the respiratory system under stress zhj. 2 objectives use the knowledge to predict the response of...
TRANSCRIPT
THE RESPIRATORY
SYSTEMUNDER STRESS
ZHJ
2
OBJECTIVES Use the knowledge to predict the response
of the respiratory system to three physiologic stresses
—Exercise
—Ascent to altitude
—Diving
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Identifies the physiologic stresses involved in exercise
Predicts the responses of the respiratory system to acute exercise
Describes the effects of long-term exercise programs (training) on the respiratory system
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Identifies the physiologic stresses involved in the ascent to altitude
Predicts the initial responses of the respiratory system to the ascent to altitude
Describes the acclimatization of the cardiovascular and respiratory systems to residence at high altitude
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Identifies the physiologic stresses involved in diving
Predicts the responses of the respiratory system to various type of diving
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EXERCISE AND THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
Exerciseincrease
Metabolism
(the working muscles)
the demand for oxygen
the productionof carbon dioxide
lactic acid production
the respiratory system
the cardiovascular system
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EXERCISE AND THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
Acute Effects
- the effects of exercise in an untrained person are mainly a function of an increase in the cardiac output coupled with an increase in alveolar ventilation
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EXERCISE AND THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
Mechanics of breathing Alveolar ventilation Pulmonary blood flow Ventilation-perfusion relationships Diffusion through the alveolar-capillary barrier Oxygen and carbon dioxide transport by the blood Acid-base balance
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EXERCISE AND THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
Mechanics of breathing
Elastic work of breathing
Resistance work of breathing
Moderateexercise
Severeexercise
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EXERCISE AND THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
Alveolar ventilation
Tidal volume
Frequency
Anatomic dead space
Alveolar dead space (if present)
VD/VT
Moderateexercise
Severeexercise
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EXERCISE AND THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
Pulmonary blood flow
Perfusion of upper lung
Pulmonary vascular resistance
Linear velocity of blood flow
Moderateexercise
Severeexercise
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EXERCISE AND THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
Ventilation-perfusion relationships
Ventilation-perfusion matching
Ventilation-perfusion ratio
Moderateexercise
Severeexercise
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EXERCISE AND THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
Ventilation-perfusion relationships
Distance up the lungtopbottom
rest
exercise
1
2
3
VA
/Q.
.
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EXERCISE AND THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
Diffusion through the alveolar-capillary barrier
Surface area Perfusion limitation Partial pressure gradients
Moderateexercise
Severeexercise
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EXERCISE AND THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
At the tissues
Oxygen unloading
Carbon dioxide loading
Moderateexercise
Severeexercise
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EXERCISE AND THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
PAo2
Pao2
Paco2
pHa
Arteriovenous O2 difference
Moderateexercise
Severeexercise
or、
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Training Effects
The ability to perform physical exercise increases with training
Alterations in the cardiovascular system and in muscle metabolism rather than changes in the respiratory system
The increase of maximal oxygen uptake is mainly a result of an increased maximal cardiac output
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Training Effects Physical training lowers the resting heart
rate and increases the resting stroke volume
--inducing mitochondrial proliferation
--increasing the concentration of oxidative enzymes
-- increasing the synthesis of glycogen and triglyceride
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ALTITUDE AND ACCLIMATIZATION
PAo2 =PIo2-PAco2 /R+[F]
PIo2 =0.21×(PB-47torr) altitude (ft ) PB (torr) PIo2 PA co2 PAo2
15000 429 80.2 32 45
18000 380
20000 349
50000 87
63000 47 (the fluid in blood “boils”)
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ALTITUDE AND ACCLIMATIZATION Acute Effects
The symptoms are mainly due to hypoxiaand may include: sleepiness decreased visual acuity laziness clumsiness a false sense of well-being tremors impaired judgment loss of consciousness blunted pain perception death
increasing errors on simple tasks
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ALTITUDE AND ACCLIMATIZATION Acute Effects Acute mountain sickness - a group of symptom
s include headache dizziness breathlessness at rest weakness malaise nausea anorexia sweating palpitations dimness of vision partial deafness sleeplessness fluid retention dyspnea on exertion
These symptoms are a result of hypoxia and hypocapnia,
and alkalosis or cerebral edema, or both.
