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Ocean & Coastal Management 86 (2013) 22e32

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Ocean & Coastal Management

journal homepage: www.elsevier .com/locate/ocecoaman

The Reef Corridor of the Southwest Gulf of Mexico: Challenges for itsmanagement and conservation

Leonardo Ortiz-Lozano a,*, Horacio Pérez-España b,c, Alejandro Granados-Barba a,Carlos González-Gándara d, Ana Gutiérrez-Velázquez e, Javier Martos d

aAnálisis y Síntesis de Zonas Costeras, Instituto de Ciencias Marinas y Pesquerías, Universidad Veracruzana, Av. Hidalgo #617, Col. Río Jamapa 94290, Bocadel Río, Veracruz, MexicobArrecifes Coralinos, Instituto de Ciencias Marinas y Pesquerías, Universidad Veracruzana, Av. Hidalgo #617, Col. Río Jamapa 94290, Boca del Río, Veracruz,MexicocCentro de Investigación de Ciencias Ambientales, Universidad Autónoma del Carmen, Av. Laguna de Términos s/n, Col. Renovación 2da sección, CP 24155,Ciudad del Carmen, Campeche, Mexicod Laboratorio de Arrecifes Coralinos, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas y Agropecuarias, Zona Poza Rica Tuxpan, Universidad Veracruzana, Carr. Tuxpan.-Tampico km 7.5, Col. Universitaria, CP 92860, Tuxpan, Veracruz, Mexicoe Posgrado. Instituto de Ecología, A.C., Departamento de Ecología y Comportamiento Animal, Apartado Postal 63, Xalapa 91000, Veracruz, Mexico

a r t i c l e i n f o

Article history:Available online

* Corresponding author. Tel./fax: þ52 229 9567070E-mail addresses: ortizleo@gmail.com, leoortiz@uv

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a b s t r a c t

Flow of species and spatial continuity of biological processes between geographically separated areasmay be achieved using management tools known as Ecological Corridors (EC). In this paper we proposean EC composed of three highly threatened coral reef systems in the Southwest Gulf of Mexico: SistemaArrecifal Lobos Tuxpan, Sistema Arrecifal Veracruzano and Arrecifes de los Tuxtlas. The proposed EC issupported by the concept of Marine Protected Areas Networks, which highlights the biogeographical andhabitat heterogeneity representations as the main criteria to the establishment of this kind of networks.These three reef systems represent the coral biodiversity of the western Gulf of Mexico. Neverthelessthere are serious shortcomings in its protection. Under this approach, the challenges that Mexicangovernment will face for management and conservation of this EC are discussed. There is an obvious lackof an adequate legal framework to establish networks of protected areas in Mexico, mainly becausenational legislation does not consider connectivity as an important factor in the selection of MPA.

� 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction

One of the most important instruments for in situ protection ofnatural resources and biodiversity has been the establishment ofprotected areas (Ortiz-Lozano et al., 2009a). These areas, underdifferent categories of protection, are the basis for internationalefforts to counter the effects of human development on the envi-ronmental goods and services that they provide.

Coral reefs are one of the marine ecosystems that have providedmore goods and services to humans. With a total world area ofapproximately 527 000 km2 (Mora et al., 2006), coral reefs havebeen intimately linked to human development and have sufferedits consequences (Fitzpatrick and Donaldson, 2007; Hoegh-Guldberg et al., 2007). That is why about 20% of the global area of

..mx (L. Ortiz-Lozano).

All rights reserved.

these ecosystems is within a Marine Protected Area (MPA). How-ever, the number of MPAs and its coverage can be misleading in-dicators of effective conservation of coral areas, since itsestablishment does not warrant the application of good manage-ment measures and enforcement (Mora et al., 2006; Fraga andJesús, 2008).

Although MPAs are intended to limit human activities, coralreefs are vulnerable to threats from outside the boundaries of theprotected area, such as turbidity and sedimentation (Orpin et al.,2004; James et al., 2005), water pollution (Fabricius, 2005), andcoastal development (Fichez et al., 2005; Mora et al., 2006; Ortiz-Lozano, 2012) (Gutiérrez-Ruiz et al., 2011; Ortiz-Lozano, 2012).Also, life cycles and ethology of different reef species may exceedthe geographical boundaries of protected areas (Palumbi, 2004) aswell as internal ecological processes dominated by the influence ofthe external areas (McClelland and Valiea, 1998; Miller and Ayre,2008), which increases the vulnerability of reefs to the effects ofanthropogenic impacts.

Fig. 1. Reefs Systems of the Southwest Gulf of Mexico: Sistema Arrecifal Lobos Tuxpan (SALT), Sistema Arrecifal Veracruzano (SAV) and Arrecifes de los Tuxtlas (AT).

Table 1Scleractinean Coral Species in Gulf of Mexico reef areas.

