the role of gender in the genji monogatari

7/27/2019 The Role of Gender in the Genji Monogatari

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-role-of-gender-in-the-genji-monogatari 1/32

Rescue or Rape, Genji or Murasaki:The Role of Gender Relations and the Unsung Heroines of the Genji Monogatari

Thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of Honors

By

essie !utter The Honors "ollege

#nglish Honors $rogram#ast Tennessee %tate Uni&ersity

!o&ember '(, ')*'



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Jessie Nutter

Honors Senior Thesis

28 November 2012

Rescue or Rape, Genji or Murasaki

The Ro!e o" Gen#er Re!ations an# the $nsun% Heroines o" the Genji Monogatari

&re'mo#ern (or!# !iterature is t)pica!!) re%ar#e# as a "ie!# #ominate# b) ma!e (riters*

+n#ee#, one nee# not be a scho!ar to be acuainte# (ith the (orks o" such !iterar) %iants as

Homer, -ervantes, an# -haucer, an# it is certain!) a (i#e!) accepte# "act that prior to the 1.th

centur) (orks penne# b) a (oman/s han# (ere much har#er to come b) in the estern (or!#*

That is not to sa), ho(ever, that in the "ar remote corners o" the (or!# (omen be)on# the %ae

o" estern urope (ere not (ritin%* +n "act, man) o" the most (i#e!) reno(ne# (orks o"

astern !iterature (ere (ritten b) (omen, most especia!!) a (ea!th o" Japanese "o!k ta!es an#

"ab!es kno(n as monogatari* 3s (orks o" "iction, monogatari (ere b) princip!e consi#ere#

beneath the interests an# pursuits o" men, an# thus even in cases (here i#entit) o" the author has

not survive#, a!! kno(n monogatari can sa"e!) be attribute# to (omen*

$n"ortunate!), the process o" incorporatin% even the paramount c!assics o" astern

!iterature into (or!# !iterar) canon can take centuries* This is no #oubt the reason (h), apart

"rom !iterar) scho!ars, "e( estern citiens to#a) are a(are o" the "act that the (ork ce!ebrate#

as the (or!#/s "irst true nove! (as (ritten a thousan# )ears a%o b) a !a#) o" the Japanese

imperia! court* The Genji Monogatari 4kno(n in n%!ish as the Ta!e o" Genji4 (as (ritten

aroun# the turn o" the 11th centur) 5#urin% the Japanese Heian ra6 b) a !a#)'in'(aitin% to the

empress kno(n to posterit) on!) b) the sobriuet Murasaki Shikibu* 3!thou%h the term



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monogatari ma) imp!) !i%ht rea#in%, the Genji Monogatari is a ta!e o" epic proportions,

spannin% 1120 pa%es in its most recent n%!ish trans!ation* The narrative "o!!o(s the !i"e o" a

particu!ar!) %i"te# courtier kno(n to the rea#er as Genji, be%innin% (ith his birth an# continuin%

on unti! (e!! a"ter his #eath*

Tra#itiona!!), the Genji Monogatari has been rea#, in accor#ance (ith a!! monogatari, as

a romantic portra)a! o" the passionate !iaisons bet(een men an# (omen an# their sometimes

jo)"u!, thou%h o"tentimes heart'(renchin% conc!usions* Genji, so the narrative te!!s us, is the

i#ea! !over han#some to the point o" bein% beauti"u!, unpara!!e!e# in his master) o" the arts, an#

eterna!!) #evote# to an) (oman he has once !ove#* He is unuestionab!) the hero o" the ta!e, but

is he tru!) its inten#e# "ocus7 3s Ro)a!! T)!er asserts in his intro#uction to the most recent

n%!ish e#ition o" the nove!, Some contemporar) rea#ers insist that The Tale of Genji is !ess

about Genji himse!" than about the (omen in it 4 their "ee!in%s, their e9periences, their "ates:

59iii6* hi!e this most recent interpretation o" the nove! ma) be controversia!, it is certain!) not

(ithout te9tua! support* 3s Genji scho!ar J* M* Maki points out, +n the Genji Monogatari there

is probab!) the most remarkab!e %a!a9) o" "eminine characters that has ever appeare# in an)

!iterar) (ork: 5;..6* +n#ee#, (hi!e the ta!e contains on!) a han#"u! o" si%ni"icant ma!e

characters, the consi#erab!e number an# ran%e o" the "ema!e cast "ar outshine a!! but Genji

himse!", !ea#in% mo#ern rea#ers to (on#er i" <a#) Murasaki (as perhaps pushin% a hi##en

a%en#a o" her o(n (hen she penne# the (ork*

ith that in min#, it is o" interest to note that in ancient Japan the ta!e (as at times

re"erre# to not as the Genji Monogatari, but rather as the Murasaki Monogatari* Murasaki, the

chie" !a#) amon% the man) (omen o" the ta!e, (as, !ike Genji, o" such peer!ess beaut) an#

accomp!ishments that she #oubt!ess!) ma#e a #eep impression on the men an# (omen o" the



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-ourt at the time an# that the name o" the i#ea! heroine, Murasaki, conseuent!), (as %iven to

both the book an# its author: 5Maki ;826* Her si%ni"icance to the ta!e is such that some, even as

"ar back as the Heian ra, consi#er her to be the true prota%onist* >et re%ar#!ess o" her evi#ent

popu!arit) amon% rea#ers o" a!! time perio#s, it is to Genji that the narrative continuous!) returns*

Ho(ever, that "act is insu""icient to #isperse the theor) that the ta!e is in truth about the

man) (omen (ith (hom Genji comes into contact* +n much the same (a) that Scheheraa#e

acts as the cata!)st that ho!#s the man) ta!es o" the Thousand and One Nights to%ether, so mi%ht

Genji, a!thou%h enjo)in% a "ar more active ro!e in the escapa#es, serve as a "i%ure convenient!)

emp!o)e# b) the author to anchor her man) !ines o" narrative "ramin% into one continuous ta!e*

Throu%h Genji, the rea#er is ab!e to e9perience the sa#, interconnecte# "ates o" a host o" (omen

an# thereb) share in their tria!s an# tribu!ations* 3s one amon% those most #evote# to this

rea#in%, ?a!erie Henitiuk insists that the author emp!o)s her attractive, charmin% hero an# his

"reuent!) ver) entertainin% re!ations (ith a variet) o" (omen to e9p!ore the insi#ious socia!

prob!ems at the ver) root: o" a Heian (oman/s e9istence 5Goin% to @e#: AB6* 3mon% the

"actors present (ithin the nove! that are most persuasive in supportin% this rea#in% are the

"oresha#o(in% emp!o)e# b) the author, her overa!! portra)a! o" the con#itions an# treatment o"

(omen, her subt!e )et ever present #istaste "or the institution o" po!)%amous marria%e, the

creative use o" spirit possession as a means o" protestin% a%ainst the ma!e'#ominate# societ), an#

the !essons to be taken "rom the events that un"o!# at $ji*

Cespite the "act that the nove!/s man) !ea#in% !a#ies are not present "rom the start o" the

narrative as is Genji himse!", the attentive rea#er is nonethe!ess ever a(are o" their impen#in%

arriva!* 3s ear!) as the secon# chapter, <a#) Murasaki presents her au#ience (ith su""icient

evi#ence to e9pect them* +n the ear!) part o" this chapter, one o" the most memorab!e scenes the



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nove! has to o""er is "oun# the "amous rain) ni%ht conversation: that takes p!ace bet(een

Genji, his c!osest ma!e companion 5the Secretar) -aptain6, an# t(o other men o" !itt!e

conseuence as the) #iscuss (omen an# past !ove a""airs* This scene occurs imme#iate!)

