Chapter 18

The Rise of RussiaChapter 18

1450-1480: Mongols (Tatars) were driven out of RussiaFollowed by Russian expansion (much of the land Asian)

1450-1750: Russias great land empire formedLimited commercial exchange17th century gained leading role in Eastern EuropeRegional kingdoms remained in Eastern Europe (differed from Russia)17th century Poland and Lithuania rival Russia

Culture of Russia influenced by Byzantine EmpireOrthodox ChristianityVibrant cultural traditionsRich artTwo centuries of Mongol rule had reduced Russias cities and trade and lowered its cultural and educational levelsBlocked Russia from RenaissancePeasants reduced to serfdomControversy of Western influence developed Embrace it or reject it?

Eurasian Russian Empire would dominate region

Russias Expansionist Politics under the TsarFirst Russia needed to defeat Mongols14th century Duchy of Moscow was center for liberation effortLocal princes established more autonomyEffectiveness of Mongol control began to diminishMoscow princes had gained political experience through the collection of taxes for the MongolsMoved toward regional independence

1462-1505: Ivan III (Ivan the Great)Styled himself tsar (autocrat of all Russians)1462 freed large part of Russia1470s incorporated trading city of NovgoradOrganized a strong armyGovernment had a military emphasisUsed loyalties to the Orthodox Christian faith and to Russia (blend of nationalism and religion) to win supportHead of the Orthodox Church1480 Declared Russian independence from Mongol ruleMoscow freed from all payments to MongolsRussia gained a vast territory running from the borders of the Polish-Lithuanian Kingdom to Ural Mountains

The Need for RevivalMongol control never reshaped basic Russian valuesRulers were only interested in tributeMost Russians remained ChristiansMost local administrative issues remained in hands of regional princes, landlords, or peasant villagesMongol period reduced the vigor of Russian cultural lifeLower levels of literacy among priesthoodEconomic life deterioratedTrade downManufacturing limited

Russia had become a purely agricultural economy dependent on peasant labor1533-1584: Ivan IV (Ivan the Terrible)Continued policy of Russian expansionGreater emphasis on controlling the tsarist autocracyConfiscated large estates, redistributed to supportersUsed terror to subdue civilian populationEarned nickname by killing many Russian nobles (boyars)Increase power of tsar, decrease power of boyars

Killed his own son in a fit of rage

Patterns of ExpansionTerritorial expansion focused on Central AsiaPushed southward toward Caspian SeaMoved East into Ural mountainsMotivated by desire to push back former Mongol overlordsIvan III and Ivan IV recruited Cossacks Free peasants that settled on newly conquered landRecruited to settle on the steppe and join cavalryCombined agriculture with daring military feats on horsebackConquered Caspian Sea area Moved into western Siberia (across the Urals)

Expansion also offered tsars:A way to reward loyal nobles and bureaucrats by giving them estates in new territoriesProvided new agricultural areasSources of laborRussia used slaves for certain kinds of production work into the 18th centuryExpansion added diversity of people (multicultural empire)

Western Contact and Romanov PolicyEarly tsars carefully managed contacts with western EuropeRealized Western Europe was superior culturally and economically Ivan III eager to launch diplomatic missions to leading Western statesIvan IV British merchants established trading contacts with RussiaManufactured products in exchange for furs and other raw materials (from Russia)Foreign architects modified Renaissance styles to take Russian building traditions into accountElaborate, onion-shaped domesDistinctive form of classicism

1598 - Ivan IV died without a heir, led to The Time of TroublesNew power claims by boyarsFifteen years of turmoilNumerous tsars, imposters, and peasant revolts1610 - Invasions from Sweden and Poland repelled by volunteer armies

Volunteer army fighting the Poles1613 assembly of boyars chose a member of the Romanov family as tsarRomanov dynasty was to rule Russia until great revolution of 1917Autocratic monarchy

Election of 16 year old Michael Romanov, the first Tsar of the Romanov dynastyMichael RomanovReestablished internal orderDrove out foreign invadersResumed expansionist policy of predecessorsA successful war against Poland brought Russia part of Ukraine (including kiev); Russian territory to south also expandedAlexis Romanov Michaels successorLimits powers of nobles and Orthodox ChurchPolicies resumed the Orthodox tradition of state control over the church