Reef system Number ofcoral species

Source

Flower Garden Banks 23 Aronson et al., 2005Sistema Arrecifal

Lobos Tuxpan28 Horta-Puga et al., 2007

Sistema ArrecifalVeracruzano

38 Horta-Puga et al., 2007, this research

Arrecifes de LosTuxtlas

20 Pérez-España et al., 2008; CONANP, 2009

Banco de Campeche 44 Horta-Puga et al., 2007, this research

L. Ortiz-Lozano et al. / Ocean & Coastal Management 86 (2013) 22e32 23

For these reasons, it is necessary to analyze MPAs, not only interms of individual performance, but in relation to the major re-gions that integrate and represent a relevant role in its spatial andtemporal permanence (Pressey, 1994; Hansen and Defries, 2007;Ortiz-Lozano et al., 2009a).

Ecological corridors (EC) are biological or physical strips con-necting areas and allowing movement of species (Van der Windtand Swart, 2008). EC have become a concept for integrating, un-der a management perspective, areas that despite beinggeographically separated from each other, maintain a flow of spe-cies that generates connections between areas within it.

The aim of this manuscript is to present the Southwest Gulf ofMexico reefs as a marine ecological corridor. Here we show theimportance of these reefs and the main stressors to which they areexposed. We explain the criteria to account this ecological corridorunder the figure of a network of marine protected areas.

To arrive at this proposal, we conducted a qualitative approachat different spatial scales. First, we considered the large regionwhich includes the Gulf of Mexico (GoM). The GoM was dividedaccording to their geological characteristics and the presence ofreef systems. With this, we identified the factors that group thesereef systems into two sets, according to the type of continentalshelf, either carbonated or sedimentary. At a smaller spatial scalefor sedimentary platform reefs, we integrate information about thepresence of scleractinian coral species, the main environmentalcharacteristics, the relationship with human uses and the pressuresto which they are subjected. This information was obtained frompublished data for different reef systems and expert knowledge ineach of the areas. Evidence of connectivity between different reefsystems was collected from the scientific literature, consideringexisting data on benthic organisms. We must emphasize that themain purpose of this paper is to set the conceptual basis to coor-dinate research efforts and management of this Reef Corridor, and

the establishment of the first Mexican Marine Protected AreaNetwork in the Gulf of Mexico.

2. Reefs of the Gulf of Mexico

The Gulf of Mexico is a LargeMarine Ecosystem (Sherman,1991)with a mixture of ecological characteristics of temperate andtropical environments. It is an inland sea whose basin of1.5 � 106 km2 (Bryant et al., 1991) receives discharges from riversthat led to the formation of environmentally and biologicallydiverse coastal systems.

Coral reefs require particular oceanographic and environmentalconditions such as shallow, oligotrophic, and warm (>20� C) ma-rinewaters, with an optimum between 26 and 28 �C, with salinitiesof 33e36 ups, minimal turbidity and sedimentation, well lit andwith low wave energy (Hubbard, 1997; Carricart-Ganivet, 2004).However, in the Gulf of Mexico, some reefs developed despite theconditions of turbidity, sedimentation, temperature and organicinputs, produced by natural disturbances and human activities(Salas-Pérez and Granados-Barba, 2008; Salas-Pérez and Arenas,

Table 2Scleractinean Coral Species in the Southwest Gulf of Mexico reef systems. SistemaArrecifal Lobos Tuxpan (SALT), Sistema Arrecifal Veracruzano (SAV), Arrecifes de LosTuxtlas (AT). The closest reef system, Banco de Campeche reefs (ABC), is included asan external reference. Sources: Horta-Puga et al., 2007; Pérez-España et al., 2008;CONANP, 2009; *Perez-España personal communication.

# Family Species SALT SAV AT ABC

1 Acroporidae Acropora cervicornis 1 1 1 12 Acropora palmata 1 1 1 13 Agariciidae Agaricia agaricites 1 1 1 14 Agaricia fragilis 1 1 1 15 Agaricia humilis 0 1 1 16 Agaricia lamarcki 0 1 0 17 Helioseris cucullata 0 1 1 18 Caryophylliidae Cladocora arbuscula 0 0 1 19 Mussidae Colpophyllia natans 1 1 1 110 Diploria clivosa 1 1 1 111 Diploria labyrinthiformis 0 0 0 112 Diploria strigosa 1 1 1 113 Favia fragum 0 1 0 114 Manicina areolata 1 1 0 115 Mussa angulosa 1 1 0 116 Mycetophyllia aliciae 0 0 0 117 Mycetophyllia daniana 1 1 0 118 Mycetophyllia ferox 1 1 0 119 Mycetophyllia lamarckiana 1 1 0 120 Scolymia cubensis 1 1 0 121 Scolymia lacera 0 1 0 122 Meandrinidae Dichocoenia stokesi 0 1 0 123 Eusmilia fatigiata 0 0 0 124 Meandrina meandrites 0 0 0 125 Pocilloporidae Madracis decactis 1 1 1 126 Madracis auretenra* 0 1 0 127 Montastraeidae Montastraea annularis 1 1 0 128 Montastraea cavernosa 1 1 1 129 Montastraea faveolata 1 1 0 130 Montastraea franksi 1 1 0 131 Oculinidae Oculina diffusa 1 1 1 132 Oculina robusta 0 1 1 133 Oculina tenella 0 0 1 134 Oculina valenciennesi 0 1 0 135 Oculina varicosa 1 1 1 136 Poritidae Porites astreoides 1 1 1 137 Porites branneri 0 1 0 138 Porites colonensis 1 1 0 139 Porites divaricata 1 1 0 140 Porites furcata 1 1 0 141 Porites porites 1 1 0 142 Siderastreidae Siderastrea radians 1 1 1 143 Siderastrea siderea 1 1 1 144 Astrocoeniidae Stephanocoenia intersepta 1 1 1 1