"o!!o(in% the "irst chapter o" the (ork, (hich serves to intro#uce Genji/s back%roun# an#

position him as the narrative/s centra! "i%ure D the threa# that ties to%ether the various (omen/s

in#ivi#ua! ta!es* Hence, the rain) ni%ht conversation is essentia!!) the primar) initiation into the

meat o" the p!ot* Ereuent!) (ithin the conversation #irect a!!usions are ma#e to (omen (ho

(i!! !ater "i%ure prominent!) in at !east an episo#e i" not the entiret) o" the ta!e* Eor e9amp!e, the

Secretar) -aptain e9presses the vie( that even amon% those kno(n as Governors: can be "oun#

a house F(hich boasts ever) !u9ur), an# a!! those #au%hters o" his, sho(ere# (ith !ove an#

#a!in% (ea!th, %ro( up in %ran# st)!e* Gir!s !ike that o"ten #o better in pa!ace service than )ou

mi%ht ima%ine: 5Tale of Genji 2=6* ne (ho is "ami!iar (ith the characters o" the Genji

Monogatari, a"ter rea#in% this passa%e, cannot he!p but be remin#e# o" Genji/s 3kashi <a#)

(ho, never min# "ittin% the #escription e9act!), %oes on to #o so (e!! in Genji/s service that she

achieves the unhear# o" 5"or a Governor/s #au%hter6 rank o" birth mother to an mpress*

3nother e9amp!e can be "oun# in the passa%e that rea#s, the rea!!) "ascinatin% %ir! is the

one o" (hom no one has ever hear#, the stran%e!) appea!in% one (ho !ives b) herse!", hi##en

a(a) in some ruinous, over%ro(n o!# houseI because, never havin% e9pecte# an)one !ike her,

)ou (on#er (hat she is #oin% there an# cannot he!p (antin% to kno( her better: 5Tale of Genji

2;6* This passa%e brin%s to min# the un"ortunate princess Suetsumuhana, (ho (ith the #eath o"

her parents ha# "a!!en into ruin an# obscurit) be"ore Genji happens upon her* ther (omen,

rather than bein% va%ue!) a!!u#e# to, are ver) near!) name# outri%ht, such as the Secretar)



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-aptain/s #escription o" his !ost !ove >u%ao, (ho not surprisin%!) takes center sta%e a mere t(o

chapters !ater*

+n a##ition to "oresha#o(in% the arriva! o" the nove!/s primar) !a#ies, <a#) Murasaki

"reuent!) reca!!s the rain) ni%ht #iscussion (ithin the te9t to ensure that her rea#ers make the

connection* hi!e one !ine in the #iscussion remarks on those o" mi##!e birth: as bein% the

ones amon% (hom )ou can see (hat a %ir! rea!!) has to o""er an# "in# (a)s to #istin%uish one

"rom another,: a !ater passa%e in re"errin% to $tsusemi reca!!s that she nice!) represente# the

mi##!e %ra#e the) ha# #iscusse#, (ith a!! its appea!s, an# FGenji un#erstoo# ho( tru!) the man

o" broa# e9perience ha# spoken: 5Tale of Genji 2=, ;16* This re"erence back to the rain) ni%ht

conversation ensures that the rea#er notices the !ink an# makes it obvious that <a#) Murasaki

inten#e# the passa%e to be rea# as "oresha#o(in%* +" on!) Genji himse!" (ere capab!e o"

%raspin% this intention, he ma) have been more (ar) o" the (arnin% to p!ease take m) humb!e

a#vice an# be(are o" the p!iant, eas) (oman* 3n) s!ip o" hers can make her husban# !ook a

"oo!: an# thus have avoi#e# the #isaster that (as his marria%e to the Thir# &rincess 5Tale of

Genji =16*

Ear "rom bein% mere!) a #iscussion that serves to spark Genji/s interest in (omen, as the

scene has "reuent!) been rea#, in truth this passa%e serves to intro#uce throu%h "oresha#o(in%

the numerous (omen (ho (i!! "i%ure in the ta!e an# thus hi%h!i%ht their importance be"ore the)

even arrive on sta%e* Such an un#erstan#in% o" this pivota! passa%e %oes a !on% (a) in

supportin% the vie( that <a#) Murasaki inten#e# her nove! to be rea# as a narrative "rame

containin% the man) in#ivi#ua! ta!es o" Heian ra (omen an# their conseuent "ates*

Man) o" those (ho assert that <a#) Murasaki (rote the Genji Monogatari (ith just such

a rea#in% in min# c!aim she #i# so out o" a (ish to con#emn the patriarcha! cu!ture that ru!e# the



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#a)* &erhaps the most e""icient (a) to un#erstan# <a#) Murasaki/s portra)a! o" (omen (ithin

the nove! an# their imp!ications is "irst to un#erstan# the ro!e (omen p!a)e# #urin% the author/s

perio# in histor)* +n Heian Japan, hi%h'born (omen (ere kept sec!u#e# "rom the e)es o" men

an# there"ore enjo)e# !itt!e "ree#om o" movementI the) (ere uite !itera!!) (a!!e# o""/ in that

the) remaine# jea!ous!) %uar#e# behin# severa! !a)ers o" both moveab!e an# immoveab!e

barriers: 5?ir%in Territor):6* +n a##ition, nob!e (omen (ere "urther (ei%hte# #o(nK b)

cumbersome c!othin% an# b) the reuirement to trave! a!most e9c!usive!) b) o9 cart: 5-hi!#s

10B=6* These consi#erab!e restrictions #eman#e# b) court societ) !e"t (omen entire!) #epen#ent

upon men "or support* 3s Suetsumuhana/s e9amp!e #emonstrates, a (oman (ho has no man to

!ook a"ter her (i!! soon "in# that her propert) an# her "ortunes have "a!!en into ruin* ithout the

"ree#oms to come an# %o as one p!eases an# be seen b) those outsi#e one/s imme#iate "ami!),

ho( cou!# an) (oman be e9pecte# to !ook a"ter her o(n interests7 hi!e some sources o" <a#)

Murasaki/s time presente# vie(s that #escribe (omen as happ) to su""er an# be tro##en upon,

Murasaki Shikibu takes the more rea!istic vie( that a he!p!ess (oman is in a prett) sa# position

an# cannot be e9pecte# to enjo) it/: 5Goin% to @e#: ;86*

omen in the nove! (ho have !ost ma!e support "reuent!) !ament this !ack o" "ree#om

an# the insecure position in (hich it p!aces them, such as i%imi a"ter her "ather/s #eath* To be

"air, ho(ever, Heian Japan (as much more !ibera! in its treatment o" (omen than most other

re%ions o" the (or!# (ere at this time* $n!ike in urope, Heian (omen cou!# o(n, inherit, an#

pass on propert),: nor (as there an) unreasonab!e insistence on purit), vir%init), an# so on:

5Marria%e, Rank an# Rape:6* +n rea!it), (omen born !o( enou%h to be a!!o(e# even re!ative

"ree#om o" movement !ike!) %ot on uite (e!! in societ)I ho(ever, to hi%h born (omen the strict

socia! co#es (ere #ebi!itatin%, as <a#) Murasaki #epicts*



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3s the narrative proves, trustin% in men "or support cou!# be a precarious situation,

a!thou%h "e( a!ternatives (ere avai!ab!e* hen enterin% into a re!ationship (ith a man, (omen

o"ten ha# reason to #oubt the #epth o" his a""ections an# (on#er i" his interest (ou!# persevere

or prove to be a passin% (him* +n#ee#, (hat makes Genji such a ma%ni"icent !over is his re"usa!

to ever aban#on a (oman once he has taken responsibi!it) "or her* The "!ame o" his #evotion

ma) "!icker, but never in the nove! can one ar%ue that it is entire!) e9tin%uishe#, an# the same

can be sai# o" his support* Ho(ever, not ever) (oman can e9pect to attract one so nob!e as

Genji "or a !over* +n the nove!/s conc!u#in% $ji chapters, aoru, Genji/s purporte# )oun%est

son, is sho(n to be uite "ick!e in his pursuit o" $ki"une, a (oman he is #ra(n to because o" her

resemb!ance to his !ost !ove* He c!ear!) "ai!s to va!ue her intimate!) an# is uite unab!e to

be!ieve that she possesses consi#erab!e #epth o" "ee!in%* ne ren#ition has him re"er to $ki"une

as a !oveab!e sort o" companionK someone not to be taken serious!) or Fbe o""ere# too

e9ce!!ent a p!ace,: (hi!e he !ater attributes the cause o" her suppose# suici#e via #ro(nin% to her

bein% as va%ue as she (as, an# as easi!) s(a)e#, she must have %ot the i#ea "or (hat she #i#

simp!) "rom havin% the river nearb): 5Shirane 1==, Tale of Genji 10A.6* +n this !ast section o"

the nove!, <a#) Murasaki sho(s Genji to be an e9ceptiona! courtier in#ee# in his %enerosit) b)

contrastin% him (ith the t)pica! %a!!ant !overs o" the perio#*

&erhaps one o" the most evi#ent (a)s <a#) Murasaki #epicts the tria!s "ace# b) (omen

in a ma!e #ominate# societ) is throu%h her portra)a! o" the institution o" marria%e in Heian

Japan* ne notab!e critic o" Genji/s amorous (a)s, omashaku imi, %oes so "ar as to insist

that <a#) Murasaki penne# her ta!e in or#er to (arn a!! (omen a%ainst marria%e: 5Marria%e,

Rank an# Rape:6* hi!e such a #rastic proposition is sure!) not (ithout its biases, it is

nonethe!ess true that severa! marrie# (omen throu%hout the ta!e meet (ith mis"ortune as a #irect



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resu!t o" their invo!vement in po!)%amous re!ationships* T(o note(orth) e9amp!es are Genji

an# Murasaki/s o(n mothers* 3!thou%h both are mere!) secon#ar) characters, the) "a!! victim to

the same "ate share# b) man) (omen throu%hout the ta!e* Eorce# to occup) the precarious

position o" a !esser (i"e, both the iritsubo +ntimate an# Murasaki/s mother are p!a%ue# b) the

jea!ous retribution o" their !overs/ principa! (ives an# both conseuent!) su""er a premature

