The Rise of Islam

600 C.E. -1200’s C.E.

Middle East, ca. 600 A.D.

The Eastern Mediterranean

By this time,The lands of Rome had been overtaken by the Goths and Vandals and the East Roman Empire (Byzantine) was spreading its influence into northern territories.

The Sasanid Empire (224-600 C.E.), which was led by warrior elites, main purpose was to serve as military strongpoints protecting long distance trade. The Silk Road brought many new crops to Mesopotamia and the Sasanid’s again reestablished Zoroastrianism as the faith of the empire. 2nd Persian Empire

The proclamations of both Zoroastrianism and Christianity as official faiths marked the emergence of religion as an instrument of politics both within and between empires.

This politicization of religion greatly affected the culture of the

Silk Road and would shape governments to follow.

The Byzantine EmpireThe Byzantine EmpireDuring the Reign of During the Reign of

JustinianJustinian

The Byzantine EmpireThe Byzantine EmpireDuring the Reign of During the Reign of

JustinianJustinian

Trade Routes of the Ancient WorldTrade Routes of the Ancient World

Islam emerges

Islam

Bedouin Arab named Mohammed born ca. 570 A.D. Merchant family, Hasimites Qurayshis tribe, who dominate Mecca

– controlling much of the religious pilgrim trade

raised by relatives-father and mother died by age six-raised by an impoverished uncle

Mohammed formal education ?? We don’t know

– Normally only the Poets of the Tribes could read and write

commercial agent for a wealthy widow– Khadijah– supervising caravans from Mecca, north to

Jerusalem– contact with both Jews and Christians

Mohammed, con’t

He seems to have made an impression on his boss, because of his reputed honesty– married her and retired from commerce– to devote himself to religion– and to making society more fair and

equitable

Mohammed, con’t

monogamous until his wife died eventually married nine wives and had

assorted concubines last marriage at 53 to Aishah, daughter

of a friend wives: widows of friends or political

marriages• Women alone in such a world were considered

very vulnerable

Origins of Mohammed’s Teachings periods of unconsciousness are indicated:

explanations– revelations from Allah by holy trances, spoken to by

Gabriel

– epilepsy or a similar neurological disorder?– mental illness or hallucinations ?

Mohammed’s explanation:– revelations from God– Very unpleasant and painful for him

The Quran

Record of revelations received during visions

Committed to writing c. 650 CE, compiled (Muhammad dies 632)– Under the third Caliph, Uthman ibn

Affan Tradition of Muhammad’s life:

hadith

Historical Origins of His Ideas Arab polytheism Hanifism: a belief in one God traced to

Abraham, by tradition Judaism Christianity: Orthodox, Nestorian, Arianism Manichaeism: a mixture of Zoroastrianism,

Christianity, Judaism, and so forth

Beginning of His Ministry

at about age 40, after a number of revelations began to preach publicly continued to receive revelations until death

– usually related to current problems or concerns

– Religious, political, social, economic

Early religious career not particularly successful threatened the social, political, and religious

structure, with his doctrine of social equity threatened the economic basis of Mecca as a

center of religious pilgrimage particularly the Black Rock

– sacred to the chief deity of the Arabs run out of town, or at least encouraged to

leave– Went to the desert with his family and lived for about

a year

The Hijra

flight from Mecca, to Yathrib (Medina)-tradition: invited by the Jews of Medina

622 A.D. beginning of the Islamic calendar forms the umma (community) welcomed, then resisted Mohammed becomes an absolute theocrat

Muhammad’s Return to Mecca Attack on Mecca, 630 -- jihad Conversion of Mecca to Islam Destruction of pagan sites, replaced with

mosques– Ka’aba preserved in honor of importance of

Mecca– Approved as pilgrimage site

Jihad

holy war against Mecca ten year blockade a deal was made

The Deal

Mecca preserved as a holy city and place of pilgrimage– to preserve the economic prosperity

the Ka’aba preserved as the central shrine– idols and icons destroyed– story of its origins emphasized the role of

Abraham in its placement– pilgrimage as an act of faith, at least once

in your life

The Ka’aba in Mecca

The Religion: the Koran (Qu’ran) the Koran (Qu’ran): contains much of Mohammed

recounting of Allah’s teachings written down by his followers after his death

– from notes and memories, on “stones and parchments”