Total species 28 38 20 44

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2010; Pérez-España et al., 2012; Tunnell, 1992; Godinez-Ortegaet al., 2009; Gutiérrez-Ruiz et al., 2011; Ortiz-Lozano, 2012).

In the Gulf of Mexico, reefs are distributed in two major groupslinked to the environmental features of the continental shelf werethey are located: the terrigenous platform present in West andNorth, and the Southeastern carbonate platform (Fig. 1). In theterrigenous shelf biological diversity is lower (Tunnell, 1988;Jordán-Dahlgren, 2002) due to the extreme conditions in whichthey develop and the longest distance and low connectivity theyhave with the center of the Caribbean Biogeographic Province; thecarbonated shelf is closer to the Caribbean and have a higher bio-logical diversity (Horta-Puga et al., 2007) (Table 1).

3. Reefs of the Southwest Gulf of Mexico (RSGoM)

The East Mexico Shelf (Bryant et al., 1991, Fig. 1) is located in theSouthwest Gulf of Mexico. It is a continental shelf with unusualtopographic features, narrowing from north to south (w90e6 kmwidth), and widening to its boundaries with the Yucatan Shelf

(>150 kmwidth). It is one of the few regions in theworld showing asedimentary gradient from terrigenous to biogenic materials (car-bonate). Because of these characteristics, reef systemswith variablemorphology and development are found (Heilprin, 1890; Lara et al.,1992; Carricart-Ganivet and Horta-Puga, 1993; Jordán-Dahlgren,2002).

The environmental heterogeneity and biological complexity ofthe Gulf of Mexico is reflected in the shelf off the coast of Veracruz,which is narrow (w6e33 km), shallow (<70 m) and sinuous, withcomplex topography due to the presence of reefs, islands andsubmarine canyons. According to Salas-Pérez and Granados-Barba(2008), physiographic complexity of this region is important inmodifying flows generated by different components of circulationassociated with oceanographic conditions in the Gulf of Mexico(hydrographic parameters, oceaneatmosphere interaction andcirculation), supporting retention and survival of reef systems.

There are three well-defined areas with different degree of coraldevelopment within the region (Fig. 1), hosting 40 species ofscleractinian corals (Table 2): Sistema Arrecifal Lobos Tuxpan(SALT), Sistema Arrecifal Veracruzano (SAV) and a set of small reefscalled Arrecifes de Los Tuxtlas (AT). There are also patches of sub-merged reefs that share species with these main reef systems.

The characteristics of these systems are:

3.1. Sistema Arrecifal Lobos Tuxpan (SALT)

This system is composed of platform reefs, six of which areemerged and four are submerged (Fig. 2, Table 3). Because of itsecological, scientific, educational, recreational, historical and cul-tural importance, in June 2009 was declared an MPA with thecategory of “Flora and Fauna Protection Area” (DOF, 2009). There isa characteristic type of reefs in the region as is pointed out byCastro-Aguirre and Márquez-Espinoza (1981), consisting of highrelief structures that do not reach the sea surface, called “sub-merged reefs”. In the intertidal zone off Cabo Rojo, is “Bajo Verde”, apatch of limestone covered by remains of mollusks, polychaetetubes and with a coral cover less than 5%, formed mainly of stonycorals (Fig. 2B). There are also two reef structures located west ofTuxpan reef, and another located southeast of the mouth of theCazones river (Fig. 2B and C). The dimensions of these reefs aresimilar to those emerging reefs, as they are 1.5e2.5 km long by 1 kmwide (Martos, 2010; González-Cobos, 2010).

Although the first formal studies of SALT date back to Moore(1958), knowledge of their biodiversity and their communities islimited. There are 1 110 species known in the area, emphasizingcorals, mollusks and fishes, including 31 species of stony corals(Escobar-Vázquez and Chávez, 2012; Morales, 2012) that provideshelter for 299 mollusk species (Tunnell et al., 2007) and 278 fishspecies (González-Gándara, 2003, 2010). Limited knowledge ofsome taxa, such as sponges and tunicates is highly remarkable.

3.1.1. Economic importanceThe SALT is located near Tuxpan and Tamiahua cities, whose

productive activities are linked in part to these reef ecosystems.Significant economic incomes arise from port of Tuxpan, whichreceived 585 vessels in 2012, most of them carrying fuel (SCT,2013). About 100 fishermen extracted species for regional and na-tional consumption, mainly octopus. Also, domestic tourism fordiving and reef fishing is important in the region.

