The Quantitative Research The Quantitative Research Process: Process:

Techniques for ResearchTechniques for Research

Dr Fiona M Beals

Lecture AimsLecture Aims

Review key research methods brought to quantitative research by experimental designs

Outline the role of the quantitative researcherIntroduce and look at methods of:

– Testing– Surveys– Observation and Interviewing

The SettingThe Setting Experimental research vs Quasi-

Experimental Research The need for empirical data Sampling is key (stratified random or

purposive) Key words are reliability and validity

(internal and external) Significance is important Eliminate bias Remember variables

TestingTesting

Why Test?Why Test?

Established tests tend to have measures of reliability and validity

Testing before and after an intervention can show evidence of change (and the direction of change)

Tests for significance can occur (ANOVA, Chi Square)

What to testWhat to test

Psychometric variables Biological/Physiological

changes Educational Changes (IQ etc)

How?How?

Don’t create your own test instead find established tests whichhave measures of reliability and validity

Survey ResearchSurvey Research

Survey ResearchSurvey Research Types

– Cross-sectional surveys (inc. Census)– Longitudinal surveys (trend, cohort, panel)

How/What– Text/Document Surveys (primary and secondary

sources)– Questionnaires inc open/closed items, branching and

clear layout

Traps in Questionnaire DesignTraps in Questionnaire Design

Ambiguity – unclear questions Assumptions

– Multiple responses when really only one is wanted– Memory stretching – Knowledge demands

Double questions Leading questions Presuming questions Hypothetical questions Overlapping categories

Getting it rightGetting it right Remember most people don’t want to write or

type So quick ticks and clicks work Follow the KISS principle Use likerts for measuring variability in responses Connect the question to the response NEVER ask two questions in one!!! Keep the survey to under seven minutes PILOT, PILOT, PILOT

Observation and InterviewingObservation and Interviewing

Observation and InterviewingObservation and Interviewing

Observation can have an important function in quantitative designs but tends to focus on descriptive elements

Interviewing needsto be structured

Both observationand interviewing should only be used for triangulation of data and results

The role of statisticsThe role of statistics

Know the basicsKnow the basics Nominal

– =/ ≠– Dichotomous (Gender)/Non-dichotomous (nationality)– Mode– Qualitative

Ordinal (rank order without degree of difference)– =/ ≠, </>– Dichotomous (truth, beauty, health)– Non-dichotomous (opinion)– Median (psychological tests do tend to break this rule)– Qualitative

Interval (degrees of difference but without ratios)– =/ ≠, </>, +/-– Date, Latitude, Temperature– Arithmetic mean (average using sum – what usually happens)– Quantitative with an arbitrary point of origin (0)

Ratio– =/ ≠, </>, +/-, ×/÷– Age, mass, length, duration, energy etc.– Geometric mean (average using product and the nth root)– Quantitative with a unique and non-arbitrary zero

Know a little moreKnow a little more

Correct use of percentages Data sets need to be over 30 Basic tests for significance

– Chi square– T test– ANOVA

Read research critically!!!– Read for bias– Read for incorrect use of statistics– Read so you don’t make the same mistakes