Japan International Cooperation Agency

JICA has supported more than 60 cities mainly in Asian

developing countries by conducting studies on formulating

master plans on urban transport development, often follow-

ing them with feasibility studies. In these studies, however, it

is crucial to formulate hardware and software development

plans based on the study area’s socio-economic develop-

ment level and to implement the proposed policy measures

and projects in steady and purposeful steps. In contrast to

such studies, this current study, entitled “The Research on a

Practical Approach for Urban Transport Planning,” devel-

oped a different approach: By reviewing available informa-

tion on current socioeconomic urban development, this

study aimed to contribute to the formulation of medium-to

long-term development strategies for urban transport.

The Research on Practical Approachfor Urban Transport Planning

都市交通計画策定にかかるプロジェクト研究

A strategy comprises a set of long-term policy objectives or an actionable vision of some 20 years ahead and a set of policy measures that should be implemented in the coming five to 10 years. Importantly, it also includes a description of how to implement and manage the proposed projects. How-ever, because formulating such a strategy through orthodox master planning is time-consuming and costly, the present study attempted to develop a simple method that would require minimal data and simple analytical formats in formulating an urban transport strategy.

Guidelines for Formulatingan Urban Transport Strategy

The data required by the urban data sheet, the checklist for diagnosing urban transport conditions, and the interview sheet must be collected because these are necessary inputs to the tools devised for formulating an urban transport strategy.

Collection of Data Necessary for Strategy Formulation（INPUT）

Check List for DiagnosingTransport Problems

Urban Data Sheet

Procedure for Data Collection

Interview Sheet

• Because the list is simplified, data can be collected not only from experts and government officials but also from ordinary citizens.

• Gather information from as many sources as possible to avoid the effects of biased opinions on the statistical significance of collected data.

• Collect information via transport con-sultants who have access to available sources of transport statistic

• Inter views are conducted with a number of experts (10 to 15) who are knowledgeable in urban transport problems and policy measures.

• Pre-interviews need be carried out prior to final interviews so as to finalize the questions for interviewees.

Guidelines for Formulating an Urban Transport Strategy

1

Check List for DiagnosingTransport Problems

Urban Data Sheet Interview Sheet

Collection of Data Necessary for Strategy Formulation (INPUT)

Tool for Urban Transport Strategy Formulation (PROCESS)

Matrix for Diagnosis andPrescription on

Urban Transport Problems

Diagnoses ofUrban Transport Problems

Prescriptions forUrban Transport Problems

Selection of a BasicUrban Transport Strategy

Procedures to Select BasicComponents for Transport

Strategy Formulation

Urban Transport Strategy Proposal (OUTPUT)

DiagnosesDiagnoses

In terms of per capita GDP, there is strong correlation between higher urban density and larger share of public transit in high-income countries. The correlation progressively dimin-ishes from high-income countries to middle-income, then to low-income countries (Fig.1).

The potential of urban population growth is inversely corre-lated to the level of per capita GDP. The projected growth rates of urban population are higher in cities from low-income countries (Fig.4).

An appreciable correlation exists between higher density and lower rates of car ownership among city populations. The correlation is stronger in high-income countries but weaker in medium- to low-income countries (Fig.2).

The correlation between higher per capita GDP and higher passenger car ownership is strong, and this tendency lessens in medium- to low-income countries (Fig.5).

Fig.3 plots the relationships among passenger car ownership, PT share, and per capita GDP. There is significant correlation between higher rates of car ownership and lower shares of public transport, but the coefficient among 100 global cities is not strong enough. The correlation is strong in high-income countries but declines in medium- to low-income countries.