3.1.2. Environmental impactsSALT reefs are apparently less exposed to human activities;

however, the growth of the Port of Tuxpan and accidental fueldischarges are increasing pressures on coral reefs. Tuxpan riverpollutes with contaminants as biocides, fertilizers, heavy metals

Fig. 2. The Flora and Fauna Protection Area, Sistema Arrecifal Lobos Tuxpan (A). It is composed by two polygons: B) North polygon, in front of Tamiahua Lagoon. C) South polygon, infront of Tuxpan city.

L. Ortiz-Lozano et al. / Ocean & Coastal Management 86 (2013) 22e32 25

and fecal coliform to the region (Ponce-Velez and Botello, 2005)(Table 4).

3.2. Sistema Arrecifal Veracruzano (SAV)

The SAV is the most developed reef system in the region. It has27 reefs, and six islands (Fig. 3, Table 5). It has four fringing reefs,and the rest are platform reefs. Of these, 19 are emerged and fourare submerged. The SAV has three categories of protection. It hasbeen a national park since 1992 and was declared as a BiosphereReserve by UNESCO since 2006. Additionally, was registered by theMexican government as a wetland of international importance inthe Ramsar list in 2004. Until today there is not a managementprogram for the protected area, making it difficult to conductproper management and conservation actions.

The SAV is the best studied reef system of Southwest Gulf ofMexico (Jiménez et al., 2007) and has acquired particular scientific

Table 3Reefs of the Sistema Arrecifal Lobos Tuxpan. Location, area and types.

Reef name Lat. Long. Average surface(ha)

Reef type

Blanquilla 21.533333 �97.288056 49.32501 Platform emergedMedio 21.500000 �97.237222 32.24406 Platform emergedLobos 21.450000 �97.220278 199.70091 Platform emergedTanhuijo 21.133333 �97.271111 90.90751 Platform emergedEn Medio 21.066667 �97.254167 37.23010 Platform emergedTuxpam 21.016667 �97.186389 97.90615 Platform emergedCabo Verde 21.553889 �97.321944 NA Platform SubmergedOro Verde 21.188889 �97.288056 NA Platform SubmergedPantepec 21.045833 �97.237222 NA Platform SubmergedBlake 20.758333 �96.999722 NA Platform Submerged

relevance in the last six years (Taylor and Akins, 2007; Winfieldet al., 2007, 2009, 2010; Okolodkov et al., 2007, 2011; Ortiz-Lozano et al., 2007, 2009a, b; Salas-Pérez et al., 2012; Salas-Pérezand Granados-Barba, 2008; Okolodkov, 2008, 2010; Godínez-Ortega et al., 2009; Salas-Monreal et al., 2009; Aké-Castillo et al.,2010; Parra-Toriz et al., 2010; Arceo and Granados-Barba, 2010;Aké-Castillo, 2011; Ortiz-Lozano, 2012Salas-Pérez et al., 2012). It isalso the only system in the region adjacent to a metropolitan area(Veracruz). There are vessels entering to the commercial portthrough the MPA. These aspects are crucial to the impacts andhuman influence on SAV (Hayasaka Ramírez, 2011; Ortiz-Lozano,2012).

3.2.1. Economic importanceThe SAV is the most important reef area in the history of Spanish

colonization (Rodríguez and Manrique, 1991). From the latesixteenth century has been both a shelter to the first port in con-tinental America and the source of material for the construction ofthe city of Veracruz. The Port of Veracruz moved 729 717 containersin 2007 (Guerrero and Rivera, 2009). There are around 500 fishingfamilies in the area. The value of the catch in 2006 was U.S. $ 10915,047, the value of diving tourism in 2008 was U.S. $ 50444, 774, andthe beach tourism revenue was U.S. $ 90519, 365 during the sameyear (Arceo et al., 2010).

3.2.2. Environmental impactsSAV reefs are located in a heavily impacted area. There have

been identified 17 different types of environmental impacts asso-ciated with 50 different causes of both human and natural origin(Ortiz-Lozano, 2012). While there is no accurate assessment of theimpacts in the area, it can be said that urban development of the

Table 4Environmental problems located in the Southwest Gulf of Mexico reefs. SistemaArrecifal Lobos Tuxpan (SALT), Sistema Arrecifal Veracruzano (SAV), Arrecifes de LosTuxtlas (AT). Modified from Ortiz-Lozano (2012).