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ALTITUDE AND ACCLIMATIZATION Control of breathing
The decreased PAo2 and Pao2 result in stimulation of the arterial chemoreceptors rather than the central chemoreceptors
Pao2 =45torr, minute ventilation is doubled
Paco2 fall , causing respiratory alkalosis The pH of the cerebrospinal fluid increasing the central chemoreceptors is depressed by
hypocapnia alkalosis
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ALTITUDE AND ACCLIMATIZATION
Mechanics of breathing Rate and depth of breathing ↑ Interstitial fluid volume of the lung ↑ (vc↓ in the fi
rst 24h) More turbulent airflow, resistance work of breath
ing ↑ Maximal airflow rates ↑, due to decreased gas d
ensity
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ALTITUDE AND ACCLIMATIZATION
Alveolar ventilation The anatomic dead space ↓, the reflex bronchoconstriction↑, the opposing effect of increased VT
VD/VT ↓(in any event) Previously collapsed or poorly ventilated alveoli will be better
ventilated Regional distribution of alveolar ventilation more uniform
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ALTITUDE AND ACCLIMATIZATION Pulmonary blood flow
Lung inflation
Arterial chemoreceptor
Sympathetic stimulation
of the cardiovascular
system
Cardiac output
Heart rate
Systemic blood
pressure
Hypoxic pulmonary
vasoconstriction
Cardiac output
Sympathetic stimulation
of larger pulmonary vessels
Pulmonary artery
pressure
Right ventricular work load
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ALTITUDE AND ACCLIMATIZATION
Ventilation-perfusion relationships
regional VA/Q more uniform
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ALTITUDE AND ACCLIMATIZATION
Diffusion through the alveolar-capillary barrier
PAo2↓ ↓
PVo2↓Partial pressure gradients ↓
The thickness of the barrier
Pulmonary vascular distention
Higher lung volumes
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ALTITUDE AND ACCLIMATIZATION
Oxygen and carbon dioxide transport by the blood PAo2 to be below the flat part of the oxyhemoglo
bin dissociation curve , causing a low arterial oxygen content
Hypocapnia aid in oxygen loading in the lung and interfere with oxygen unloading at the tissues
the hemoglobin concentration ↑ (the first 2d)
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ALTITUDE AND ACCLIMATIZATION
Cerebral circulation Hypocapnia is a strong cerebral
vasoconstrictor Hypoxia cause cerebral vasodilation and can
cause hyperperfusion The hyperperfusion and cerebral edema
elevate intracranial pressureLead to increase in sympathetic activity in the
body increasing the possibility of pulmonary edema and
promoting renal salt and water retention
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ALTITUDE AND ACCLIMATIZATION
Acid-base balance
hypocapnia
respiratory alkalosis
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ALTITUDE AND ACCLIMATIZATION
Acclimatization
see the following four lists
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Immediate Early adaptive
(72H)
Late adaptive
(2 to 6 weeks)
Spontaneous ventilation
Minute ventilation ↑ ↑ ↑ Respiratory rate variable variable variable
Tidal volume ↑ ↑ ↑ Arterial Po2 ↓ ↓ ↓ Arterial Pco2 ↓ ↓ ↓ Arterial pH ↑ ↑ ↑ Arterial HCO-
3 ↓ ↓
table1
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Immediate Early adaptive
(72H)
Late adaptive
(2 to 6 weeks)
Evaluation of lung function
Vital capacity ↓ Maximum airflow rates ↑ ↑ ↑
Functional residual
capacity
Ventilatory response to inhaled CO2
↑ ↑
Ventilatory response to hypoxia
Pulmonary vascular resistance
↑ ↑ ↑
table2
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Immediate Early adaptive
(72H)
Late adaptive
(2 to 6 weeks)
Oxygen transport
Hemoglobin ↑ ↑ Erythropoietin ↑ P50 ↓ ↑ ↑ 2,3-BPG ↑ ↑ Cardiac output ↑ ↓
table3
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Immediate Early adaptive
(72H)
Late adaptive
(2 to 6 weeks)
Central nervous system
Headaches, nausea, insomnia
↑
Perception, judgment ↓ Spinal fluid pH ↑ Spinal fluid HCO-
3 ↓ ↓
Cerebral edema ↑
table4
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DIVING AND THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
The major physiologic stresses involved in diving include Elevated ambient pressure Decreased effects of gravity Altered respiration Hypothermia Sensory impairment
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DIVING AND THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
The severity of the stress involved depends on
The depth attained The length of the dive Whether the breath is held or a breathing
apparatus is used
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DIVING AND THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
Physical principles At a depth of 33 ft of seawater (or 34 ft of fresh
water) , total ambient pressure is equal to 1520 torr
Follow Boyle’s law, at 33 ft of depth (2atm) lung volume is cut in half
According to Dalton’s law, the partial pressures of the constituent gases also increase
According to Henry’s law, the amounts dissolved in tissues of the body increase
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DIVING AND THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
Effects of immersion up to the neck (Mechanics of breathing)
Averaging about 20 cm H2O Decrease FRC by about 50 percent ERV decreased by as much as 70 percent IRV is increased RV is slightly decreased VC and TLC are only slightly decreased The work of breathing increases by about 60
percent
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DIVING AND THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
Effects of immersion up to the neck (Pulmonary blood flow)
Augmenting venous return, by approximately 500ml
Right atrial pressure increases from about -2 to +16 mmHg
The cardiac output and stroke volume increase by about 30 percent
Pulmonary blood flow and PAP increase Immersion diuresis (a few minutes,4~5folds)
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DIVING AND THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
Breath-hold diving (Mechanics of breathing)
The total pressure of gases within the lungs is equal to ambient pressure
The volume within the thorax must decrease proportionately
Partial pressures of gases increase
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DIVING AND THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
Breath-hold diving
The diving reflex Demonstrate a profound bradycardia and increa
sed systemic vascular resistance with face immersion (especially into cold water)
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DIVING AND THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
Breath-hold diving
Gas exchange in the lungs
Before a dive, PAo2 =120torr
PAco2 =30torr During a breath-hold dive to a depth of 33 ft
The transfer of oxygen from alveolus to blood is undisturbed
vice versa, retention of carbon dioxide in the blood
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DIVING AND THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
The use of underwater breathing apparatus
During a dive with scuba gear, gas pressure within the lungs remains close to the ambient pressure at any particular depth
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DIVING AND THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
The use of underwater breathing apparatus
(Mechanics of breathing) At very great depths , increased gas density
becomes a problem because it elevates the airways resistance work of breathing during turbulent flow
this is one reason for replacing nitrogen with helium for deep dives (helium is only about one-seventh as dense as nitrogen)
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DIVING AND THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
The use of underwater breathing apparatus
Control of breathing The respiratory system’s sensitivity to carbon
dioxide is decreased at great depths because of increased gas densities and high Pao2
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DIVING AND THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
Other hazards at depth Barotrauma Decompression illness Nitrogen narcosis Oxygen toxicity High-pressure nervous syndrome
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