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400

Perc

enta

ge

ofm

oto

rised

public

modes

over

mechaniz

ed

trip

s(%

)

Urban Density (people/ha)

> US$25,000

US$ 10,000-25,000

US$ 3,000-10,000

< US$3,000

GDP per capita (R2)(0.7024)(0.6291)(0.0563)(0.0327)

Fig.1 Urban Density and Modal Shareof Public Transit (100 Cities in 1995)

400

500

600

700

800

Pa

ss

en

ge

rc

ars

pe

r1

00

0p

eo

ple

> 25,000 USD

10,000-25,000 USD

3,000-10,000 USD

< 3,000 USD

GDP per capita (R2)(0.6598)(0.7298)(0.1205)(0.2346)

0

100

200

300

0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400

Pa

ss

en

ge

rc

ars

pe

r1

00

0

Urban Density (people/ha)

Fig.2 Urban Density and Passenger CarOwnerships (100 Cities in 1995)

40

50

60

70

80

90

Pe

rce

nta

geo

fm

oto

rise

dp

ub

lic

mo

de

so

ver

me

cha

niz

ed

trip

s(%

)

0

10

20

30

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800

Pe

rce

nta

geo

fm

oto

rise

dp

ub

lic

mo

de

so

ver

me

cha

niz

ed

trip

s(%

)

Passenger cars per 1000people

> 25,000 USD

10,000-25,000 USD

3,000-10,000 USD

< 3,000 USD

(0.6598)(0.4577)(0.1347)(0.0769)

Fig.3 Passenger Car Ownerships andModal Share of Public Transit (100 Cities in 1995)

-1.00%

0.00%

1.00%

2.00%

3.00%

4.00%

5.00%

6.00%

0 5,000 10,000 15,000 20,000 25,000 30,000 35,000 40,000 45,000

Po

pu

lati

on

Gro

wth

Po

ten

tia

l(2

01

0-2

02

5)

GDP per capita (USD)

AfricaEast&SE-AsiaEULatin AmericaMiddle EastNorth AmericaSouth$Cen.Asia

Fig.4 Per Capita GDP and Urban PopulationGrowth Potentials (250 Cities)

y = 0.4459x0.6693

R² = 0.6425

300

400

500

600

700

800

Pas

sen

ger

cars

pe

r1

00

0p

eo

ple

(19

95

,UIT

PM

CD

B)

Osaka

Tokyo

Atlanta

MunichFrankfurt

Cracow

Warsaw

Prague

Calgary

SanFrancisco

DusseldorfGeneva

Helsinki

0

100

200

100 1,000 10,000 100,000

Pas

sen

ger

cars

pe

r1

00

0p

eo

ple

(19

95

,UIT

PM

CD

B)

Metro politan gross domestic product per capita(USD,1995,UITP MCDB)

Hongkong

Singapore

Osaka

Copenhagen

Lisbon

Guangzhou

CasablancaHarare

Chennai

Fig.5 Per Capita GDP and Passenger CarOwnerships (100 Cities in 1995)

It is no exaggeration to say that the most fundamental issue shared by global urban policy makers is facilitating a shift in traffic demand from private passenger cars to public transit systems. In this study, the relation-ship between city types and urban traffic patterns was analyzed by referring to transport indices in the UITP Millennium Cities 1995 data on transport.

The findings of the analysis are summarized below.

• Of the 100 cities in the UITP database, those that have been assisted by JICA in urban transport strategy formulation somehow differ from global tendencies.

• Especially among Asian cities, JICA-assisted cities that have larger shares of two wheelers are found to be more divergent from global tendencies. Such cities can be classified as pre-motorization cities with per capita GDPs of less than USD1,000.

• It is now generally acknowledged that in large cities it would no longer be possible to continue serving a growing motor-ized traffic merely by constructing more roads.

When brakes are put on increasing private car ownership and use, existing public transport systems will be unable to absorb additional passenger traffic. Therefore, the most urgent issue in such cities is the development of urban public transport services.

Relationships between Urban Transport and Three Indicestopic

2

Matrix Preparation for Diagnoses and PrescriptionsThe vertical axis shows rows of itemized urban transport problems and the hori-zontal axis lists columns of prescribed measures to solve the problems. The components are rated by assigning 1 to 3 points to three levels of their effective-ness.