Category Environmental problem SALT SAV AT

Direct physicaldamage tothe reef

Siltation of coral reef structures XReef area reduction X XRupture and partialfragmentation of corals

X X

Coral Death (death, bleaching,coral diseases, coral speciesdecline)

X X

Destruction of seagrass (directphysical damageand indirect functional damageto seagrass beds)

X

Impact onfisheries

Disappearance of ornamentalfish species

X X

Loss of commercial molluskspecies

X

Loss of clam areas (reduction ofareas suitable for growthof clams, declining populationsof clams)

X

Decrease in the size of fishcaught in commercial fishing

X X X

Changes in thestructure ofbiologicalcommunities

Dominance of algae (relativeincrease in the area coveredby algae)

X X

Invasion of exotic species X XPollution processes Pollution by agrochemical X X

Pollution by fecal coliform X XPollution from industrial waste X XPollution generated by oil andpetroleum products

X X X

Pollution by organic matter X XHeavy metal pollution X XPollution from solid waste(trash and other)

X X

Fig. 3. Sistema Arrecifal Veracruzano National Park (A). Include two reef subsystems

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Veracruz metropolitan area, and the presence of the Port of Vera-cruz have been responsible for most of the deterioration of the reefconditions (Table 4). Despite being a protected area since August1992, the Mexican federal government, through the Ministry ofEnvironment and Natural Resources, began in 2011 a legal proce-dure to modify the protected area boundaries, excluding a fringingreef called Punta Gorda. This has generated strong social opposi-tion, since the government’s intention is to expand the facilities ofthe Port of Veracruz on the reef area.

3.3. Arrecifes de Los Tuxtlas

This reef system consists of a set of 32 small coral formations offthe coast of Los Tuxtlas (Fig. 4, Table 6). Most of them formed ofrocky substrates on which different colonies of hard corals speciesgrow. There is a fringing reef called “La Perla del Golfo”, whichreaches 13 km long and 0.5 kmwide, and has a coral cover close to15%, dominated by Diploria clivosa (Pérez-España et al., 2008). Thewhole area is considered within a Marine Protected Area proposalcalled “Arrecifes de Los Tuxtlas”, under the category of BiosphereReserve (CONANP, 2009). It is an areawith a low level of knowledgebecause it is difficult to access, and there are only a few recordsabout it (Pérez-España et al., 2008). Themost complete informationabout the area is the technical report that justifies the inclusion ofthe area as a protected area (CONANP, 2009). It is stressed a coralspecies richness similar to that of SALT, although the abundance islower. See Table 4 for environmental impacts detected.

4. Towards the establishment of the Reef Corridor of theSouthwest Gulf of Mexico

Ecological corridors (EC) are strips that connect physical andbiological areas that allow movement of species (Van der Windtand Swart, 2008). Although they may be defined in different

(Ortiz-Lozano et al., 2009a). B) Veracruz Subsystem. C) Antón Lizardo Subsystem.

Table 5Reefs of the Sistema Arrecifal Veracruzano. Location, area and types.

Reef name Lat. Long. Average surface(ha)

Reef type

Punta Gorda 19.251085 �96.183811 39.02952 FringingGalleguilla 19.231271 �96.122688 34.98794 Platform emergedBlanquilla 19.227298 �96.098208 42.48632 Platform emergedAnegada de

Adentro19.226322 �96.055719 75.84691 Platform emerged

Verde 19.203466 �96.068006 67.11012 Platform emergedHornos 19.191584 �96.122661 12.02126 FringingPájaros 19.188906 �96.089496 113.08381 Platform emergedSacrificios 19.177016 �96.092385 45.17923 Platform emergedAnegada de

Afuera19.158676 �95.854501 471.59684 Platform emerged

Ingenieros 19.149029 �96.092824 43.73221 FringingTopatillo 19.142977 �95.835755 13.72432 Platform emergedSantiaguillo 19.142477 �95.809003 17.50261 Platform emergedAnegadilla 19.136971 �95.795912 20.62310 Platform emergedPolo 19.108503 �95.977635 21.96971 Platform emergedEnmedio 19.106099 �95.939164 258.61579 Platform emergedLos Bajitos 19.101759 �95.976463 42.78612 Platform emergedChopas 19.088364 �95.968362 473.62927 Platform emergedBlanca 19.086803 �95.999618 41.32848 Platform emergedCabezo 19.074708 �95.848202 1037.58564 Platform emergedGiote 19.065980 �95.997718 3.45797 FringingRizo 19.063957 �95.927766 184.40603 Platform emergedLa Palma 19.12627 �95.96835 197.140441 Platform submergedLos Sargazos 19.09851 �95.94514 19.2172783 Platform submergedPeriferico 19.08431 �95.93388 4.59033383 Platform submergedTerranova 19.18404 �96.09553 6.52967079 Platform submerged

Table 6Location of reefs of Arrecifes de los Tuxtlas (CONANP, 2009).

Reef name Lat. Long.