#eath as a resu!t* The narrative makes no attempt to mask the un"ortunate (omen/s "atesI rather,

"or e9amp!e in the case o" Murasaki/s mother, it speci"ica!!) attributes the #eath to the "act that

her !over/s (i"e is a ver) %reat !a#), an# the resu!tin% unp!easantness ma#e her so continua!!)

miserab!e that in the en# she #ie#: 5Tale of Genji 8.6* The "act that so man) o" <a#) Murasaki/s

"ema!e characters "a!! victim to this or simi!ar scenarios arisin% "rom po!)%amous marria%es

cannot simp!) be #isre%ar#e# as happenstance but rather shou!# serve as a c!ear in#ication that

the author (as in#ee# passin% ju#%ment on the institutions o" her #a)*

+n rare cases #isperse# throu%hout the nove!, <a#) Murasaki a!!o(s her characters to

speak "or her #irect!), such as in the passa%e (here $ki"une/s mother e9presses the vie(, +

rea!ie# (hen + sa( ho( unhapp) she FNaka no imi, $ki"une/s ha!"'sister an# !esser (i"e to

Niou is that the on!) rea!!) (orth), re!iab!e husban# is the one (ho #oes not #ivi#e his

a""ections: 5Tale of Genji .816* Such subt!e )et "reuent i!!ustrations as these are peppere#

throu%hout the ta!e* hether throu%h #ia!o%ue or #irect e9amp!e, <a#) Murasaki continua!!)

remin#s the rea#er o" the su""erin% "ace# b) (omen (hose husban#/s #ivi#e their a""ections*:

>et "or a theme c!ear!) so centra! to the narrative, "reuent minor e9amp!es are "ar "rom

su""icient an# serve mere!) to un#erscore the primar) e9amp!e presente# to the rea#er in the

episo#e o" Genji/s marria%e to the Thir# &rincess, nna San no Mi)a* Cespite enjo)in% in

Murasaki a (i"e (ho possesses a!! the beaut), "eminine kin#ness, an# aesthetic ski!!s that a man



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cou!# ask "or, an# a!so in spite o" the boun#!ess !ove he bears "or her, Genji nonethe!ess

(e!comes the chance to enter into marria%e (ith mperor Suaku/s )oun%est #au%hter an#

thereb) %ain "urther presti%e throu%h so !o"t) an a!!iance* 3t this point in the narrative Genji has

a!rea#) constructe# his Rokujo estate, (hich houses a number o" (omen un#er his protection*

Murasaki, his principa! (i"e an# there"ore hea# mistress o" Rokujo, has a!rea#) patient!)

en#ure# man) o" his a""airs an# the "urther humi!iation o" bein% insta!!e# un#er the same roo" as

his !esser (ives an# consorts* Jea!ous), as a matter o" princip!e, (as thou%ht to be beneath a

(oman, especia!!) (hen the a""airs (ere (ith (omen be!o( her in rank an# there"ore

theoretica!!) beneath her notice* 3s T)!er asserts in his artic!e #etai!in% the re!ationship bet(een

Genji an# Murasaki an# ho( it evo!ves throu%hout the nove!, a s)mptom o" FMurasaki/s

pre#icament in !i"e is that in princip!e it is beneath her #i%nit) to e9press such "ee!in%s Fas

jea!ous) at a!!: 5+ am +: ;=86* 3!thou%h in her )outh Murasaki/s temper occasiona!!) "!are#

(hen presente# (ith such matters, (hat can she #o no( but maintain an air o" #i%ni"ie# reso!ve7

3!as, her one con#o!ence in !i"e has been the %oo# "ortune that Genji never un#ertook to set a

(oman above her* $pon !earnin% that he has "ina!!) #one just that b) marr)in% nna San no

Mi)a, a (oman (hose imposin% rank cannot but oversha#o( her, Murasaki #oes not speak even

a (or# to Genji in protest, kno(in% that such sentiments (ou!# serve on!) to #iscre#it her*

To Genji/s #isma), he !earns that the Thir# &rincess, sti!! ver) )oun% an# chi!#ish, is too

#isma!!) #u!!: 5Tale of Genji A.26* He re%rets the sentiments that !e# him to accept her han# an#

(ishes that he cou!# un#o the past, as he sees c!ear!) 5#espite ho( she tries to hi#e it6 that this

ne( arran%ement #istresses his true !ove, Murasaki* 3s so man) other (omen !earn in the Genji

Monogatari, Murasaki bitter!) #iscovers that a (oman (ithout "ami!) support is he!p!ess

a%ainst an upper'rankin% !a#) an# that a private: marria%e is not, in "act, the same as a court



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marria%e: 5Shirane 1216* Rank ma) #eman# that nna San no Mi)a be sho(n %reater respect

an# consi#eration than Murasaki, )et to Genji it is a!! too obvious ho( "ar his !a#) surpasses the

princess in charm an# character* ventua!!), the assau!t to her #i%nit) an# the "ear that a%e b)

an# b) (ou!# #u!! her in his e)es: !ea#s Murasaki to reuest that Genji a!!o( her to renounce the

(or!# an# become a nun, (hich he, out o" !ove "or her an# a "ear o" partin%, simp!) cannot a!!o(

her to #o 5Tale of Genji B=B6*

+n an i!!'mannere# attempt to restore harmon) to their re!ationship, Genji be%ins

reminiscin% to Murasaki o" a!! the (omen he has !ove# in the past, presumab!) so that she ma)

see ho( he has "avore# her above them a!!* <ost in his reverie o" remembrance, Genji

erroneous!) speaks i!! o" the !ate Rokujo Haven, remarkin% ho( she ma#e pain"u!!) tr)in%

compan): an# that the (a) she broo#e#: over his other a""airs ma#e thin%s ver) unp!easant:

5Tale of Genji B;B6* -onsi#erin% that this is the same Rokujo Haven (ho Genji kno(s to be

responsib!e "or the #eath o" his "irst (i"e, 3oi, (hen she (as attacke# b) the Haven/s !ivin%

spirit in or#er to teach Genji a !esson, one (ou!# think that Genji ha# !earne# not to s!i%ht her b)

no(* ven T)!er asserts that (hen + came to trans!ate Genji/s speech + "e!t as thou%h he ha#

taken !eave o" his senses: 5+ am +: ;B86* Sure!) enou%h, Genji comes to re%ret his !oose ton%ue

(hen Murasaki "a!!s i!! "rom spirit possession* Not surprisin%!), the possessin% spirit is

eventua!!) revea!e# to be that o" the Rokujo Haven* +n his constant (orr) over Murasaki, Genji

a!! but aban#ons the Thir# &rincess, (ho in his absence proves too (eak'(i!!e# to spurn the

a#vances o" another suitor* The u!timate resu!t o" their a""air is the birth o" aoru, (hom the

(or!# be!ieves to be but (hom Genji is pain"u!!) a(are is not his son* Murasaki #ies o" her

i!!ness, an# nna San no Mi)a, overcome (ith shame, uick!) takes the #rastic step o" becomin%



Nutter 11

a nun #espite her )outh* This e9treme reaction announces to the entire (or!# that her marria%e to

Genji (as nothin% but #isastrous*

3s this e9amp!e, (hich is a!so #ebatab!) the chie" parab!e o" the ta!e, c!ear!) i!!ustrates,

"ar "rom brin%in% happiness, the miseries an# stru%%!es o" po!)%amous marria%e "reuent!)

brou%ht nothin% but #espair to a!! parties invo!ve#* This is the !ast the rea#er (i!! see o" Genji,

as "o!!o(in% Murasaki/s #eath he "orsakes the (or!# an# #evotes himse!" to re!i%ion* Ha# he

contente# himse!" (ith the consi#erab!e number o" (omen (hose hearts he ha# c!aime# over the

)ears an# not un#ertaken to #isp!ace the !ove (ho ha# remaine# b) his si#e since she (as a %ir!,

Genji !ike!) (ou!# have avoi#e# a!! the ca!amities that be"e!! him* +n another (or!#, he an#

Murasaki ma) have !ive# on happi!) to%ether into ripe o!# a%eI instea#, miser) over his ne(

marria%e #rives her to #eath an# Genji #oes not !on% survive her* ith <a#) Murasaki paintin%

po!)%amous marria%e in such a ne%ative !i%ht, can there be an) #oubt about her vie(s on the

subject7

>et apparent!) the matter is not that simp!e* 3s in ever) #ebate, there is o" course

another si#e o" the issue to be taken into account* 3"ter a!!, !et us not "or%et that Murasaki

herse!" (as once the other (oman: as "ar as Genji/s principa! (i"e at the time, 3oi, is

concerne#* Ho(ever, Murasaki/s rank (as insu""icient to cause 3oi an) rea! concerns, an# the