Short: 114 chapters– arranged from longest to the shortest– not by subject or chronologically– length is the criterion of order for the text

The Koran, con’t

some “Old” and “New” Testaments stories– but sometimes the story seems a bit

different to Jews and Christians parables and fables political polemic and prophecy “non-religious” subjects

– not dissimilar to Jewish and Christian scriptures in some ways

Five Pillars of Islam

uniqueness of God– ‘There is no god, but God….’

prayer five times a day observe the month of Ramadan give alms to the poor pilgrimage to Mecca

– If possible, once in your life

Additional teachings

dietary laws no gambling or drinking no sexual irregularities, as defined by tradition

and custom no faulty weights or usury no infanticide elaborate rules concerning inheritance and

property improvement in the status of women and

children

Changing Status of Women Qu’ran improves status of women

– Outlawed female infanticide– Brides, not husbands, claim dowries

Yet male dominance preserved– Patrilineal descent– Polygamy permitted, Polyandry forbidden– Veil adopted from ancient Mesopotamian

practice

Similarities to Judaism and Christianity monotheism (defined a bit differently) insistence on the responsibility of human

beings final judgment and rewards angels and spirits practice of virtues: truthfulness, compassion,

etc.

Differences

an emphasis on compassion and mercy alms giving moderate heaven conceived a bit differently no priests or sacramental system easy conversion: the Shahadah

– ‘There is no God by Allah, and Mohammed is his prophet.’

Islamic Law: The Sharia

Codification of Islamic law Based on Quran, hadith, logical

schools of analysis Extends beyond ritual law to all

areas of human activity– This is the basis the idea of an

“Islamic republic” for instance

Expansion of Islam

early victories backsliders (tribes) punished

– Apostasy = treason = death assaults on:

– the Byzantine (East Roman) empire– the Sassanid (Persian) Empire also

known as Eranshahr or “Empire of the Aryans (Persians)”

Early Problems

Succession ?– Mohammed had no surviving male children– Daughter: Fatima– Son-in-law: Ali, child of his uncle

generated a permanent split in the Islamic community– Sunnis– Shi’as

Sunnis or “Sunnah”

considered themselves the “orthodox” followers of Mohammed

consider the Shi’as to be “dissenters” issue: who leads after Mohammed ?? the Caliph (or “leader”) went successively to followers

-Abu Bakr, then Oman-then Uthman and

Rahisdun Caliphate

632-661

The Islamic Empire

The Rashidun Caliphate ( الراشدية or (الخالفةRashidun Empire, was the first of the four Arab caliphates.

It was controlled by the first four successors of Muhammad, known as the "Rightly Guided" caliphs.

Founded after Muhammad's death in 632, the empire lasted until 'Ali's death in 661.

At its height, the power of the Rashidun Caliphs extended throughout North Africa, the Arabian Peninsula, and the Iranian highlands.

Dome of the rock Begun

The Four Caliphs

- 632–634 Abu Bakr - 634–644 Umar - 644–656 Uthman - 656–661 Ali

Spread of Islam

Muslim Arab Victories

Syria: 635 A.D. Palestine: 636 A.D. Persia: captured in one battle

– expansion into India– expansion to the borders of China

Egypt: help by local Christians North Africa: the Berbers

Expansion and Defeat

Spain 711-720 A.D. (Franks) Battle of Tours: October 732 A.D.

– Charles Martel (Carolingian Family) Siege of Constantinople: 717-718 A.D.