Russias First Westernization (1690-1790)End of 17th century Russia had become one of the great land empiresUnusually agriculturalPeter I (son of Alexis; aka Peter the Great) ruled from 1689 to 1725Extended his predecessors policies Built up tsarist controlExpanded Russian territoryAdded a more definite interest in changing selected aspects of Russian economy and culture by imitating Western forms

Tsarist Autocracy of Peter the GreatPeter was an autocrat (absolute ruler, dictator)Put down revolts against his rule with great cruelty Had no interest in parliamentary features of West

Peter's reforms: progressive but autocratic Military reform: to build powerful , modern army (largest European army)Imitates the WestOffered better pay and modern weapons to peasants Aristocratic officers ordered to study mathematics and geometry 1700-1722: Defeated Sweden in Great Northern WarSet up a secret police (would survive until 1990s)Prevent dissentMonitor the bureaucracyBureaucratic reform: to facilitate collection of taxes Only nobles educated to serve as government officials Table of Ranks allowed social mobility for civil servants by merit and serviceCreated new nobles based on service, loyalty, success in armyFreed the states from exclusive dependence on aristocratic officialsSocial reform: challenged established customs Abolished the seclusion of women; encouraged social mixing of the sexes Ordered subjects to wear western clothing; ordered men to shave beards

Peter attacked the Ottoman Empire (won no great victories)Warred with Sweden and gained territory on eastern coast of the Baltic SeaRussia became a major factor in European diplomatic and military alignmentsThe tsar commemorated Russias shift of interests westward by moving his capital from Moscow to a new Baltic city that he named St. Petersburg

Peter the Great Meditating the Idea of Building St Petersburg at the Shore of theBaltic SeabyAlexandre Benois, 1916What Westernization MeantPeter concentrated on:Westernization from top down which hurt Russian traditionsImprovements in political organizationSelected economic developmentCultural changeProvide culture and education for nobles (boyars)Modernized Russias small bureaucracy and altered the military structure by using Western organizational principlesWell-defined military hierarchySpecialized bureaucratic departmentsImproved armys weaponsFirst Russian navyProvincial governors were appointed from St. PetersburgSystemized law codesRevised tax systemsTaxes on ordinary Russian peasants increased steadilyEconomic efforts focused on building up metallurgical and mining industriesBenefited from extensive iron holdingsFinanced state-run weapons and shipbuilding facilitiesPeter was eager to make Russia culturally respectable in Western eyesRequired nobles to wear Western clothes and shave off beardsMany of the Western-oriented changes impacted only the upper classProvide more education in mathematicsFounded scientific institutes and academics along Western linesWestern fads and fashions came into new capitalBallet (France)Christmas tree (Germany)

Peter also pressed for improvements in the condition of upper class womenCould now attend public events (like women in Western Europe)Peter did not try to involve ordinary people of Russia in the technological and intellectual aspects of WesternizationThere was no interest in building the kind of worldwide export economy characteristic of the WestPeter wanted economic development to support military strength rather than to achieve wider commercial goalsWesternization that did occur brought hostile responsesMany peasants resented this Westernization and expenses of their landlords (some of whom no longer even knew Russian but spoke only French)Consolidation Under Catherine the Great1724 - Death of Peter the Great was followed by several decades of weak ruleIneffective emperors and empressesRussian territorial expansion continuedSeveral clashes with Ottoman Empire and further exploration and settlement in Siberia

1762 1795 :Catherine the Great Resumed Peter the Greats interests in many respectsDefended the powers of the central monarchMade a deal with nobles back me up, keep serfsPut down a vigorous peasant uprisingSelective WesternizerSummoned various reform commissions to discuss new law codes and other Western style measures Reduction of traditionally severe punishmentsCombined genuine Enlightenment interests with her need to consolidate power as a truly Russian rulerIntroduced western literature; promoted Russian literatureGreat friend of Voltaire Promoted immunization against smallpox