!atter #ies be"ore the issue can be proper!) a##resse#, !eavin% Murasaki to take on the ro!e o"

primar) (i"e unti! her stan#in% is cha!!en%e# b) nna San no Mi)a* +n the meantime, Genji

un#ertakes a number o" a""airs that, a!thou%h the) certain!) #o not com"ort Murasaki, cannot be

sai# to si%ni"icant!) troub!e her either* nce or t(ice she is presente# (ith a riva! (ho ma) tru!)

be capab!e o" #isp!acin% her, but not unti! nna San no Mi)a #oes the event actua!!) occur* Ear

"rom bein% an un#esirab!e position, one scho!ar asserts that Genji compensates, at !east in part,



Nutter 12

"or the iniuities an# su""erin% Fhe cause# his (omen he provi#es patrona%e an# support, an#

"ina!!) bui!#s "or them the pa!atia! Rokujo'inK po!)%am) becomes an arran%ement b) (hich the

hero can %enerous!) provi#e protection an# support to a!! those !one!) an# insecure (omen o"

the hi!!s (ho (ou!# other(ise be ne%!ecte#: 5Shirane 1186* Cespite his apparent

un#erestimation o" these (omen o" the hi!!s,: Shirane #oes make an e9ce!!ent point* hi!e

man) o" the (omen in uestion ma) have been capab!e o" "in#in% support e!se(here, (here

(ou!# one such as Suetsumuhana have been i" Genji ha# not "oun# her an# taken her un#er his

(in%7 Murasaki herse!" (ou!# never have "oun# a home (ith Genji i" he ha# been inc!ine# to

honor 3oi b) seekin% no other mistresses* hi!e evi#ent!) not an i#ea! situation, po!)%amous

marria%e certain!) has a!!o(e# Genji to o""er protection to a si%ni"icant number o" (omen,

certain!) #oin% more %oo# than he (ou!# have been ab!e to ha# he been a!!o(e# to take just one*

&erhaps then it is not the act o" seekin% mistresses a!one that <a#) Murasaki (ishes to censure,

but rather takin% a""airs so "ar as to #isp!ace the (oman (hom Genji o(es his truest a!!e%iance is

the rea! crime*

&erhaps the most prominent to contemporar) rea#ers an# certain!) most hot!) #ebate#

portra)a! o" %en#er re!ations (ithin the Genji Monogatari is the issue o" rape, particu!ar!) ho( it

re!ates to Murasaki/s marria%e consummation scene* Genji scho!ars appear to be #ivi#e# an#

hi%h!) opinionate# on this topic more than an) other* Some, amon% them Japanese critic

omashaku imi, char%e Genji (ith crimes a%ainst (omen,: not the !east amon% them

ki#nappin% an# rape 5Marria%e, Rank an# Rape:6* 3s she ar%ues, since a (oman in a (eak

position easi!) surren#ers, in such a conte9t rape an# se#uction are a!most the same thin%:

5-hi!#s 10B=6* Her co!!ea%ue, Setouchi Jakucho, (ho in 1... re!ease# her o(n trans!ation o" the

Genji Monogatari into mo#ern Japanese, a%rees, statin% that Genji/s a""airs a!(a)s be%an (ith



Nutter 1=

(hat she ca!!s "orce# se9/K +t (as rape, rea!!)/: 5Shoji6* -ertain!) Genji/s amorous (a)s

have earne# him uite a reputation amon% rea#ers a!on% (ith the nickname &!a)bo) o" the

astern or!#,: but can he "air!) be char%e# (ith rape7 5&!a)bo):6*

Ro)a!! T)!er, (ho trans!ate# the most recent n%!ish e#ition, thinks not* $sin% Genji/s

"irst ni%ht (ith the orphane# princess Suetsumuhana to support his opinion, T)!er (on#ers

(hether a (oman in such a situation can proper!) %ive her prior consent: 5Marria%e, Rank an#

Rape:6* 3"ter a!!, #evote# as she is to the memor) o" her !ate "ather an# !ivin% in a societ) (here

marria%e is a matter o" parenta! arran%ement, Suetsumuhana is unab!e to take it upon herse!" to

marr) (ithout her "ather/s approva!, (hich, bein% #ea#, he is c!ear!) unab!e to %ive* 3s T)!er

sees it, Genji has no choice but to procee# (ithout her consent,: an# so he #oes 5Marria%e,

Rank an# Rape:6* Ee( peop!e (ou!# attempt to ar%ue that Suetsumuhana/s situation is not

%reat!) improve# thanks to her re!ationship (ith Genji, ho(ever much the) mi%ht object to the

initia! act that be%an that re!ationship*

T)!er %oes on to she# !i%ht on the "act that manners an# societa! e9pectations in Heian

Japan "orba#e (omen to speak open!) on such subjects as se9ua! intimac), particu!ar!) i" the)

(ere vir%ins* +n#ee#, he ho!#s that it (as Murasaki/s incomprehension o" Genji/s "!irtatious

hints that proves her ua!it) an# promises her "uture %reatness as a !a#): 5Marria%e, Rank an#

Rape:6* Eor her to sa) )es,: T)!er in"orms us, (ou!# be un(orth) o" herI "or her to sa) no

(ou!# p!ace Genji, hence herse!", in a ver) #i""icu!t positionI an# "or her to sa) either (ou!#

compromise her b) sho(in% that she #oes kno( (hat he is ta!kin% about* Her utter innocence is

(hat proves her supreme (orth: 5Marria%e, Rank an# Rape:6* +n#ee#, innocence: 5(hich in

rea!it) meant tota! i%norance o" se9ua! re!ationships6 (as insiste# upon "or (omen but mattere#

not at a!! "or men* ?ir%ins or not, men (ere never kept in the #ark about se9ua! intercourse nor



Nutter 1;

ha# an) reason to "ei%n i%norance on the subject* @) #en)in% (omen kno(!e#%e o" se9ua!

a""airs, Heian societ) (as inherent!) unjust to(ar# them an# crushe# a!! possibi!ities o" (omen

stan#in% on eua! "ootin% (ith men in romantic re!ationships*

Mar%aret -hi!#s concurs (ith T)!er/s assessment that utter incomprehension to(ar#

carna! matters is so ob!i%ator) to nob!e(omen o" the #a) that the author cou!# not have ha# her

i#ea! heroine behave in an) other (a): 5Goin% to @e#: AB6* -hi!#s %oes on to insist that it is

FMurasaki/s trust rather than her bo#) that has been vio!ate#: (hen she a(akens the "o!!o(in%

mornin% an# is upset (ith Genji a"ter rea#in% the poem he !e"t b) her be#si#e, a!ertin% her to the

"act that their intimac) the previous ni%ht (as preme#itate#I -hi!#s insinuates that Murasaki is

upset simp!) because she "ee!s #upe# 5Goin% to @e#: AB6* 3#vancin% her o(n interpretation on

the matter o" rape in the Genji Monogatari, -hi!#s "urther ar%ues that the ma!e strate%) o"

makin% vu!nerabi!it) tan%ib!e/ in or#er to increase "eminine a!!ure is common to #epictions o"

romantic invo!vement in the !iterature o" the #a) an# cannot be taken to eua! se9ua! vio!ence:

5Goin% to @e#: AA6*

hi!e T)!er an# -hi!#s make ver) persuasive ar%uments in Genji/s #e"ense, in Japan

Genji-girai 5#etestation o" Genji/6 "!ourishes: as a resu!t o" the crimes he is char%e# (ith

5Marria%e, Rank an# Rape:6* There are man) (ho simp!) cannot "or%ive Genji "or his

ki#nappin% o" the )oun% Murasaki an# subseuent!) stea!in% 5suppose#!)6 her innocence* +t is

important to note, ho(ever, that not a!! Japanese "ee! this (a)* Shirane, "or one, persists in

seein% the romance at the heart o" even the most controversia! issues touche# on in the nove!,

ho!#in% that Murasaki/s situation must have appeare# enviab!e, an# un#oubte#!) there (ere

man) (ho #reame# o" such an opportunit)* The i#ea o" a hi%h'rankin% courtier o""erin% a %ran#

resi#ence an# support to a poor %ir! or orphan prove# to be rich %roun# "or the romance: 511L6*



Nutter 1A

Just as in the e9amp!e o" Suetsumuhana, rea#ers must keep in min# that in ki#nappin% an# even

potentia!!) "orcin% himse!" upon Murasaki, Genji (as actua!!) protectin% her "rom the harsh !i"e

she ma) (e!! have !e# at her "ather/s resi#ence un#er the care o" her jea!ous step'mother*

Eurthermore, !ea#in% up to the consummation scene the narrative presents more than su""icient

evi#ence that Murasaki is e9treme!) "on# o" Genji, an# a!thou%h the nove! #oes not #epict the

scene itse!", it is uite un!ike!) in an) case that Murasaki tru!) inten#e# to spurn his a""ections,

ho(ever verse# she ma) or ma) not have been in matters o" se9ua! intimac)* hi!e Genji

himse!" ma) be b!ame!ess, the same cannot be sai# "or the societ) that "orce# Murasaki into this

precarious position b) "orbi##in% her kno(!e#%e o" her suitor/s intentions*

ne o" the more creative theories put "orth in support o" a "eminine rea#in% ar%ues that

the spora#ic use o" spirit possession (ithin the ta!e is in actua!it) a metho# emp!o)e# b) (omen

to protest a%ainst the ma!e hierarch) that oppresses them* 3s Coris G* @ar%en, the (oman

cre#ite# (ith presentin% this theor), a""irms, especia!!) (ithin po!)%amous societies, it is