Punta Puntilla 18.709667 �95.286333Isla El Terrón 18.701833 �95.238833La Ensenada 18.704000 �95.189833Playa Escondida 18.704167 �95.185000La Poza 18.709333 �95.157500Armita 1 18.686333 �95.159833Armita 2 18.685167 �95.152500La Herradura 18.681667 �95.145500Playa Hermosa 18.670000 �95.126167Montepío Costero 18.665833 �95.095667Montepío Poza 18.652833 �95.092667Punta Sábalo 18.574667 �95.082167Muelle Balzapote 18.621833 �95.069667Las Cruces (Punta Balzapote) 18.538000 �95.067167Punta Playita 18.609000 �95.058167Jicacal 1 18.591167 �95.037833Jicacal 2 18.588500 �95.047500Jicacal Poza 18.621833 �95.033333La Playita 18.558167 �94.968333Los Morritos 18.557333 �94.975667El Salado 18.549667 �94.899833Los Mulatos 18.552667 �94.881833Barco Viejo 18.550000 �94.872333Guasinapan 18.548000 �94.861167Olapa 18.547500 �94.851833Perla del Golfo 18.525667 �94.801833Zapotitlán 18.514000 �94.792667Mezcalapa 18.468500 �94.772000Sochoapa 18.443500 �94.763333Punta Tecuanapa 18.421667 �94.738667Peña Hermosa 18.357333 �94.688167Punta Peña Hermosa 18.351667 �94.674500El Terrón 1 18.336833 �94.658333El Terrón Poza 18.336667 �94.654667Punta San Juan 18.288167 �94.620333Jicacal 18.224333 �94.608333La Cuadrada 18.185333 �94.573833Palo Seco 18.171667 �94.521667

L. Ortiz-Lozano et al. / Ocean & Coastal Management 86 (2013) 22e32 27

ways (Good, 1998), the concept itself refers to a particular feature:connectivity, i.e. communication between two or more entities.This “fuzzy” concept has been accepted by conservationists andpoliticians precisely because of its adaptable definition (Van derWindt and Swart, 2008).

Under an environmental perspective, this connectivity mayrefer to two components: can be related to physical characteristicsof the territory that provide connectivity in the landscape, linkingcore habitats. It can also refer to landscape connectivity, considereda biological attribute, which is the ability of the species (or speciesassemblages) to disperse over a landscape (Baudry and Merriam,

Fig. 4. Arrecifes de los Tuxtlas. This group of 32 scattered coral formations has been proposed by the Federal Government as a Biosphere Reserve. Dots represent the coralformations.

Fig. 5. NMDS configuration obtained from the polychaete density in selected southernGoM reefs: CBRS ¼ Campeche Bank Reef System, CIRS ¼ Cozumel Island Reef System,VRS ¼ Veracruz Reef System. VRS includes Lobos (SALT) and Anegada de Adentro andAnegada de Afuera reefs (SAV). (Modified from Granados-Barba et al., 2003).

Fig. 7. Dendrogram that shows composition of scleractinian corals species and itsdistribution in the Southern Gulf of Mexico. Numbers refers to species in Table 2. Hereare displayed only 26 of the 44 species of scleractinenan corals. The remaining 18species are common to all systems. Black dots refer to species shared in each node.White dots represent species shared by ABC and AT. AT ¼ Arrecifes de los Tuxtlas;SALT ¼ Sistema Arrecifal Lobos Tuxpan; SAV ¼ Sistema Arrecifal Veracruzano;ABC ¼ Banco de Campeche Reefs.

L. Ortiz-Lozano et al. / Ocean & Coastal Management 86 (2013) 22e3228

1988). The second is the one that gives greater strength to theconcept.

In terrestrial ecosystems, the EC concept has been criticizedbecause of the difficulty to test connectivity between differentareas (Van der Windt and Swart, 2008). However, in marine eco-systems connectivity is a key factor, especially for benthic organ-isms (Carr et al., 2003). In fact, there are conspicuous physicaldrivers that encourage connectivity, such as ocean currents (Brocket al., 2012). In reef systems, hydrologic connectivity between theirlinked environments (mangroves and sea grasses) is critical tocomplete biological cycles.

RSGoM can be seen in the perspective of EC complementing thisconcept with the criteria for the establishment of Marine ProtectedAreas Networks (MPAN). These MPAN arise from the need to con-nect not only interrelated environments, but to unite under com-mon goals the different interests of the social sectors involved in itsuse and management (Roberts et al., 2003).

Fig. 6. Hierarchical clustering of gorgonian species from South GoM and Caribbeanreefs. SALT reefs: Isla Lobos (IL), Tuxpan (TUX); SAV reefs: Veracruz (VER); ABC reefs:Cayo Arenas (AREN), Cayo Arcas (ARC), Triángulos (TRIAN); Caribbean Reefs: PuertoMorelos (PMOR). Modified from Jordán-Dahlgren (2002).

The MPAN are appropriate to address space issues of connec-tivity (e.g. connect sites crucial to certain life stages of key species)and habitat heterogeneity and spatial arrangement and composi-tion of the constituent habitats, all of which contribute to theecosystem resilience.

Roberts et al. (2003) proposed several criteria for the selection ofMPAN, but the most important are: 1) “biogeographic representa-tion” and 2) “Representation and habitat heterogeneity”, becauseboth seek to capture the full spectrum of diversity present in anMPAN. The first one refers to the representativeness of the networkof areas to include all biogeographical regions in protected areas ofthe MPAN, including the transition zones. The second seeks toprotect the full range of habitats present within a biogeographicregion. Our proposal is the implementation of an MPAN includingthe reef systems off Veracruz State coast. This MPAN must includethe theoretical/best knowledge in order to have representation ofmost habitats and ensure ecological connectivity.