– Leo III of Byzantine Empire– Greek fire

beginnings of Christian reconquest of former Roman/Christian territory (Holy Lands)

Reasons for success

exhaustion of Rome and Persia– End of a 400 year war

nationalist sentiments in Egypt and Syria arguments among Christian factions speed and size of Muslim armies simplicity and uncomplicated nature of Islam acceptance of the Old and New Testament

– People of the Book

Consequences of Expansion loss of the oldest and most central lands of

Christendom aided the ascendancy of the bishop of Rome virtual collapse of Zoroastrianism as a major

religion radically altered the balance of power between

the Roman Empire and the East disruption of the Mediterranean economic

community

Abu Bakr 632-634 [1st]

not particularly popular with the Muslim community

allowed raid, then invasions of Byzantine and Persian territory

subjugated any dissident elements or tribes

disposed of any “new prophets”

Success = strain

success introduced luxury and change– From original caliphs to the Umayyad caliphs

new ideas and new ethnic groups– with their own customs and heritage, to try

to assimilate rise of a sort of “revivalist element”

– Islam had strayed from its original path and purity

– Muslims were being led back to paganism– caliphs were becoming idle, corrupt, tyrants

Uthman 644-656 [3rd]

murdered: warfare broke out Ali: cousin and son-in-law of Mohammed originally passed over as too young contested the succession Uthman supported by the Umayyad clan

– early enemies of Mohammed– refused to accept Ali’s claims

Ali 656-661 [4th]

Disagreements over selection of caliphs Ali passed over for Abu Bakr [1st] Ali would eventually serve as caliph from 656-

661 CE, then he is assassinated along with most of his followers

Schism Remaining followers organize separate party

called “Shia”– Traditionalists: Sunni

Islamic Caliphates

Umayyad 7-8th Century Abbasid 8-13th Century Fatimid 11-13th Century Ottoman 15-20th Century

Umayyad Caliphate

661-750

Umayyads

successful in the war of succession Ali assassinated in 661 A.D.

– by the Kharijites beginning of the Umayyad Dynasty Non-Muslim replaced by believers and

the Introduction of Arabic as the language of government

Sunni Damascus then later Cordoba

Great Mosque at Cordoba (Spain), eighth to tenth centuriesCenter of learningCordoba from Damascus/ Spanish Umayyads/ later Abbasids controlled

arabesque patterns/columns

Great Mosque of Damascus (Syria), 706-715Umayyads/2nd Caliphate/ preexisting Roman square towers/ minarets

Left: Main entrance to the prayer hall of the Great Mosque of DamascusBelow: Spandrel mosaic from the Great Mosque of Damascus

“Triumphal arch” mosaic from

the Great Mosque of Damascus

Policy toward Conquered Peoples Favoritism of Arab military rulers

causes discontent Limited social mobility for non-

Arab Muslims Head tax (jizya) on non-Muslims Umayyad luxurious living causes

further decline in moral authority

Dome of the Rock [Process]

Factions

Sunni and Shi’as dominant originally political

– Eventually the differences became dogmatic in emphasis

Shi’as become a party of religious dissent

Perceptions

Sunni: conservative, in favor of the “status quo”– consensus is the guiding principle

Shi’as: defenders of the oppressed, critics of privilege and power– obedience is required only as long as

it can be forced, and no longer

Umayyad Empire

Atlantic Ocean (Iberian ) to India Syria: center of the Islamic World Secular, monarchy? Civil war between various Islamic

groups Eventually displaced by the Abbasids

and Fatimids [Saladin]– an Arab family claiming decent from

Mohammed

Dome of the Rock,

Temple Mount Jerusalem

Al-Aqsa Mosque

Fatimid Dynasty

910-1171

Fatimid Dynasty

Fatimid Empire

Arab Shia Empire eventually replacing the Umayyad Empire in the Magreb, Egypt, and the Levant

Founded the city of Cairo and consolidated the Caliph. Islam was briefly united under one caliph.

Promoted religious tolerance to Sunnis, Jews, and Coptic Christians

Established a massive trade network in the Mediterranean, Indian Ocean, and East Asia during the Song Dynasty of China.

Fatimid Decline

Like elsewhere, the Fatimids gave select groups governorship positions. These groups mainly the Zirids in North Africa would eventually declare themselves independent of the Fatimids.

Turkish invaders especially in the Levant and the Crusaders would capture even more land.

For their political system, they had moved toward military rule and eventually a nephew of one of the generals, a man named Saladin would take control

The Sunni Ayyubid Dynasty (Kurdish) under Saladin would rule the lands of modern -day Egypt, Syria, Palestine, and western Saudi Arabia.

