the real mahatma gandhi
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July/August 2011 Print | Close
The Real Mahatm a Gand hiQ UES TI O NI NG T H E MO RAL H ERO I S M O F I NDI AS MO S T REV ERED FIGURE
By Christopher Hitchens
IMAGE CREDIT: GLUEKIT
JOSEPH LELYVELD SUBTLY tips his hand in his title. The word Mahatma (often employed in
ordinary journalistic usage without any definite article, as if it were Mohandas Gandhis first name) is
actually the Sanskrit word for Great Soul. It is a religio-spiritual honorific, to be assumed or awarded
only by acclaim, and it achieved most of its currency in the West by association with Madame
Blavatskys somewhat risible Theosophy movement, forerunner of many American and European
tendencies to be found in writers, as discrepant as Annie Besant and T. S. Eliot, who nurture
themselves on the supposedly holy character of the subcontinent. The repetition, unlikely to be
accidental in the case of a writer as scrupulous as Lelyveld, seems to amount to an endorsement. In a
different way , the subtitle reinforces the same idea. Not Gandhis struggle for India, butwith it: as ifthis vast and antique land was somehow too refractory and ungrateful (recalcitrant is a word to which
Lelyveld recurs) to be fully deserving of Gandhis sacrificial endeavors on its behalf.
But with perhaps equivalent subtletybecause he generally refrains from imposing any one
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interpretation upon the readerLelyveld furnishes us with the very material out of which one might
constitute a refutation of this common opinion. The belief that India fell short of, and continues to
disappoint, the ideals of one of its founding fathers is an extremely persistent one. The standard view of
Gandhi is that he cut his ethical teeth by opposing racial discrimination in South Africa, failed to dent
the intransigent system there but had greater success with nonviolent civil disobedience in British
India, broke his heart and ruined his health by opposing the Hindu caste system, strove to reconcile
Hindus and Muslims, failed to prevent a sanguinary partition, and was murdered just after attaining a
partial and mutilated independence that nonetheless endures: a monument not to his own shortcomings
but to those of others.
Lelyveld examines all these pious beliefs and finds, or permits us to conclude, that they belong in the
realm of the not-quite-true. Thus, Gandhi and his followers were not much exercised by the treatment
of black Africans in South Africa, alluding to them in print as kaffirs and even organizing medical
orderlies and other noncombatant contributors for a punitive war against the Zulus. Then, Gandhi did
fight quite tenaciously against the horrors of untouchability but for much of his life was less decided
about the need to challenge the caste system tout court. He was not above making sectarian deals with
(and against) Indias Muslims. And he considered Indias chief enemy to be modernity, arguing until
well into the 1940s that the new nation should abhor industry and technology and relocate its core
identity and practice in the ancient rhythms of village life and the spinning wheel. Indias salvation, he
wrote in 1909, consists in unlearning what she has learnt during the past fifty years. The railways,
telegraphs, hospitals, lawyers, doctors, and such like have all to go. The rather sinister concept of
unlearning, explicitly tied to the more ethereal notion of salvation, has more in common with
Wahhabism than with the figures of Mandela, King, or the other moral heroes with whom Gandhis
name is linked.
A related argument has to do with the moral texture and relevance of Gandhis concept of ahimsa, or
nonviolence, with its counterpart of satyagraha, best translated as civil disobedience. It is mostusually conceded that, without the declining and increasingly desperate British as his antagonist,
Gandhi and his tactics would have fared no better than they had in the face of the remorseless pioneers
of apartheid. This concession usually preserves intact the belief that Gandhis methods were pure in
heart. But it may be observed that the threat to starve himself to death involved him in the deliberate
and believable threat of violence, he himself once referring to this tactic as the worst form of coercion.
It could certainly be argued that launching a full-blown Quit India campaign against the British in
1942 amounted to letting Hirohito do his fighting for him.
And it is not disputable that Gandhi himself regarded his own versions of ahimsa and satyagraha as
universally applicable. By 1939, he was announcing that, if adopted by a single Jew standing up and
refusing to bow to Hitlers decrees, such methods might suffice to melt Hitlers heart. T his may read
like mere foolishness, but a personal letter to the Fhrer in the same year began with the words My
friend and went on, ingratiatingly, to ask: Will you listen to the appeal of one who has deliberately
shunned the method of war not without considerable success? Apart from its conceit, this would
appear to be suggesting that Hitler, too, might hope to get more of what he wanted by adopting a more
herbivorous approach. Gandhi also instructed a Chinese visitor to shame some Japanese by passivity
in the face of invasion, and found time to lecture a member of the South African National Congress
about the vices of Western apparel. You must not feel ashamed of carrying an assagai, or of going
around with only a tiny clout round your loins. (One tries to picture Nelson Mandela taking this
homespun counsel, which draws upon the most clichd impression of African dress and tradition.)