Catherine was a centralizer (advocate of a strong tsarist hand)But Catherine also gave new powers to the nobility over their serfsNobles served a strong central government and staffed it as bureaucrats and officersNobles were a service aristocracy (not an independent force)Most of the actual administration over local peasants (except for those on government run estates) was wielded by noble landlordsLandlords could demand peasant labor, levy taxes in money and goods, and even impose punishments for crime because landlord dominated courts administered local justiceCatherine increased the harshness of punishments nobles could decree for their serfs

Catherine supported Western-style art and architectureContinued to build St. Petersburg in classical stylesWhen the French Revolution broke out (1789), Catherine was quick to close Russias doors to the seditious writings of liberals and democratsCensored a small but emerging band of Russian intellectuals who urged reforms along Western idealsOne Western-inspired radical (noble named Radishev) sought to abolish serfdomHarassed by Catherines police (his writings were banned)

St. Petersburg Cathedral; started by Peter III and finished by Catherine the Great

Catherine pursued Russian expansionResumed campaigns against the Ottoman EmpireWon territories in Central AsiaThe Russian-Ottoman contest became a central diplomatic issue for both powers Russia became increasingly ascendantClaimed territory of Alaska in Russias nameRussia was able to win agreements with Austria and Prussia for partition of PolandEliminated Poland as an independent state, and Russia held the lions share of the spoilsPolish parliament ineffective and unstable; country poorly defended Russias ultimate role in putting down the French armies of Napoleon after 1812

By the time of Catherines death in 1796, Russia had passed through three centuries of extraordinary developmentWon independenceConstructed a strong central stateBrought new elements into Russias culture and economyMuch of this borrowed from the West

Themes in Early Modern Russian HistoryBecause of its great estates, its local political power, and its service to the state, the Russian nobility maintained a vital position in Russian society

Serfdom: The Last of East Europes Masses17th and 18th centuries power of the nobility over the serfs increased steadilyBefore the Mongol conquest, Russian peasants had been largely free farmersAfter the expulsion of the Tatars, increasing numbers of Russian peasants fell into debt and had to accept servile status to the noble land owners when they could not repayRussian government actively encouraged this process from 16th century onwardSerfdom gave the government a way to satisfy the nobility and regulate peasants when the government itself lacked the bureaucratic means to extend direct controls over the common peopleAs new territories were added to the empire, the system of serfdom was extended accordingly By 1800 half of Russias peasantry was enserfed to landlordsMuch of the other half owed comparable obligations to the state17th and 18th century laws passed tied serfs to the land and increased the legal rights of the landlords1649 law created hereditary status of serfs

Flogging a serfRussia was setting up a system of serfdom very close to outright slavery Bought and soldGambled awayPunished by their mastersUnusual case of slavery people essentially enslaved many of its own membersCoerced labor was used to produce grain surpluses sold to Western merchants for the growing cities of western EuropeIn return, Western merchants brought in manufactured goods, including the luxury furnishings and clothing essential to the aristocratic lifestyleSerfs on the estates of eastern Europe were taxed and policed by their landlordsPaid high taxes or obligations in kind, and they owed extensive labor service to the landlords or government1785 allowed landlords to punish harshly any serfs convicted of major crimes or rebellionMost peasants were illiterate and poor

Trade and Economic DependenceIn between serfs and landlords, there were few layers of Russian societyCites were small95% of population remained ruralSome nonnoble bureaucrats and professionalsSmall merchant groupsMost of Russias European trade was handled by WesternersRussias economic system produced enough revenue to support an expanding state and empireRussia was able to trade in furs and other commodities with areas in central AsiaRussias expansion yielded significant population growthThere was little motivation among the peasantry for improvement because increased production usually was taken by the state or landlordManufacturing lagged behind Western standards

Social unrestRussias economic and social system led to protestBy the end of 18th century, a small but growing number of Western-oriented aristocrats such as Radishev were criticizing the regimes backwardnessWanted to abolish serfdomRecurrent peasant rebellionsRussian peasants for the most part were politically loyal to the tsar, but they harbored bitter resentments against their landlordsAccused them of taking lands that were rightfully theirs1770s Pugachev uprisingPugachev Cossack chieftain who claimed to be the legitimate tsarPromised an end to serfdom, taxation, military conscription, and abolition of landed aristocracyKilled thousands of nobles, officials, and priestsHe was brought to Moscow in a case and cut into quarters in a public square