Crusades had little effect on Fatimids and Ayyubid Dynasties

Abbasid Caliphate

750 - 1258

Abbasid Dynasty

The Abbasid Dynasty

Abu al-Abbas Sunni Arab, allied with Shia, non-Arab Muslims

Seizes control of the Levant, Persia and Mesopotamia

Baghdad Defeats Umayyad army in 750

– Invited Umayyads to banquet, then massacred them

– Only Spain remains Umayyad– North Africa is disputed territory, ultimately

Fatamid and later Ayyubid under Saladin.

Nature of the Abbasid Dynasty Diverse nature of administration (i.e. not

exclusively Arab) Militarily competent, but not bent on

imperial expansion Dar al-Islam- House of Submission which

was all the lands ruled by Islamic rule Growth through military activity of

autonomous Islamic forces Golden Age of Islam-Cauldron of Cultures

Abbasid Decline

Civil war between sons of Harun al-Rashid Provincial governors assert regional

independence Dissenting sects, heretical movements Abbasid caliphs become puppets of Persian

nobility Later, Seljuk Turks influence, Sultan real power

behind the throne Almost all of their buildings are now lost to

time

Rise of the Turks

Seljuks to the Delhi Sultanate

Turkish Migrations

Consolidation of Tang Dynasty (7th-8th C) pushes nomadic peoples of inner Asia westward just like the Han did to the Huns and others

Nomadic peoples begin to convert to Islam as a result of contact with Muslim scholars and mystics

The Turkish-speaking people gained control of Bukkara and Samarqand and began to sponsor the development of the Turkish language and a Turkish-Islamic civilization

Turkish Migrations

One of the Turkish-speaking groups was the Seljuks who entered Central Asia and conquered Afghanistan and Iran.

The Seljuks defeated the Abbasid Caliph but left them on the throne and ruled in their name.

They titled themselves sultans, claiming authority over the secular side of government while leaving the administration of religious affairs in the hands of the caliph.

Assault from within and without The role played by Turkish Mamluks in the

decline of Abbasid power established an enduring stereotype of the Turk as a ferocious, unsophisticated warrior.

The Sunni Seljuks would go onto conquer the lands of Syria and Anatolia.

By the early 12th Century, unrepaired damage from floods, fires, and civil disorder had reduced much of the Empire into ruins.

Baghdad would lose a substantial number of its population during this time and would never regain its geographical importance.

Islam spreads to India

While conquerors brought Islam to the Sind (Indus River), Muslim merchants took their faith to coastal regions in both northern and southern India.

These long lasting business ties and the intermarriage of many Muslim men made the introduction of Islam more gradual.

Islam also spread a third way to India with the migrations and invasions of Turkish-speaking peoples from Central Asia.

Turkish invasions

Some of the Muslim Turks entered into the Abbasid realm as mercenaries or migrated into Byzantine Anatolia, while others moved into Afghanistan where they established an Islamic state.

The Turks soon turned to rich lands of the south and between 1001 and 1027 mounted seventeen raids into India.

The Mahmud Turks demolished Hindu and Buddhist sites and hastened the decline of Buddhism in India. They frequently built mosques on the sites of destroyed temples.

Ottoman Empire

A Short Preview

Ottoman Empire

The Ottoman Empire, also called Osmanian Empire or Uthmaniyah Empire (1299–1922) was a multi-ethnic and multi-religious Turkish-ruled state.

The state was known as the Turkish Empire or Turkey by its contemporaries and was succeeded by the Republic of Turkey, which was officially proclaimed in 1923

Ottoman Empire

The Ottoman Empire was at the centre of interactions between the Eastern and Western worlds for six centuries.

The Ottoman Empire was, in many respects, an Islamic successor to earlier Mediterranean empires — namely the Roman and Byzantine empires.

Osman I (Othman): 1299-1326

Osman I (r. 1299-1326)

Declared independence from Seljuk Turks in 1299

“Bone-breaker” Mongol invasions pushed

many groups westward into Byzantine Empire

Continuous war with Byzantine Empire

Warriors for the faith or Ghazis

The Golden Age of the Ottomans

Ottoman Conquest and the Balkans

In the century after the death of Osman I, Ottoman rule began to extend over the Eastern Mediterranean and the Balkans. After defeat at the Battle of Plocnik, the Turkish victory at the Battle of Kosovo paved the way for Ottoman expansion into Europe.