Bellowwe describe how these criteria are applied to the RSGoM.

Fig. 8. Types of coral reefs in the Southwest Gulf of Mexico according to its geo-morphology. a) Fringing reefs. b) Emerged platform reefs. c) Submerged platform reefs.

L. Ortiz-Lozano et al. / Ocean & Coastal Management 86 (2013) 22e32 29

4.1. Biogeographic representation

Regardless of their hierarchical level, a regional unit is charac-terized by the presence of exclusive groups, whose limits aredefined by the overlap of the boundary lines of such groups.However, not all species share the same geographic distribution,making it difficult to place them in a rigid biogeographic region-alization (Zunino and Zullini, 2004). This is the case of the RSGoM.

The RSGoM are located at Eastern Continental Shelf of Mexico,which is within the Wider Caribbean biogeographic province(Horta-Puga et al., 2007). This Biogeographic province is a vast re-gion stretching from the South American Caribbean to the Gulf ofMexico. Nevertheless, Eastern Continental Shelf of Mexico has itsown characteristics, both environmental and benthic speciescomposition, making it different to adjacent areas of the samebiogeographic province.

Some studies on the geographical distribution of benthic or-ganisms in the southern Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean, suggesta separation of the biological communities of the Southwest Gulf ofMexico with respect to the other areas of the same biogeographicprovince. Granados-Barba et al. (2003), through an analysis ofdensity of coral reef polychaetes, found that the SAV (Anegada deAdentro and Anegada de Afuera reefs) and SALT reefs (Isla Lobos)differ from reefs of Mexican Caribbean and Yucatan platform(Fig. 5). In addition, Jordán-Dahlgren (2002) differentiates gorgo-nian coral reefs of Southwest Gulf of Mexico (Tuxpan and Veracruz)from those in the Caribbean and Yucatan platform (Fig. 6).

For scleractinian corals, species composition of RSGoMdiffers fromthe nearest reef systems, which are located at the Campeche Bank(ABC,Fig.1), located in theYucatanplatformandhavinggreater speciesrichness thanRSGoM.Bothshare39of44 speciesofhardcorals (Fig. 7).

Probably, the low connectivity with Caribbean sea and thedifferent environmental conditions have originated RSGoM’s spe-cial characteristics, resulting in endemic species in the SAV andSALT, such as fish Elacatinus jarocho, Elacatinus redimiculus (Taylorand Akins, 2007) and Hypoplectrus castroaguirrei (Del-Moral-Flores et al., 2007). Other taxonomic groups with 11 exclusivespecies for the SAV are stomatopod and decapod crustaceansdescribed by Winfield et al. (2009), Winfield et al. (2009, 2010;Winfield and Ortiz (2012), and Ortiz et al. (2011). More researchis needed on the AT, but this area is likely to share these endemicspecies, which could strengthen the connectivity within the bio-logical corridor. This idea is reinforced by reports of the presence ofsubmerged reefs south of SALT (Martos et al., 2009) and north ofSAV, which would reduce the distance between Veracruz reef en-vironments favoring the idea of an EC.

Differences between biota belonging to adjacent biogeographicunits can be determined by a combination of factors includingunique ecological conditions or barriers to dispersal (biotic orphysical, current or past) (Cox, 2001; Ruggiero and Ezcurra, 2003)This higher connectivity among reefs of RSGoM and lower con-nectivity with the Caribbean favor the idea of an biogeographic unitthat could be seen as an EC (Darlington, 1957).

4.2. Representation and habitat heterogeneity

RSGoM contains all possible types of coral reefs in the Gulf ofMexico. Coral reefs can be classified into four types according totheir shape and proximity to the coast (Chávez et al., 2007): atolls,platform, fringing and barrier. RSGoM has fringing reefs in the SAVand the AT, and platform reefs at SALT and SAV. In the systems thatcompose the RSGoM, there is a subdivision between platform reefs,since platform reefs may emerge from the sea surface or becompletely submerged (Fig. 8). In addition to these major types ofreefs, in the AT are various patch reefs that grow near the coast.

4.3. Physical connectivity

A third issue on the creation of MPAN is the presence of strongphysical connectivity that could favor connectivity betweenbiological communities. In the case of the Southwestern GoM,there is a remarked connectivity due to continental shelf currents(Zavala-Hidalgo et al., 2003). These currents moves northwardfrom April to August and southward from September to March,allowing the movement of water masses across all the reefssystems of the CE.