"reuent!) (omen (ho "a!! victim to spirit possession: 5.A6* 3s she ar%ues, the putative!)

supernatura! event o" spirit possession momentari!) reverses tra#itiona! ro!es an# upsets the

norma! or#er o" va!ues so that victimie# (omen temporari!) ru!e over men: 5.A6* This is a

some(hat revo!utionar) rea#in% on the use o" spirit possession (ithin the te9t, as tra#itiona!!),

jea!ous) has been re%ar#e# as the major "orce behin# spirit possession in the Genji Monogatari:

5@ar%en .86* Scho!ars o" the ta!e have t)pica!!) he!# the be!ie" that competin% (ives,

concubines, an# mistresses are prone to "its o" jea!ous): an# have there"ore sin%!e# out jea!ous)

as the only motivation "or spirit possession: 5@ar%en ..6* To be "air to these scho!ars, jea!ous)

certain!) #oes come to min# as a "air!) obvious e9p!anation behin# the possessions* 3"ter a!!,

there are man) e9amp!es throu%hout the ta!e o" (ives persecutin% their husban#s/ mistresses out



Nutter 1B

o" "its o" jea!ous), so it stan#s to reason that the same motivation (ou!# be at the source o" spirit

possession as (e!!* Ho(ever, @ar%en insists that the issue is not that simp!e, an# c!aims that

such a sha!!o( rea#in% resu!ts on!) in obscurFin% the comp!e9it) o" (omen/s rebe!!ious

rejection o" their assi%ne# ro!e in societ): 5..6*

ithin the Genji Monogatari, there are three major instances that invo!ve spirit

possessions 5a!! resu!tin% in the #eath o" the possesse#6, as (e!! as a han#"u! o" more minor

e9amp!es* +n her artic!e on spirit possession (ithin the ta!e, @ar%en "ocuses (ith consi#erab!e

#etai! on the !atter t(o instances, the possessions o" 3oi an# Murasaki b) the 5in the "ormer case6

!ivin% an# 5in the !atter6 #ecease# spirit o" the Rokujo Haven* The (i#o( o" a "ormer cro(n

prince, the Rokujo Haven is, as Genji/s "ather the emperor is continuous!) remin#in% him, not a

(oman to be tri"!e# (ith* >et )oun% an# "ick!e as he is, Genji "reuent!) aban#ons the Haven in

"avor o" chasin% a"ter other (omen (ho cannot he!p but be be!o( her in rank 5ha# her husban#

!ive#, she (ou!# have been empress6, thereb) provokin% her jea!ous) an# contempt* 3"ter a!!,

she c!ear!) e9pects him sooner or !ater to ackno(!e#%e their re!ationship pub!ic!) that is, to

marr) her* Ho(ever, he #oes not: 5Marria%e, Rank an# Rape6* The "irst time Rokujo/s spirit

(reaks havoc on someone/s hea!th is just a"ter she is pub!ic!) humi!iate# b) Genji/s principa!

(i"e, 3oi* +t is important to note that just because she is the one responsib!e #oes not mean that

Rokujo is conscious!) attackin% 3oi* The te9t makes it uite p!ain that Rokujo (ishes to have no

part in the a""air, an# )et the narrative makes it e9p!icit!) obvious even to Rokujo herse!" that she

is the a%%ressor Rokujo #reame# repeate#!), on #oin% o"", that she (ent to (here that !a#)

F3oi 5as she suppose#6 !a) in her "iner), pushe# an# tu%%e# her about, an# "!ai!e# at her (ith a

bane"u! vio!ence stran%e to her (akin% se!": 5Tale of Genji 1L=6* 3oi, (ho is "u!!) pre%nant (ith



Nutter 1L

Genji/s chi!# throu%hout this ni%htmare, %oes into premature !abor an# #ies (ithin #a)s o" the

#e!iver)*

@ar%en, ho(ever, insists that 3oi (as never the Haven/s true tar%et* Rather, she ar%ues

that the possession cease# mi#'!abor (hen Genji i#enti"ie# the a""!ictin% spirit an# that 3oi #ie#

"rom natura! causes* The spirit/s true %oa!, accor#in% to @ar%en, (as to vent her represse#

an%er at a thir# part) 4 Genji 4 an# at the po!)%amous societ) that a!!o(s men to ne%!ect their

(omen (ith near impunit)K the possessin% spirit "unctions to e9press "ema!e %rievances: 51016*

There is a sma!! amount o" te9tua! support "or this rea#in%* hi!e !amentin% her c!ose

association (ith so #amnin% a scan#a!, Rokujo muses, No, she cou!# not remain attache# to so

crue! a !over: 5Tale of Genji 1L=6* This citation sho(s that it is Genji an# not 3oi that Rokujo

b!ames "or the subconscious actions o" her spirit*

-ertain!), there is much truth to this interpretation o" the possession* +t is just as

p!ausib!e that Rokujo/s ven%eance (as aime# at Genji throu%h attackin% his (i"e as it is that she

attacke# 3oi out o" jea!ous) an# ven%eance "or humi!iatin% her in the carria%e scene* >et

@ar%en c!aims the (omen acte# to%ether in or#er to vent their share# "rustrations (ith Genji*

Ho(ever, never in the te9t #oes it !ea# the rea#er to be!ieve that Rokujo/s spirit "!e# 3oi/s bo#)

a"ter Genji/s reco%nition o" it an# never #oes it !en# the impression that the possession (as not

responsib!e "or 3oi/s #eath* +n "act, a"ter receivin% a messa%e "rom the Rokujo Haven, (hom he

ha# not contacte# "or some time because o" her ro!e in his (i"e/s #eath, Genji !aments that he

shou!# have seen an# hear# the cause Fo" 3oi/s #eath so c!ear!),: (hich is an e9p!icit statement

o" the Haven/s %ui!t 5The Tale of Genji 1L.6* hi!e @ar%en is !ike!) correct in i#enti")in% Genji

as the Haven/s true tar%et, she is !ess convincin% in her assertion that the (omen acte# to%ether*

3"ter a!!, Rokujo ha# just cause to be an%r) (ith both o" them "or #i""erent reasons* No matter



Nutter 18

ho( one rea#s the ta!e, 3oi cannot be ca!!e# an)thin% but a victim, #espite the "act that she ma)

have brou%ht that "ate upon herse!"*

The !atter instance o" spirit possession invo!vin% Murasaki/s attack b) the Rokujo

Haven/s 5(ho b) this point in the ta!e has #ie#6 #ecease# spirit is much more strai%ht"or(ar# an#

makes Murasaki/s innocence in the a""air p!ain* 3s @ar%en maintains, the te9t o" this passa%e

revea!s rea#i!) that the spirit has returne# because, as she te!!s Genji, + ha# thou%ht + mi%ht

teach )ou a proper !essonK + have !itt!e enou%h a%ainst this (oman: 5Tale of Genji BA;, BAA6* +t

is interestin% to note that in both cases the Haven/s spirit !atches on to a (oman (ho, some(here

in the #eepest con"ines o" her bein%, shares the Haven/s %rievances a%ainst Genji* +n "act, it is

!ike!) the case that this emotiona! connection enab!es the spirit to take ho!# an# speak throu%h its

hosta%e* Ho(ever, that #oes not necessari!) euate to the spirit/s e9act sentiments bein% share#

b) the possesse#, as the spirit speaks in this possession at some !en%th about matters so!e!)

pertinent to the Rokujo Haven* >et re%ar#!ess o" (hether the spirit acts in per"ect accor#ance

(ith its host a%ainst a ma!e oppressor, acts so!e!) o" its o(n vo!ition a%ainst both ma!e an#

"ema!e a%%ressors, or some combination o" the t(o, the case is p!ain that spirit possession is

emp!o)e# b) the Rokujo Haven (ithin the Genji Monogatari to e9press "rustrations (ith the

recurrent ne%!ect an# i!! treatment cast upon her b) her treacherous !over, Genji* 3!thou%h the

narrative ma) not make it as evi#ent as it mi%ht, (hat remains mere!) imp!ie#, )et certain

be)on# a #oubt, is that men an# (omen (i!! not achieve happiness un!ess their !ove re!ationships

are base# on eua!it) bet(een the se9es: 5@ar%en 12L6*

hi!e man) a !over/s ta!e (ithin the main "rame o" the narrative the !i"e o" Genji ma)

be "rau%ht (ith turmoi! an# har#ships, perhaps the most #ramatic portra)a! o" %en#er re!ations in

the Heian perio# comes at the nove!/s en#, the section kno(n as the $ji chapters, (hich take