With the extension of Turkish dominion into the Balkans, the strategic conquest of Constantinople became a crucial objective.

Tamerlane (1336-1405)or “Timur, the Lame

Uzbekistan

Mehmet I: 1413-1421

Mehmet I (r. 1413-1421)

After the defeat of the Ottomans by the Turko-Mongol/Tatar Tamerlane, the Ottoman Empire went into a period of chaos and civil war.

The disorder ended with Mehmet I emerged and restored Ottoman power.

Mehmet II: 1444-1445; 1451-1481

”The Conqueror”

Mehmet II, The Conqueror

Mehmet I’s grandson reorganized the structure of both the state and military and captured Constantinople in 1453.

The city became the new capital of the Ottomans and Mehmet II assumed the title of Kayser-I-Rum or Roman Emperor

Attempt after his death to take Rome failed

Golden Horn – 15c

The Fall of Constantinople: 1453

The End of the Byzantine Empire

Europeans vs. Turks

Hagia Sophia

Hagia Sophia - interior

The Ottoman Bureaucracy

SULTANSULTAN

DivansDivans

Social / MilitaryDivans

Social / MilitaryDivans

Heads of Individual

Religious Millets

Heads of Individual

Religious Millets

Local Administrators& Military

Local Administrators& Military

Landowners / Tax CollectorsLandowners / Tax Collectors

MuslimsMuslims JewsJews

ChristiansChristians

Ottoman Society

Few conflicts with Christians

Rival Muslim groups had claims to dynastic rule

Multiethnic army Recruited Christian

children for army (devsirme)

Bureaucracy Arabic and Ottoman

languages Created a separate

class with allegiance to sultan

Education Palace schools and

governors or janissaries

Janissaries

Turkish and Mongolmigrations

South Asia

The Sultanate of Delhi

During the late 12th Century, Mahmud’s successors mounted a more systematic campaign to conqueror India and place it under Islamic rule.

By the early 13th Century, they had conquered most of the Hindu kingdoms and established an Islamic state known as the Sultanate of Delhi.

The sultans established their capital at Delhi and ruled India at least in name for more than three centuries, from 1206 to 1526.

Delhi Sultanate

During the 14th Century the sultans of Delhi commanded an army of 300,000 and their state ranked among the most powerful in the Islamic world.

They had no permanent bureaucracy or administrative apparatus and their authority was limited to the lands around Delhi.

Even though they imposed a presence of Islamic political and military authority, their ability was dependant upon the goodwill of Hindu kings to carryout their policies.

Many of the sultans in fact had been assassinated but nevertheless,the sultans prominently sponsored Islam and helped to establish a secure place for their faith in India.

Delhi Sultanate

Islamic influence in India would continue for several hundred years under various Muslim kingdoms.

India did not generate the large-scale, centralized, imperial state that guided the fortunes of postclassical societies in the Eastern Mediterranean, SW Asia, or China

On the basis of trade, common social structures, and inherited cultural traditions, a distinctive society would emerge in India.

Islam in East Africa

The Swahili Coast

Swahili coast

1800 miles long Diffusion from

Indian, Arab, Chinese, and others

Islam perhaps most enduring

Swahili Coast

While the Swahili Coast had kingdoms, it was not controlled by just one kingdom.

The region was a center hub of trade and commerce in east Africa.

The introduction of various traditions such as Islam helped to shape the character of the Swahili Coast.

Swahili Coast

While trans-Saharan caravan traffic linked west Africa to the larger trading world, merchant mariners sailing in the sea lanes of the Indian Ocean formed a similar service for coastal east Africa or the Swahili Coast.

Swahili is an Arabic term meaning “coasters.” The Swahili dominated the east African coast from

Mogadishu in ht north to Kilwa, the Comoro Islands, and Sofala in the south.

Swahili Coast

By the tenth century, Swahili society attracted increasing attention from Islamic merchants.

From the interior regions of east Africa, the Swahili obtained gold, slaves, ivory, and exotic local products.

In exchange, the Swahili city-states received pottery, glass, and textiles that the Muslim merchants brought from Persia, India, and China.