5. Considerations for the integrated management of theecological corridor

In Mexico, one of the main tools used by the federal governmentfor the preservation of marine and coastal resources is the creationof Marine Protected Areas (Ortiz-Lozano et al., 2009a). The GeneralLaw on Ecological Equilibrium and Environmental Protection(LGEEPA, Spanish acronym) defines protected areas as the key in-strument in the exploitation of natural resources, and assign itsadministration to the Ministry of Environment and Natural Re-sources through the National Commission of Natural ProtectedAreas. In the RSGoM, there are at least two reef systems that arecontained within a marine protected area. The first is the SALT,located in the category of Flora and Fauna Protection Area. ThisMPAis lacking a management program and does not have sufficient staffto perform the necessary monitoring activities in the area. In thecase of PNSAV, has National Park status since 1992, but does nothave amanagement program. Currently the National Park is subjectto an intense judicial process where the citizens of the region havesued federal authorities to protect the reef system against a portexpansion project. In the case of AT, there is a proposal to create aBiosphere Reserve (CONANP, 2009), although to date no progresshas been made in protecting the area.

Besides these reef systems, there are some reefs that have notbeen considered in any protection scheme, as is the case of thesubmerged Blake reef (Fig. 2), which is located near the SALT but isnot included in the protected area.

Mexico lacks a legally defined scheme for managing networks ofprotected areas. The closest instrument to this approach is definedby LGEEPA as the National System of Protected Areas (NSPA). It isthe integration of Natural Protected Areas that are considered ofparticular relevance to the country because of its biodiversity andits ecological characteristics (LGEEPA, 2011). Nevertheless, theNSPA does not explicitly consider the need to include environ-mentally related areas together, or even mention the term“ecological connectivity”. By contrast, in other countries like theU.S., there are experiences on the establishment of MPAs networks,as in the case of the State of California. After the enactment of theMarine Life Protection Act, the MPAs in the region increased from 3to approximately 16% of the State waters. This network of marineprotected areas represents most of marine habitats and is designedto be ecologically-connected (Gleason et al., 2013).

From this perspective, the initiative to create the EC of theRSGoM allows to integrate the term of connectivity within themanagement of the MPA in the region. One of the main benefits isthat considers not only the polygons of protection; it also includesthe intermediate areas between them. This facilitates the protec-tion of reefs that are not included in any protected areas, but areequally important for the maintenance of the EC.

The apparent biogeographical ’isolation’ with the rest of theWider Caribbean reef systems, as well as a high physical connec-tivity between CE systems, highlights the vulnerability of theRSGoM. Threats like global warming have been decisive in the lossof resilience of reef systems globally (Hoegh-Guldberg et al., 2007),

L. Ortiz-Lozano et al. / Ocean & Coastal Management 86 (2013) 22e3230

a situation that may be exacerbated in systems with greaterisolation as RSGoM.

There are international initiatives that can be used as a frame-work to develop MPAN management schemes in Mexico. It can beseen either as financing mechanisms or as external regulators tofacilitate the implementation of the commitments made byMexicoon MPAs. An example of this is the case of the Commission forEnvironmental Cooperation (CEC) resulting from the signing of theNorth American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) between Mexico,the United States and Canada (1994). The Commission created the.North American Marine Protected Areas Network (NAMPAN toimprove and strengthen the conservation of biodiversity in criticalmarine habitats throughout North America MPA and facilitate theexchange of information between experts and managers (www2.cec.org/nampan).

While these initiatives could serve as a catalyst for the estab-lishment of the Reef Corridor of the Southwest Gulf of Mexico, wemust emphasize the importance local governments can play in thistask. InMexico, allmarine ecosystemsareunder federal jurisdiction.However, as seen in Fig. 1, the State that borders all the RSGoM isVeracruz. Under the functional perspective of the coastal zone (Rayand Hayden, 1992; Ortiz-Lozano et al., 2007, 2009a), Veracruz is bydefinition the immediate catchment area (orplanning zone, in termsof Sorensen et al., [1992]) for all reef systems that form the EC. Thusthe role of the State and Municipal governments in urban areas isrelevant to themanagement of this MPAN. Therefore, it is necessarythat management of EC is supported by functional schemes toovercome the jurisdictional limitations and facilitate the inclusionoflocal governments and territories related with the EC.

The EC would enhance the integration of management initia-tives already under way in the area (such as the presence of marineprotected areas and marine ordinances) and would recover theconcept of environmental connectivity as an essential element inthe functioning and management of these reef systems in the Gulfof Mexico.

Finally, the approach proposed here, can be useful to highlightthe importance of the transition zones among reef systemsconsidering them as landscape elements that must be addressed asthey serve as a link between the sites. In addition, the EC proposalcan become the starting point for generating newapproaches to thestudy of these reef systems. Under this reasoning, the establish-ment of this MPAN can become a valuable tool for the managementof all activities supported on the natural resources of the coastalzone of the state of Veracruz and the Southwest of the Gulf ofMexico.

Acknowledgments

We thank Patricia Arceo and Gerardo Rios for their help intranslating this paper. This research was supported by the projects:“Bases para el Análisis y Síntesis de los Sistemas Costeros de Veracruz,RASZCOV”; “Sistema Integral de Planeación Ambiental de la ZonaCostera Veracruzana” UV-ICMP (DGI 32720201023) and GM004“Monitoreo del Sistema Arrecifal Veracruzano” funded by CONABIO.

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