Nutter 1.

p!ace ei%ht )ears a"ter Genji/s #eath* 3!thou%h Genji ma) not have a!(a)s been as #e#icate# to

his !a#ies as rea#ers ma) have pre"erre#, this !ast section o" the ta!e makes it a!! the more evi#ent

that (hatever "au!ts he ma) have ha#, Genji (as in#ee# a shinin% e9amp!e o" the i#ea! courtier*

+n his p!ace, the narrative o""ers t(o o" his #escen#ants to "i!! the voi# he !e"t aoru, the

i!!e%itimate son o" another (hom Genji nonethe!ess raise# as his o(n, an# Niou, the "avorite

prince o" his mother an# "ather 5the rei%nin% emperor an# empress6 an# %ran#son o" Genji in the

materna! !ine* 3s becomes rea#i!) apparent, the t(o )oun% !overs sp!it the %oo# ua!ities o"

Genji an# so a!so brin% out their !esser se!ves: 5Miner L26* +n aoru, one can easi!) see the

sensitive si#e o" Genji re"!ecte#I a!! o" his #eeper ruminations on the "!eetin% nature o" !i"e an#

re!i%ious aspirations shine throu%h in the (ou!#'be son he raise#, (hi!e Niou possesses a!! o"

Genji/s more #)namic ua!ities his !ive!) spirit, (innin% accomp!ishments, en#earin% charm,

an# 5most important!)6 his !ove o" (omen*

The heart o" the $ji narrative be%ins (hen aoru becomes acuainte# (ith an o!# prince

(ho has "orsaken the (or!# an# !ives a!one (ith his t(o #au%hters in the countr)* no(in% his

time is near, the prince asks aoru to !ook a"ter his #au%hters (hen he is %one, a "avor (hich

aoru rea#i!) a%rees to un#ertake* 3"ter their "ather has passe#, aoru be%ins makin% entreaties

to the e!#er #au%hter, kno(n to rea#ers as i%imi* Ho(ever, much as in the case o"

Suetsumuhana, the sisters have conc!u#e# that in their "ather/s absence, marria%e is too peri!ous

to embark upon at a!!: 5Marria%e, Rank an# Rape:6* Cespite "ervent an# "reuent proposa!s

"rom aoru, the e!#er princess insists that she cou!# never consi#er marria%e (hi!e her )oun%er

sister/s "uture remains uncertain, promptin% aoru to en!ist the ai# o" Niou in ensurin% the

)oun%er princess, Naka no imi, is a#vanta%eous!) marrie# o""* 3s rea#ers (ou!# e9pect "rom

one so %a!!ant as Niou, the marria%e is uick!) consummate# (hen he stea!s into the princess/s



Nutter 20

room an# (ins her over* Mean(hi!e, aoru mana%es to spen# the ni%ht (ith i%imi but "ai!s to

make !ove to her #ue to her unre!entin% hesitations, a "act that c!ear!) i!!ustrates his #issimi!arit)

to Genji an# Niou* $n"ortunate!), the remote province o" $ji is a consi#erab!e #istance "rom the

capita!, makin% it #i""icu!t "or Niou to visit his ne( (i"e as o"ten as he ou%ht* +n his absence, the

sisters !ament that he has aban#one# Naka no imi a"ter a!!, an# i%imi is more reso!ute than

ever in be!ievin% that marria%e u!timate!) (i!! mean vu!nerabi!it) an# su""erin%* The (orst o"

her "ears are con"irme# b) Naka no imi/s marria%e to Niou: 5Shirane 1226* +n#ee#, her

sister/s pre#icament ha# !e"t her thinkin% that re!ations bet(een husban# an# (i"e must be the

b!eakest the (or!# has to o""er: 5?ir%in Territor):6* >et in the "ace o" aoru/s un#)in%

#etermination, i%imi sees no metho# o" escapin% the #eso!ation o" marrie# !i"e apart "rom

en#in% her o(n e9istence* She there"ore #etermines that, +, at !east, sha!! not !an%uish in an)

such miser)* + sha!! #ie be"ore + am too #eep in sin: 5Tale of Genji 8.86* True to her (or#,

i%imi persists in re"usin% a!! nourishment an# soon (ithers a(a)*

This episo#e o" the Genji Monogatari certain!) %oes a !on% (a) in a#vancin% the be!ie"

that <a#) Murasaki (rote her nove! at !east in part to #ra( attention to the un"ortunate "ates o"

(omen in the ma!e #ominate# (or!# o" the Heian eraI in#ee#, it ma) even o""er some support to

omashaku imi/s ra#ica! assertion that Murasaki penne# the ta!e in or#er to (arn (omen

a%ainst marria%e* 3s ?a!erie Henitiuk maintains, i%imi is thorou%h!) unab!e to conceive o"

(e#!ock as a #esirab!e or even ima%inab!e option: because acceptin% such support F"rom

aoru (ou!# p!ace her comp!ete!) at the merc) o" a patriarch) that is more than a !itt!e

miso%)nousK the resistance she mani"ests can be vie(e# as a conscious attempt to retain her

autonom) an# sense o" se!": 5?ir%in Territor):6* Shirane even %oes so "ar as to assert that

i%imi has inherite# the memor) o" Murasaki/s tra%e#),: a vie( that Henitiuk supports,



Nutter 21

#ec!arin% that the su""erin%s o" these (omen FMurasaki an# nna San no Mi)a at the han#s o"

their insensitive, e%ocentric men paint a c!ear picture o" (hat i%imi herse!" can e9pect:

5Shirane 121, ?ir%in Territor):6* +n the "ace o" aoru/s stubborn!) persistent: attempts to (in

her over, i%imi/s on!) means o" "i%htin% back is b) #oin% a(a) (ith her corporea! se!"K Fher

behavior actua!!) #emonstrates a po(er"u!!) subversive response to ma!e invasion an# attempte#

appropriation o" the se!": 5?ir%in Territor):6*

hi!e the te9t #oes make it uite c!ear that i%imi/s suici#e is brou%ht on b) aoru/s

incessant harassment, not a!! Genji scho!ars are convince# that the a""air ha# to en# in tra%e#)*

3"ter a!!, i%imi herse!" a#mits that + cannot rea!!) object to this %ent!eman/s !ooks or

mannerK +" Fhe (ere an)one or#inar), + mi%ht (e!! a"ter a!! these )ears "ee! !ike acceptin% him,

but he is so over(he!min%, so #auntin% in his %!or), that he on!) makes me hope!ess!) sh):

5Tale of Genji 8LL6* Henitiuk conce#es that i%imi #oes not reject this particu!ar suitor because

o" an) particu!ar "!a( in himse!", but rather because the entire %en#er re!ations an# marria%e

s)stem o" the time is corrupt an# hosti!e to (omen: 5?ir%in Territor):6* omashaku imi

concurs, insistin% that enterin% into re!ations (ith a man, no matter ho( kin# or %oo# he ma)

be, means unhappiness "or the (oman,: an# certain!) no critic can just!) accuse aoru o" bein%

unkin# or uncompassionate 5?ir%in Territor):6* Cespite bein% %iven the per"ect opportunit) to

(e# himse!" to i%imi on the ni%ht he mana%es to spen# a!one (ith her, aoru #oes not seie the

opportunit)* ven he a#mits ho( si!!) it (as o" himK to remain so s!o( to act on his ar#ent

#esires: especia!!) (hen he is (e!! a(are that in so horrib!) !one!) a house a !ust"u! man (ou!#

"in# nothin% to stan# in his (a): 5Tale of Genji 8L;, 8LA6* Henitiuk a!so remarks on ho(

i%imi is unusua!!) "ortunate, in that her a#mirer is un(i!!in% actua!!) to "orce himse!" upon

her: 5?ir%in Territor):6*



Nutter 22

Ro)a!! T)!er, ho(ever, #isa%rees* +n keepin% (ith his ear!ier opinions as to the matter o"

rape in the Genji Monogatari, T)!er ho!#s that, !ike Suetsumuhana, i%imi/s opposition to the

marria%e stems chie"!) "rom the "act that she has no one to te!! her to #o so: 5Marria%e, Rank

an# Rape:6* 3"ter a!!, marria%es (ere tra#itiona!!) arran%e# b) the "ather, an# thus i%imi "ee!s

that it (ou!# be inappropriate "or her to #eci#e on the matter herse!"* 3!thou%h a(are o" the "act

that her "ather !ike!) inten#e# the union bet(een them, out o" sh)ness an# mo#est) 5an# !ike!)

some(hat #ue to the societa! convention that "orba#e (omen "rom betra)in% kno(!e#%e o"

carna! a""airs6 i%imi cannot presume as to accept a !or# as #istin%uishe# as aoru* Honest!),

#oes the Genji Monogatari o""er even one e9amp!e o" a (oman ever rea#i!) sa)in% )es7 3s