Swahili City-States

By the 11th and 12th Century, trade had brought tremendous wealth to coastal east Africa.

Mogadishu, Lamu, Malindi, Mombasa, Zanzibar, Kilwa, Mozambique, and Sofala were some of the trade centers that eventually developed into powerful city-states governed by a king who supervised trade and organized public life in the region.

Wood structures to Coral and stone based structures

Islam under attack:

Crusades and the Mongols

Enemies from beyond…

The Seljuk Turks (Abbasid) were best by internal quarrels when the first crusading armies reached the Holy Land.

The Crusades had little long lasting impact of Islamic lands

Muslims would eventually rise up and face the European enemy in the mid-twelfth century

The Mongol invasions especially their destruction of the Abbasid Caliphate in Baghdad in 1258, shook the world of Islam

Crusades

First Crusade 1095-1099 Second Crusade 1147-1149 Third Crusade 1189-1192* Fourth Crusade 1202-1204 Children’s Crusade 1212 5th-8th Crusades 1218-1291 Crusaders driven from SW Asia

Mongol Empire

Islam on European legacy

Inquisitions -Spanish and Portuguese Renaissance Keepers of the Ancients- Greece, Persia,

and Rome Writing, Scholars, Mathematics, etc. Dark Ages were over and Europe would

benefit from fall of Muslim Empires

Islamic Cultural Traditions

Formation of an Islamic Cultural Tradition

Islamic values– Uniformity of Islamic law in Dar al-Islam– Establishment of madrasas (Schools)– Importance of the Hajj

Sufi missionaries– Asceticism, mysticism– Some tension with orthodox Islamic

theologians– Wide popularity

Cultural influences on Islam Persia (Iran)

– Administration and governance– Literature– Artwork (Justinian and Hagya Sophia)

India– Mathematics, science, medicine

• “Hindi” numbers brought back to Europe

Greece– Philosophy, esp. Aristotle– Greek medicine

Cultural Importance of Islam Law, Dogma, Medicine, Mathematics Distribution throughout the Muslim world

(Dar al-Islam) Converts and Cities Role of Women Atlantic Ocean to Oceania Trade, trade, trade…. Introduction and reintroduction of these

ideas to medieval Europe– Through Spain & Spanish Jews

IslamAn Abrahamic Religion

IslamAn Abrahamic Religion Muslims are strict monotheists.

They believe in the Judeo- Christian God, which they call Allah.

Muslims believe that the Torah and the Bible, like the Qur’an, is the word of God.

Peoples of the BookPeoples of the Book

Abraham’s GenealogyAbraham’s Genealogy

ABRAHAMABRAHAM SARAHSARAHHAGARHAGAR

IsaacIsaac

EsauEsauJacobJacob

12 Tribes of Israel

12 Tribes of Israel

Ishmael

Ishmael

12 Arabian Tribes

12 Arabian Tribes

The Prophetic Tradition

The Prophetic Tradition

Adam

Noah

Abraham

Moses

Jesus

Muhammad

ArchitectureArchitecture The call to prayer by the muezzin in the minaret.

Pray in the mosque on Friday.

Eid MubarakEid Mubarak

End of the Ramadan holiday.

The Great Mosque of Mecca

The Great Mosque of Mecca

The pilgrimage to Mecca.

Must be done at least once in a Muslim’s lifetime.

2-3 million Muslims make the pilgrimage every year.

The HajjThe Hajj

Those who complete the pilgrimage can add the title hajji to their name.

The Dar al-Islam

The Dar al-Islam

11 22 33 44 55

The WorldThe Worldof Islamof Islam

The WorldThe Worldof Islamof Islam

The MosqueThe Mosque The Muslim place of worship.

The Dome of the Rock Mosque in

Jerusalem

The Dome of the Rock Mosque in

Jerusalem

Mount Moriah Rockwhere Muhammad ascended into heaven.

Islamic Art and Architecture

Islamic Art and Architecture

Islamic Art and Architecture

Islamic influence today

Southwest Asia Balkan Peninsula and

Transcaucasia North Africa and Swahili Coast South Asia and Southeast Asia East Asia and Oceania

The Rise of Islam

600 C.E. -1200’s C.E.