Gandhi was forever nominating himself as a mediator: in 1937 in Palestine, for example, where he
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concluded that Jews could demand a state of their own only if all Arab opinion were to become
reconciled to it; and later unsolicitedly advising the peoples of Czechoslovakia to try what Lelyveld calls
satyagraha to combat storm troopers. The nullity of this needs no emphasis: what is more striking
in one venerated so widely for modest self-effacementis its arrogance. Recording these successive
efforts at quasi-diplomacy and peacemaking, Lelyveld lapses into near-euphemism. At one point he
calls Gandhis initiatives a mixed bag, full of trenchant moral insights, desperate appeals, and self-
deluding simplicities. The crawling letter to Hitler, he summarizes as a desperate, naive mix of
humility and ego and as one of a series of futile, well-intentioned missives. We can certainly detect
the influence of Saul Bellows Good Intentions Paving Company, but the trenchant moral insights and
the humility are distinctly less conspicuous.
When Mother Teresaanother denizen of that unworldly India of redemption by self-abnegationhad
her audience with Pope Paul VI, she reportedly took a bus to the Vatican and wore only her everyday
sari and sandals. I wrote at the time that, if true, this was not modesty but ostentation. Perhaps this
shows only my Eurocentric bias (thoughvide my point above about Nelson Mandela), yet whole
passages of this book are rendered oppressive to readand this is by no means Lelyvelds faultby the
necessity of recording every meager gram that Gandhi ingested on his dietary regimes, every square
inch of unclothed limb and torso that he felt it necessary for the whole world to see, every stitch of
painstakingly homemade cloth in which he draped the remainder, every act of abstention from sex, and
every exercise in physical self-mortification. In point of personality, these are more usually the
lineaments of the fanatic and martyrdom-seeker while, in point of ideology, they represent the highly
dubious idea that asceticism and austerityeven povertyare good for the soul.
Again, such reactionary ideas were supposed by Gandhi to be binding on others as well as himself. He
adopted the Hindu form of chastity known asbrahmacharya and thought it enough to merely inform
his wife of his decision. Talking with a visiting Margaret Sanger, advocate of female sexual emancipation
and birth control, he not only denied the importance of womens sexual health butaccording towitnesses of the conversationgave himself a blood-pressure attack while doing so. Lelyveld has
created a minor scandal in India by instancing some lapses on Gandhis partincluding one possibly
homosexual episodefrom this supposedly exalted standard. But given what we know about gurus in
general, this is fairly mild and, to be fair, it does not seem to have involved the exploitation of credulous
acolytes, or not all that much. (He did employ his grand-niece Manu for the furtive purpose of lying in
bed with him to test his ability to resist erections.) Nonetheless, one might take a moment to imagine
life in one of Gandhis often-vaunted 700,000 villages of India, beating heart of the traditional
society, if the spinning wheel had indeed remained the leading mode of production and the position of
women had been brought into accord with his teachings. If the main residue of that bucolic sentiment is
the ubiquitous spinning-wheel symbol, this situation may represent not the triumph of a vulgar
materialism that would have brought sorrow to the Mahatma, so much as the observably universal
ambition of Indians to urbanize as soon as the opportunity presents itself.
How did Gandhi confront the other salient tasks of a nation builder: the question of Hindu
fundamentalism and the directly related problem of relations with the large Muslim minority? Here one
is obliged to emphasize another word from the Gandhian thesaurus: the naming of the countrys
immiserated untouchables as Harijans, or children of god. Here, the euphemism is direct and
unvarnished. But as it happens, and as is very frequently forgotten, the millions of untouchables had
their own highly literate and articulate spokesman in the person of B. R. Ambedkar, who called on the
victims of the caste system to abandon outright the Hindu faith that codified and enshrined their status
as subhumans. (Ambedkar himself adopted Buddhism.) Untouchables also tended to reject the
condescension implicit in the Harijan designation, preferring to go under the title ofDalits, which
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modern India has adopted. Gandhi and Ambedkar quarreled repeatedly over the question of special
political representation for those at the despised bottom of the caste ladder; Ambedkar supported it,
suspecting that Congress Party rule would be another name under which high-caste Hindus would
become the successors of the British Raj.
Lelyveld offers in passing the startling observation that Gandhi, who loftily asserted, I claim myself in
my own person to represent the vast mass of the untouchables, had in point of fact done next to
nothing to organize and lead them. On his way back from the 1931 London conference on Indian
independence at which the differences with Ambedkar rev ealed themselves as insuperable, Gandhi
stopped in Rome for a meeting with Mussolini, after which he wrote effusively of Il Duces service to
the poor, his opposition to super-urbanization, his efforts to bring about coordination between capital
and labor [and] his passionate love for his people. Imprisoned by the British on his return, he
threatened to starve himself to death if special political dispensation was granted to untouchables T o
my own alarm, I found myself sympathizing with Churchills tirade against this self-righteous
combination of half-naked fakir and seditious Middle Temple lawyer, and with the viceroys
exasperated staff who found themselves intercepting the correspondence between fakir and Fhrer.