Prescribed Measures for Transport Problems

2

3

1

Urban Transport ProblemsPrimary Classification Secondary Classification Tertiary Classification

(A) TrafficCongestions

1) Congestions on urban highways andexclusive motorways

Shortage of road capacity

2) Congestions on single-lane sectionsof arterial motorways

Shortage of road capacityMingling of intra-city and inter-city trafficPoor road surface pavementAbandoned cars after accidents and breakdownsIll-mannered drivingInadequate public education on traffic safetyRoadside parking and vending stalls

3) Congestions on roads in the CBD

Excessive traffic demandIncrease of private traffic volumeRoadside parkingNegligent policing over illegal parkingMingling of automobiles, two-wheelers andnon-motorized vehiclesShortage of public transit servicesInefficient bus networkIll-mannered driving

4) Congestions at intersectionsShortage of capacityInefficient traffic control at intersectionsIll-mannered driving

5) Congestions of bus traffic and at busstops

Excessive bus servicesObstruction of through traffic by parked busesand at bus stopsIll-mannered driving

(B) Inconvenience inTransportation

1) Low passenger convenience ofpublic transit

Absence of affordable public transit servicesPoor access to public transit servicesUnpredictability of travel time

2) Low passenger comfort and safetyHigh occupancy ratio on public transitInefficient bus network

3) Inconvenience to transferpassengers

Inconvenience of transfer at transport nodesToo frequent transfers

4) Low user convenience of taxiservices

Dishonest taxi drivers wilfully refusingpassengersPoor transparency of taxi fare

5) Low user convenience ofpara-transit services

Lowered service level due to inadequatemanagement

(C) Declined TrafficSafety

1) Lowered pedestrian safety(crosswalks)

Ill-mannered drivingShortage of pedestrian facilities

2) Lowered pedestrian safety(sidewalks)

Capacity shortage of sidewalks

3) Traffic accidents on motorways

Mixed traffic of automobiles and NMT vehicles orof buses and private passenger carsPoor road surface pavementTraffic signal violations and ill-mannered drivingPresence of locations prone to cause accidents

4) Declined law and order on publictransit services

High occupancy ratio of public transit services

(D)Transport-originatingAir Pollution andNuisance

1) Atmospheric pollution by exhaustgases

Entry of trucks to the CBDIncrease of private automobiles

2) Noises and vibrations caused bymotorized traffic

Increase of night trafficIncrease of ill-maintained vehiclesPoor road surface pavement

3) Landscape and sunlight obstructionsDamages by the construction of transportfacilities

(E) Social Injustice

1) Presence of the transportation-poor

Presence of areas not serviced by public transitPresence of disaster-prone areasLow mobility of pedestrians and NMT usersShortage of barrier-free facilitiesGender-related disparity in mobility

2) Adverse impact on localcommunities by the construction oftransport facilities

Inadequate relocation compensation for localinhabitants

3) Deficient compensation system forvictims of traffic accidents

Absence of insurance policies

4) Negligent policing on violations oftraffic rules

Police corruption

5) Disadvantage of fare scalesBiased subsidizationInappropriate fare scales for the poor

Prescribed Measures for Transport ProblemsPrimary

ClassificationSecondary

ClassificationTertiary Classification

Land Use / Urban Structure Compact multi-core urban structure

Infrastructure

RoadInfrastructure

Construction of urban highways and arterial roads

Construction of missing links in the network

Establishment of grade-separated network

Development of feeder roads and local roads

Strengthening of road maintenance system (improvement ofpavement)

Grade separation at major intersections

Improved designs for intersections at grade with traffic

Removal of roundabouts

Construction and widening of bridges

TransitInfrastructure

Construction and improvement of urban railways

Restructuring of bus network

Construction and improvement of bus stops

Construction and improvement of bus terminals

Diversification and replacement of vehicles

Modernization of bus services

Integrated separation of bus, minibus and para-transit services

TrafficManagement

Road TrafficManagement

Installation of traffic signals

Improvement of signal control (green phases for left- andright-turn traffic)

