

360 14* IMP Annual Conference

r

Preferred / \ Suppliers \

/ \

A/ LOW V

EXTERNAL RELATIONS

FIGURE 5: The emergence of 'selective' codes

Vol. 2-. Work-in-progress papers 361

TABLE 3: Abbreviated list of job titles used in the qualitative coding matrix

Function consulted

Assistant Chief BuyerCommercial DirectorCommercial ManagerCompany HistorianEngineering ManagerMajor Sub-contracts ManagerOperations ManagerPurchasing ManagerQuality Assurance ManagerSales and Marketing DirectorAssistant Chief Buyer

Abbreviated job title

ACBCDCMCHEMSCMOMPMQAMSMDACB

3.2 Final Interpretation of the 'Selective' codes

The diagram shows that the respondents identify Ministry of Defence

(MoD) policy to be the major driver of UK industry structural change. At

the strategic level the company has adjusted by undertaking a greater

number of collaborative ventures. At the same time the company is well

aware of the need to develop its commercial business. The 'hands off

approach of the MoD had placed a great deal of risk firmly on the

contractor. This is reflected in the high importance that Systemco attaches

to low risk in its external relations. The contractor sought to avoid risk by

working with preferred suppliers that have established reputations for 'tried

and safe' solutions. Government pressure for freer, competitive tendering

has forced the company to act as 'managing contractors', sharing out any

work that could not be performed cost-effectively on site. While project

complexity had increased the extent of subcontracting,the company had to

balance this against its commitment to maintain in house its high value

adding processes. Nevertheless, a clear finding from this extract of case

362 I|p. 14* IMP Annual Conference

research is that it was primarily MoD pressure which had driven Systemco

to implement a more commercial 1 purchasing strategy.

4. CONCLUSION

This paper attempts to make a contribution to the 'research methods'

category of the IMP conference theme entitled 'theoretical and

methodological developments'. My line of argument is that existing

concepts and knowledge are mainly positivistic and do not adequately

capture the 'true' nature of business purchasing (Konrad and White, 1991;

Lowe, 1991; Hakansson, 1995; Ford and Saren, 1996). Case studies as a

research method are gradually receiving scientific approval within and

beyond the IMP group in both Europe and the US (Wilson, 1995). The

"Qualitative Coding Matrix" is unique in that it triangulates at three coding

levels - between sources of data and interpretations - within a case (Yin,

1985). It provides the IMP group, with a more rigourous, scientific

approach which does not clone quantification, in order to ground business

purchasing theory.

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APPENDIX 1 Start List of Codes

EXTERNAL CONTEXT EC

EC: COMPETITORS ACTIONS

EC: PRODUCT

EC: NEW ENTRANTS

EC: TECHNOLOGY

EC: NEWINNOVATIONS

EC: ADOPTION PROCESS

EC: CUSTOMERS

EC: HOME

EC: EXPORT

EC: SUPPLIERS

EC: PRODUCT

EC: NEW ENTRANTS

INTERNAL CONTEXT 1C

1C: CHARACTERISTICS

1C: NORMS

1C: PURCHASING HISTORY

1C: ORGANISATION PROCEDURES

PROCUREMENT ACTIVITIES PA

PA: EVENT CHRONOLOGY - OFFICIAL VERSION

PA: EVENT CHRONOLOGY- SUBTERRANEAN

PA: PROCUREMENT PROCESS

PA: CONTACT FREQUENCY

PA: ORGANISATIONAL LEVEL

PA: FUNCTIONAL BREADTH

EC-CA

EC-PROD-CA

ECENT-CA

EC-TEC

ECNEW-TEC

ECADOPT-TEC

EC-CUS

ECHOM-CUS

ECEXP-CUS

EC-SUPP

ECPRO-SUPP

ECENT-SUPP

IC-CHAR

IC-NORM

IC-HIST

IC-PROC

PA-CHRON/OFF

PA-CHRON/SUB

PA-PRUC

PA:FREQ/PRUC

PA: LEV/PRUC

PA: FUNC/PRUC

366 14th IMP Annual Conference

BUYER EVALUATION BE

BE: EVENT CHRONOLOGY - OFFICIAL VERSION

BE: EVENT CHRONOLOGY - SUBTERRANEAN

BE: LOCATIO

BE: RULES/NORMS

BE: TYPE

BE: RATING CRITERIA

BE: PERFORMANCE

BE: EFFECTS

BE: ASSESSMENT BY RECIPIENTS

BE: LINKAGE

EMERGING CAUSAL LINKS CL

CL: NETWORKS

CL: RULES

BE-CHRN/PUB

BE-CHRN/PRIV

BE-LOC

BE-RULE

BE-TYPE

BE-RATE

BE-PERF

BE-EFF

BE-ASS

BE-LINK

CL-NET

CL-RULE