T)!er a""irms

$n!ike an) other man in the ta!e, Faoru insists on re"rainin% "rom makin% !ove to

i%imi unti! she herse!" a!!o(s him to #o so* 3t "irst one smi!es (ith approva!, as man)

rea#ers have #one in centuries pastI but then one be%ins to un#erstan# his %hast!)

mistake* He is out o" touch (ith rea!it)* +" he ha# acte# #ecisive!) #urin% that ni%ht,

re%ar#!ess o" i%imi/s !oca! "ee!in%s on the subject, he (ou!# have committe# himse!" to

her an# her to him* He (ou!# have taken the #ecision out o" her han#s, an# she (ou!#

not have #ie#* Ear "rom it consi#erin% ho( #eep!) he an# she actua!!) "e!t about each

other, the) mi%ht rea!!) have !ive# happi!) ever a"ter* 5Marria%e, Rank an# Rape:6

3!thou%h Henitiuk an# omashaku imi (ou!# !ike!) rep!) that i%imi cou!# have !ive# i"

aoru ha# just !e"t her in peace, rea#ers must keep in min# the "ate o" a (oman !e"t (ith no ma!e

support in the (or!#* Eurthermore, one (on#ers (h), i" she (as so oppose# to the institution o"

marria%e an# convince# that it brou%ht on!) miser), #i# she (ish "or her sister to marr) an# have

aoru seek out a suitor "or her7 The rea!it) is that i%imi (as (e!! a(are o" the #estitution that



Nutter 2=

be"e!! even the hi%hest born (oman (ithout some "orm o" ma!e support* hi!e she (as (i!!in%

to #escen# herse!" into the mea%er e9istence o" a mountain rustic, she cou!# not bear the thou%ht

o" such a !i"est)!e "or her be!ove# sister* Rea#ers nee# !ook no "urther than to the e9amp!e o"

Suetsumuhana 5another princess (ho "a!!s into povert) (ith the #eath o" her "ather, (hose

resi#ence is uick!) over%ro(n (ith (ee#s, is aban#one# b) her %ent!e(omen, an# !ivin% so

utter!) impoverishe#, sunken in !one!iness an# #espair, that not even thieves take notice o" her

#(e!!in%, assumin% it to be an aban#one# ruin6 to un#erstan# e9act!) (hat kin# o" #ire strai%hts

i%imi an# her sister (ou!# have "oun# themse!ves in (ithout aoru/s continue# patrona%e*

Suetsumuhana su""ere# a!! these injustices an# man) more be"ore Genji rescue# her, an# her

resi#ence (as in the cit)* ne can easi!) ima%ine ho( much more hope!ess the $ji princesses/

p!i%ht (ou!# have been !ivin% as the) #i# iso!ate# in the #istant mountains* aoru is certain!)

not at "au!t "or (ishin% to spare i%imi such a horri"ic "ate* hat Henitiuk an# omashaku

imi "ai! to rea!ie is that the true a%%ressor is the societ) that utter!) #enies (omen the

possibi!it) o" provi#in% "or themse!ves an# thus prevents true in#epen#ence "rom bein% a

"easib!e option "or (omen*

Cespite the "act that Henitiuk accuses aoru o" bein% stubborn!) persistent,: rea#ers

ma) have cause to !ament the "act that aoru (as not more ruth!ess: 5as Henitiuk accuses Genji

an# Niou o" bein%6 in his pursuit o" the princess* 3"ter a!!, Genji ma) not a!(a)s have been as

#e!icate as one mi%ht (ish in such matters, but none o" his (omen (ere ever #riven to suici#e

either* Ha# aoru reso!ve# to %o throu%h (ith the marria%e an# subseuent!) persiste# in

sho(in% i%imi the same #evotion he ha# !avishe# on her "or )ears (hen their re!ationship

remaine# p!atonic, it is un!ike!) that i%imi (ou!# have %one throu%h (ith her suici#eI in truth,

as T)!er sa)s, she ma) have %ro(n to be uite happ)* 3!as, on this point the rea#er can never be



Nutter 2;

"u!!) certain, as no matter ho( #evote# aoru prove# in the past, the nove! is "i!!e# (ith

e9amp!es o" men (ho #o eventua!!) %o astra)* >et re%ar#!ess o" (hat mi%ht have been, the

scene as it un"o!#s !eaves rea#ers !on%in% "or Genji, the true romantic courtier (hose

invo!vement in the $ji chapters (ou!# certain!) have e!icite# a more "avorab!e resu!t* 3s it is,

ho(ever, the ta!e o" $ji is "ar "rom over*

Cevastate# b) the #eath o" i%imi, aoru be%ins pursuin% her unreco%nie# 5an# thus

much !o(er in rank6 ha!"'sister, $ki"une* $n"ortunate!) "or aoru, Niou takes an interest in the

!ate prince/s i!!e%itimate #au%hter as (e!!* Cestine# to succumb to a "ate !itt!e more appea!in%

than that su""ere# b) i%imi herse!", $ki"une attempts to #ro(n herse!" in the river but is taken

"rom its banks b) a monk* $ki"une imp!ores him to %ive her ho!) or#ers, an# thus she becomes a

nun* Just as in aoru/s pursuit o" i%imi an# the un"ortunate conc!usion that (as the resu!t,

Genji/s absence "rom the ta!e makes it ever more apparent that the #ivision o" romantic

ua!ities, happi!) uni"ie# in the hero o" the Rokujo'in, #iminishes the stature o" both ma!e "i%ures

an# eventua!!) #estro)s the ver) notion o" the romantic hero* +n the en#, the heroine can accept

neither: 5Shirane 1=26* 3!as, Genji/s absence "rom the conc!u#in% chapters o" the ta!e turn the

romance anti'romantic: b) p!a)in% a%ainst e9pectations estab!ishe# in the rea#er b) ear!ier

romantic metho#s an# conventions: 5Shirane 1206*

+t ma) (e!! be that the $ji chapters are <a#) Murasaki/s (a) o" revea!in% the even more

unhapp) "ates that be"e!! (omen (ho (ere pursue# b) !over/s !ess possesse# o" the tact an# ski!!

"or romance that Genji himse!" enjo)e#* +t is at the !east certain!) evi#ent that she (ishe# to !i"t

her hero even hi%her b) contrastin% him (ith his o(n #escen#ants, (ho #espite havin% the honor

an# a#vanta%e o" either his parenta%e or his b!oo# are incapab!e o" bein% his eua!s in %reatness*

Henitiuk %oes so "ar as to insist that the !iterature o" the Heian perio# o""ers a p!ethora o" stories



Nutter 2A

o" (omen (ho have accepte# the ma!e/s o""er o" marria%e, an# their various strate%ies "or

#ea!in% (ith the o"ten emotiona!!) #evastatin% resu!ts o" that choice* ith i%imi Fan# hence

(ith $ki"une, Murasaki Shikibu no( she#s !i%ht on the imp!ications o" takin% the #rastic step o"

actua!!) re"usin% the ma!e: 5?ir%in Territor):6* +t is, ho(ever, most interestin% to note that in

or#er to share this e9amp!e, the author ha# to "irst remove the shinin% prince Genji "rom the

narrative* +t is as thou%h even <a#) Murasaki herse!" takes it "or %rante# that no (oman, !east o"

a!! a (oman (ithout a husban#, cou!# be capab!e o" success"u!!) re"usin% Genji* 3s "or the

(oman (ho #ares to re"use the ma!e, one en#s up #ea# an# the other, a"ter "ai!in% in her suici#e

attempt, takes she!ter in re!i%ion* vi#ent!), re"usin% the ma!e (as har#!) a more attractive

option than puttin% up (ith his a""airs* +" <a#) Murasaki is #ecisive!) a#vancin% a critiue on

the societa! an# marita! practices o" her time, then c!ear!) (omen ha# !itt!e to no out!et "or their

su""erin%*

Ho(ever, in to#a)/s cu!ture, so vast!) #i""erent than the one in (hich <a#) Murasaki

!ive# an# set her nove!, rea#ers must take care not to make too %ran# assumptions about a (or!#

so "ar remove# "rom their o(n in both tempora! space an# tra#itiona! va!ues* hi!e %en#er

re!ations are certain!) a major "ocus o" the Genji Monogatari, the "act that so man) o" the

(omen/s ta!es are steepe# in mis"ortune cou!# be #ue to a set o" cu!tura!!) enco#e# emotiona!

responses that associate !ove (ith sa#ness an# ca!amit)* +t is a (i#e!) accepte# "act that one o"

the Genji Monogatari’s most centra! themes is mono no aware, a Japanese term (hich resists

trans!ation but has been summarie# as the impermanence o" thin%s: or remembrance o" thin%s

past*: ssentia!!), the term re"ers to the "!eetin% nature o" !i"e an# the ten#er nosta!%ia that

accompanies certain moments* Such moments 5not !east amon% them the #eath o" a !ove# one6

are recurrent throu%hout Murasaki/s ta!e an# ma) (e!! have been an en# in an# o" themse!ves,