Introduction of zone traffic control

Efficiency improvement of traffic control

Development of roadside and off-road parking space

Strict policing on illegal parking

TrafficDemandManagement

Suppression on ownership and use of private automobiles

Facilitation of modal shift

Transit-oriented development policy

Demand dispersing measures

Traffic Safety

Public education on traffic safety

Construction and improvement of traffic safety facilities

Strengthening of policing on traffic rule violations

Organization /Institution

TransportPlanning andAdministration

Clear definitions of administrative jurisdiction between relatedagencies or departmentsEstablishment of an administrative coordinating body for urbantransport development and management

Capacity development of personnel

Managementand Operationof TransitSystems

Efficiency improvement of management systems (licensingand permits, enforcement of regulations, etc.)Establishment of fiscal independence and abolition ofsubsidies

Modernization of operating systems

Institutions forProject andProgramImplementation

Improvement of the procedure for land acquisition orappropriation

Development of PPP schemes

Capacity development of personnel

Shortage ofFinance

Increase of revenue sources

Creation of transport-specific revenue sources

3

UrbanTransportProblems

Tool for Urban TransportStrategy Formulation(PROCESS)

Choices on Basic Components of Urban Transport StrategyThe focus of the present study is to seek possibilities of devising a method or methods to identify a suitable transit system which could play a central role in urban transportation for a given city, and to judge whether or not the city is ready for introducing railways or urban highways.

The timing for introducing a metro system is closely related to the level of socio-economic development a city has achieved. The larger the city population, the more likely the city can develop a metro system, even though the GDP per capita is not high enough. At the same time, cities with higher levels of GDP per capita started their metro systems when their populations were still small. Based on the figure below, it can be argued that the GDP range of USD3–30 billion makes the opening of a metro system economically possible and its operation sustainable. The GDP of a city is calculated here by multiplying the city’ s population by GDP per capita.

Yes

Rail Transit: Metroor Commuter

Medium-capacity Transit:Monorail or AGT

BRT

Yes

No

(F.3-3): Possible public transport demand on the corridor

Unit: PHPD (passengers per hour per direction during peak hours)Road 1 (Corridor 1): V1Road 2 (Corridor 2): V2

Road 3 (Corridor 3): V3

Line Bus /para-transit

Yes

No

D1: Developed Level ofUrban Economy

No

No

Yes

Yes

No

D1: Level ofurban economy

D6: Affordablefare by citizens

Yes

Yes YesYes

No

No

NoNo

D3 Possibledemand shift by

TDM: V > 15,000

D1: Level ofurban economy

D6: Affordablefare by citizens

D1: Level ofurban economy

D6: Affordablefare by citizens

D2: V > 15,000 (TrafficVolume exceeds 15,000

PHPD)

D3: Possible demandshift by TDM: V >

8,000

D2: V > 8,000

D5: 3 or more

lanes per directionon major corridors

Yes

No

YesYes

No

Yes

Yes

No

D2: Does the traffic onthe transit exceed

200,000 passengersper day?

A new railway transit systemis worth consideration

Careful consideration is yetneeded

Too early to consider arailway transit

No

No

D1: Is any rail-basedtransit system in

operation or underconstruction?

D3: Do the population sizeand the scale of urban

Economy (GRDP) exceedcertain justifiable levels?

D4: Does the traffic onpublic transport on arterial

roads exceed 200,000passengers per day?

D5: Does the governmenthave a plan to introduce arail-based transit system?

100

1,000

10,000

100,000

100 1,000 10,000 100,000

GDPpercapita(USD2000constant,WDI)

Population (x1000, UN)

Tokyo

Seoul

Hangzhou

Chongqing

Dalian

Chengdu

Beijing

Shanghai

Guangzhou

Ulaanbaatar

Manila

Davao

Hà Noi

Ho Chi Minh City

Vien ane

Phnom Penh

Bangkok

Kuala Lumpur

Johore Bharu

Singapore

metro open

Note: A metro system refers to an urban railway system operated on exclusive tracks (tram cars are not included). Intercity railway, where some rails are operated exclusively for urban transport, is included.