If the Dalits had good reason to fear that they would be subordinated to Hindu-majority tyranny afterthe attainment of self-rule, the Muslims of the subcontinent equally dreaded a similar outcome.
Lelyvelds treatment of this still-inflamed subject is distinctive and original. I had not known that, in the
early 1920s, Gandhi reposed his whole political weight in favor of the Indian Muslim demand for the
restoration of the Ottoman caliphate as the guarantor of Muslim holy places. This so-called Khilafat
movement, while conveniently anti-British in its implications, was by definition taking place in the
realm of illusion, since by that time even the Turks themselves had rejected the rule of the sultan. But
it gave Gandhi a platform to address sectarian and traditionalist Muslim throngs, and in his own eyes,
this apparently trumped its quixotry. Whether the encouragement of Islamist ancien rgime tendencies
among Muslims was a useful path to overcoming communal divisions is a question on which Lelyveld ispolitely neutral. He does note that one Muslim leader who remained unimpressed by the Khilafat
agitation was Mohammed Ali Jinnah, a relatively secular nationalist and modernist who at an early
session of the Congress Party pointedly referred to Mister rather than Mahatma Gandhi. He was
not the only one to see through Gandhis theatrical attempts to base reconciliation on ephemeral and
crowd-pleasing themes: Lelyveld records that as early as 1921, the impressive coalition Gandhi had
built and inspired was proving to be jerry-built. Jinnahs future as the founder of the state of Pakistan
could not then be imagined, but when it did become imaginable it was again as a consequence of a
moment of Gandhian opportunism: when the Mahatma called on all Congress Party officials to leave
their posts in 1942, the Muslim League had only to tell its own supporters to stay at work to guarantee
itself a much greater share of power after Japan had been defeated.
Gandhi cannot escape culpability for being the only major preacher of appeasement who never changed
his mind. The overused word is here fully applicable, as Gandhi entreated the British to let the Nazis
take possession of your beautiful island, with your many beautiful buildings. You will give all
these but neither your souls, nor y our minds. If these gentlemen choose to occupy your homes,
you will vacate them. If they do not give you free passage out, you will allow yourself man,
woman and child, to be slaughtered
This passage is revealing, not so much for its metaphysical amorality as for its demonstration of what
was always latent in Gandhism: a highly dubious employment of the mind-body distinction. For him,
the material and physical world was gross and polluting and selfish, while all that pertained to the soul
was axiomatically ideal and altruistic. (Let Hitler have Britains beautiful buildings, while their
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expelled inhabitants, even as they submitted to extermination, meditated on the sublime.) This false
antithesis is the basis for all religious fundamentalism, even as its deliberate indifference permits and
even encourages sharp deterioration in the world of real conditions. Not entirely unlike his
contemporary fighter for independence Eamon De Valera, who yearned for an impossible Ireland that
spoke Gaelic, resisted modernity, and put its trust in a priestly caste, Gandhi had a vision of an
unpolluted India that owed a great deal to the ancient Hindu fear and prohibition of anything that
originated from across the black water.
Lelyvelds high standing as a reporter was earned largely by his work in South Africa, culminating in
the memorable bookMove Your Shadow, which anatomized the deep psychology of racism. And it
may well have been Gandhis years in that country that helped imbue him with a lifelong fear of a
distraught, occluded relationship between sexuality, violence, and hygiene. Originally projected onto
the sheer physicality of the threatening Zulus, this extreme fastidiousness lent him a certain
identification with essentially conservative ideas of purity and order and simplicity. Very cleverly,
Lelyveld connects this ethos to V. S. Naipauls shocked confrontation with Indian squaloror, to be
more precise, with Indian levels of public defecationin his first study of the country,An Area of
Darkness. It is not, perhaps, so surprising that the Brahmin-like Naipaul found so much to admire inthe prim ex-attorney who experienced such combined revulsion and exaltat ion at the sheer filth and
chaos of his own version of the beloved country. This complex ofodi et amo, which led Gandhi to handle
the night soil of beggars and sweepers as an act of restitution, also made him suspicious of passions and
repelled by thosenot by any means excluding untouchables and Muslimswho seemed to exhibit
them. The strenuous manner of his fasts and mortifications and personal sexual repressions found a
paradoxical counterpart in his attachment to passivity and acceptance.
Auden wrote of Y eats that he became his admirers, and Naipaul was to annex this line in tracing the
way that Gandhi became more powerless as he grew more revered. Lelyveld concludes his Authors
Note by saying, Even now, he doesnt let Indiansor, for that matter, the rest of usoff easy. But can
it be that the admirers are too inclined to return a lenient verdict on their own highly protean
Mahatma? This book provides the evidence for both readings, depending on whether you think Gandhi
was a friend of the poor or a friend of poverty, and whether or not you can notice something grotesque
even something conceitedin the notion that the meek should inherit the Earth.
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Copyright 2011 by The Atlantic Monthly Group. All Rights Reserved.
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