Nutter 2B

since en#urin% heartbreak "reuent!) prompts the characters to reca!! !i"e/s "!eetin% nature an#

%rants the ta!e %reater poi%nanc)*

Eurthermore, as -hi!#s notes, most especia!!) in the "ar astern countries o" 3sia such as

-hina, Japan, +n#ia, an# orea, !ove has "or centuries been re%ar#e# as a ne%ative emotion in

that it is most o"ten evoke# both in cu!ture an# in !iterature b) "ee!in%s o" in"atuation,

unreuite# !ove, attachment, remote concern, nosta!%ia, compassion, ten#ernessOpit),

sorro(O!ove, Fan# sorro(Opit): 5-hi!#s 10B06* +n other (or#s, <a#) Murasaki ma) have been

inc!ine# to con#emn her heroines to such tra%ic "ates out o" a #esire not necessari!) to protest

societa! practices so much as to evoke a more emotiona!, po(er"u! response "rom her rea#ers an#

thus %ive the ta!e more #epth an# c!assica! romantic characteristics* Happ) en#in%s simp!) (ere

not in st)!e "or the Heian ra romance* This same cu!tura! association bet(een !ove an# sa#ness

is the reason that (ithin the ta!e Genji an# other ma!e characters are so "reuent!) #ra(n to

(omen out o" "ee!in%s o" pit), such as Genji is (ith Suetsumuhana* +n "act, Japanese !ove stories

in particu!ar have "or centuries been kno(n to make a stron% connection bet(een se9ua! !ove an#

#eath* This "act is rea#i!) apparent in one o" the Genji Monogatari’s most poi%nant an# certain!)

shortest !ive# parab!es D that o" Genji/s !ove a""air (ith the tra%ic >u%ao* ne o" the "irst

(omen Genji ever "a!!s "or an# subseuent!) (oos, >u%ao "a!!s victim to spirit possession an#

#ies in the ver) same chapter in (hich she is intro#uce# a"ter spen#in% an entire ni%ht an# #a)

hi##en a(a) (ith Genji makin% !ove* The "ra%i!it) o" her character an# the incre#ib!) short

space o" time she "eatures in the narrative serve on!) to stren%then her p!ace in Genji/s an#

rea#ers/ hearts, as >u%ao/s ta!e has a!(a)s been ce!ebrate# as one o" the most romantic the nove!

has to o""er* &erhaps this re!ationship bet(een !ove an# #eathOsa#ness more than an) other



Nutter 2L

sin%!e "actor %oes a !on% (a) in #e"en#in% Genji an# the other men in the ta!e "rom the Genji-

girai an# accusations o" crimes a%ainst (omen that have recent!) risen so stron%!) a%ainst them*

>et #espite the "act that !ove stories (ere inc!ine# to be tra%ic, it is nonethe!ess evi#ent

that <a#) Murasaki (as keen!) a(are o" %en#er ro!es (ithin her societ)* 3s a chi!#, so she

(rites in her #iar), her "ather !amente# the "act that she (as not a bo) because then, (ith her

min#, she cou!# have become a %reat scho!ar, but the "ie!# o" serious -hinese !earnin% (as

barre# to (omen in the Heian a%e: 5Maki ;8;6* 3!thou%h she uite une9pecte#!) !earne# to rea#

an# (rite in -hinese b) sittin% in on her brother/s !essons, <a#) Murasaki (as ob!i%e# to (rite

her ta!e in phonetic Japanese kana, the proper (ritten !an%ua%e "or (omen* Her nove! is

evi#ence that <a#) Murasaki (as much more inte!!i%ent, %i"te#, an# capab!e o" un#ertakin%

serious stu#ies than her societ) a!!o(e# her to be* >et ever boun# b) the strict cu!tura!

parameters o" her time, she never (ou!# have ima%ine# bein% so in#e!icate as to make the

societa! imp!ications an# rebe!!ion a%ainst the treatment o" (omen (ithin the Genji Monogatari

p!ain, i" in#ee# she inten#e# an)* Her #evote# acuiescence to the manners o" her #a) an# the

e9pectations the) entai!e# re%ar#in% a hi%h'born (oman/s behavior mean that rea#ers can never

kno( "or sure to (hat #e%ree she meant her (ork to be rea# as po!itica! commentar) on the

institutions o" the Heian court*

hether or not the man) imp!ications o""ere# b) the nove! on the sa# "ates o" (omen that

resu!te# "rom an un"air ro!e in societ) an# the miseries brou%ht upon them b) po!)%amous

marria%e (ere inten#e# b) the author, the ever evo!vin% nature o" "iction %rants rea#ers ever)

!icense to "in# in the Genji Monogatari’s "i"t)'"our chapters an# man) !ea#in% !a#ies a c!assica!

#epiction o" the universa! stru%%!e that once (as 5an# ma) sti!! be6 an inherent part o" bein% a

(oman* Ho(ever mo#ern or unortho#o9 such a rea#in% ma) be o" this time!ess nove!, it is not



Nutter 28

(ithout e9tensive te9tua! support an# has conseuent!) become the topic o" man) scho!ar!)

#iscussions an# #ebates* The use o" "oresha#o(in% emp!o)e# b) the author in the "amous rain)

ni%ht conversation: to a!ert the rea#er o" the impen#in% arriva! o" man) o" the nove!/s heroines,

<a#) Murasaki/s overa!! #epiction o" the !ives an# con#itions o" bein% a (oman (ithin the ta!e,

her subt!e )et recurrent con#emnation o" po!)%amous marria%e, innovative use o" spirit

possession as a (oman/s (eapon in protestin% ma!e #ominance an# ne%!ect, an# the "ina! !esson

she con"i#es to her rea#ers in the events that un"o!# at $ji a!! support the theor) that <a#)

Murasaki #i# in#ee# (eave her nove! out o" the in#ivi#ua! ta!es o" man) (omen, the hero Genji

servin% as the threa# that boun# them a!! to%ether to create a tapestr) o" (hat it (as to be a

(oman !ivin% un#er the oppressive institution o" po!)%amous marria%e in a ma!e #ominate#

societ)* 3"ter a!!, the Genji Monogatari is a nove! (ritten b) a (oman "or the (omen o" her

court* Erom the moment o" its conception, it (as inten#e# as "eminine !iterature, makin% it on!)

just an# sensib!e that it shou!# covert!) a##ress "eminine %rievances o" the #a)* ven i" nothin%

e!se about the ta!e is certain, it can be sa"e!) asserte# that the narrative is at !east as much about

the hero/s (omen an# the process b) (hich the) attain socia! success an# "u!"i!!ment a%ainst

un!ike!) o##s: or e!se "a!! victim to the preju#ices o" their societ) as it is about Genji himse!"

5Shirane 11.6*



Nutter 2.

orks -ite#

@ar%en, Coris G* Spirit &ossession in the -onte9t o" Cramatic 9pressions o" Gen#er -on"!ict

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5June 1.886 .A'1=0* JSTR eb* 2 3u%ust 2012*

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10L.* JSTR eb* 2 3u%ust 2012*

Henitiuk, ?a!erie* Goin% to @e# (ith a!e) Ho( Murasaki Shikibu Coes an# Coes Not

@ecome or!# <iterature*: "om#arative $iterature !tudies ;A*1* 520086 ;0'B1*

JSTR eb* 1. 3u%ust 2012*

Henitiuk, ?a!erie* ?ir%in Territor) Murasaki Shikibu/s i%imi Resists the Ma!e*: gora 18

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3rtic!eNo1A0*htm!*

Maki, J* M* <a#) Murasaki an# the Genji Mono%atari*: Monumenta Ni##onica =*2* 5Ju!*

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3n#re( &ekarik, e#* Ne( >ork -o!umbia $niversit) &ress, 1.82* &rint*

&!a)bo) o" the astern or!#*: The 'conomist 18 3u%* 2008* 18 3u%ust 2012* eb*

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of Genji 3n#re( &ekarik, e#* Ne( >ork -o!umbia $niversit) &ress, 1.82* &rint*



Nutter =0

Shoji, aori* Setouchi Jakucho Takes Japan @ack 1,000 >ears*: The New (ork Times 2= Jan*

1...* 18 3u%ust 2012* eb* PhttpOO(((*n)times*comO1...O01O2=Ost)!eO2=iht'nun*t*

htm!7pa%e(ante#a!!*

T)!er, Ro)a!!* + am +/ Genji an# Murasaki*: Monumenta Ni##onica A;*;* 5inter 1...6

;=A';80* JSTR eb* 2 3u%ust 2012*

T)!er, Ro)a!!* Marria%e, Rank an# Rape in The Ta!e o" Genji*: )ntersections 18 3u%ust 2012*

eb* PhttpOOintersections*anu*e#u*auOissueLOt)!er*htm!*

T)!er, Ro)a!!* The Tale of Genji* Ne( >ork &en%uin @ooks, 200=* &rint*

the role of gender in the genji monogatari

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