3 bin USDUrban GDPUrban GDP 30 bin USD

Urban GDPUrban GDP

Procedure to judge the selection of a basic public transport mode Procedure to judge the introduction of a railway transit system

4

Analysis of the Timing for Metro Operationtopic

Diagnoses

Diagnosis of Urban Tra�c ProblemsThe diagnosis of an urban traffic problem involves observing the problem, the number of times it occurs, and the extent of its seriousness. The problems are rated according to the following scale of seriousness and urgency: A = very serious / immediate actions needed (3 points); B = serious / actions needed (2 points); and C = not serious (0 point). For each primary classification level, the share of the points to the maximum rate is calculated and shown in radar charts per city (see figure below). If all tertiary items are considered as “very serious,” the rate would be 100, and if not serious (0 point), the rate would be zero.

Proposal (OUTPUT)

Transport ProblemsNo. of

TertiaryItems

MaximumPoints

Jakarta Hanoi

PointsRatio to

MaximumPoints

Ratio toMaximum

Congestions (CapacityShortage of Infrastructure)

5 15 13 87 % 11 73 %

Congestions (Other Causes) 17 51 40 78 % 28 55 %

Inconvenience 10 30 23 77 % 9 30 %

Declined Traffic Safety 8 24 18 75 % 20 83 %

Transport-origin Pollution andNuisance

6 18 10 56 % 3 17 %

Social Injustice 10 30 22 73 % 5 17 %

Total 56 168 126 75 % 76 45 %

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

Congestion byinsufficient road capacity

Congestion by theother reason

Inconvinienttransport service

Lowering of trafficsafety

Traffic pollution

Social injustice

Hanoi

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

Congestion byinsufficient road capacity

Congestion by theother reason

Inconvinienttransport service

Lowering of trafficsafety

Traffic pollution

Social injustice

Jakarta

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

Dhaka

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

Brasilia

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

Sao Paulo

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

Phnom Penh

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

Cairo

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

Addis Ababa

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

Nairobi

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

Bogota

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

UlaanBaatar

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

Mapu o

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

Kathmandu

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

Metro Manila

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

Colombo

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

Dar-Es Salaam

Diagnoses of Urban Transport Problems in Jakarta and Hanoi

Diagnoses of Urban Transport Problems in Jakarta and Hanoi

DiagnosesUrban Transport Problems in the World Citiestopic

5

Prescriptions

Prescriptions for Urban Transport ProblemsThe importance of a prescribed measure is determined by the seriousness of the prob-lem it aims to solve and its potential to help solve that problem. The results should be able to indicate the relative importance of measures prescribed for each subsector.

Relative Importance of Prescribed Measures: Jakarta and Hanoi

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%Road Infurastructure

Public TransportInfrastructure

Road TrafficManegement

TransportationDemand Management

Traffic Safety

Organization andInstitution

Hanoi

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%Road Infurastructure

Public TransportInfrastructure

Road TrafficManegement

TransportationDemand Management

Traffic Safety

Organization andInstitution

Jakarta

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

Dhaka

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

Brasilia

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

Sao Paulo

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

Phnom Penh

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

Bogota

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

Cairo

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

Addis Ababa

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

Nairobi

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

UlaanBaatar

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

Mapu o

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

Metro Manila

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

Kathmandu

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

Colombo

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

Dar-Es Salaam

Relative Importance of Prescribed Measure for Transport Problems: Jakarta and Hanoi

Prescriptions

6Note: To come up with these �gures, trainees from various countries evaluated their own cities by using the Checklist for

Urban Transport Diagnosis in the Comprehensive Urban Transport Planning and Project by JICA in October 2011.

Development Strategy (Prescribed Measures forTransport Problems

PrimaryClassification

Secondary Classification

Land Use / Urban Structure

InfrastructureRoad InfrastructurePublic TransportInfrastructure

TrafficManagement

Road Traffic ManagementTraffic Demand ManagementTraffic Safety

Organization /Institution

Transport Planning andAdministrationTransit Management andOperationInstitutions for project andprogram ImplementationFinance

Total

asures for PointsJakarta Hanoi Jakarta

Primary Secondary Primary Second

ary Primary

23 23 14 14 96 %

264136

14297

85 %128 45

22772

17858

80 %Traffic Demand Management 87 5868 62

111

36

81

30

76 %17 9

23 13

35 29625 521 415 287 82 %

Ratio to MaximumJakarta Hanoi

Secondary Primary Second

ary

96 % 58 % 58 %89 %

46 %63 %

82 % 29 %

75 %62 %

60 %94 % 62 %71 % 65 %

75 %

55 %

63 %

63 % 33 %

77 % 43 %

83 % 69 %68 % 54 % 38 %

This paper summarizes the results of “The Research on Practi-

cal Approach for Urban Transport Planning” conducted by the

Economic Infrastructure Department of JICA.

Japan International Cooperation Agencythe Economic Infrastructure Department

Nibancho Center Building 5-25, Niban-cho, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 102-8012

Choices on Basic Components of Urban Transport StrategyThe present study selected two cities each from India, Vietnam, and Indonesia and collected information on their current transport conditions, policies, and programs. The collected data included those needed to make strategic judgments about urban transport development. A case study of these six cities was then made by using the collected data as inputs to the flowcharts. The table below compares the Study Team’ s evaluation of the cities’ existing transport conditions and the proposals indi-cated in their respective transport master plans.

The present study has developed three tools to deal with urban transport develop-ment, namely, the tool to diagnose problems and subsectoral priorities, the tool to prescribe appropriate measures to solve or alleviate problems, and the tool to select the most strategically suitable alternative for transport development.The tools are simple and compact in design to quickly provide answers, but there is no denying that the logic employed in the process of devising these tools maybe too crude to stand up to well-intentioned scrutiny. It will thus be necessary to improve their designs and raise their practicability.

Issue to be Addressed in the Future

Country / City

Flowcharts

Vietnam India Indonesia

HanoiHo ChiMinh

Hyderabad Pune Jakarta Surabaya

(I) Selecting a Basic Public Transport Mode A A A A A A

(II) Judging the Justification for a Railway Transit A A A A A A

(III) Judging the Justification for a BRT System A A B A C A

(IV) Judging the Justification for TDM Measures B B NA B B NA

(V) Judging the Justification for Urban Highways C A NA NA A C

AdvisersTetsuro HYODO Professor, Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology, Department of

Logistics & Information Engineering

Shinya HANAOKA Associate Professor, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Department of International Development Engineering (IDE)

Support AgenciesNoriaki NISHIMIYA Yukihiro KOIZUMI Yoshinori KITAGUCHI Aya SHIMADA(the Economic Infrastructure Department, JICA)

Study teamTetsuo WAKUI Takashi SHOYAMA Mitsuro YAJIMA Motoko KANEKO Yuko OKAZAWA Yoshiaki NISHIKATSU Momoko ITO(ALMEC corporation)

front cover photos: (top to bottom)Tra�c congestion on arterial road at Lahore in Pakistan; KTM Komuter at Kuala Lumpur in Malaysia;

Buses in tra�c congestion caused by mixed tra�c at Hanoi in Vietnam; Sathorn station at Bangkok BRT in Thailand;Street parking by Para-transit and reckless crossing of pedestrian at Lahore in Pakistan; Park-and-ride parking of Mo Chit station at Bangkok in Thailand

Note: A=not much di�erent from the city’s master plan; B=di�erent from the city’s master plan in some parts; C=no congruity with the city’s master plan; NA=not applicable.

(Dr. Eng.)

(Dr. of Info.Sci.)