the role of policy analyst in implementing performance measurement methods

Policy Studies Review, August 7986, Vol. 6, No. I

Mary Wagner

THE ROLE OF POLICY ANALYST IN I M P LEMEN T I N G PERF0 RMA N CE

MEASUREMENT METHODS

Local government administrators' in terest in performance measurement has g r o w n along w i t h the complexity o f t h e i r jobs and w i t h t h e i r sk i l l and sophist icat ion in managing tha t complexity. Advances in performance measurement have attempted t o keep pace. Measures are being refined; the i r causal relat ionships to service del ivery are becoming be t te r under- stood. However, t h i s progress in the theoretical basis o f performance measurement i s no t always mir rored by achievements in implementing performance measurement systems and us ing t h e i r products in local government decisionmaking.

Several obstacles can make the translat ion from measurement pr inc ip les t o analyt ical pract ice an uncer ta in and troublesome process. These obstacles a re more readi ly anticipated o r recognized when one realizes the ex ten t o f change expected o f a service del ivery organization when a per - formance measurement system is implemented.

Performance measurement enables an ongoing monitoring and evaluation o f pub l i c services. It is the continuous na ture o f performance measure- merit tha t has implications fo r the use o f measurement data. While a llone-shotll evaluation prov ides information fo r pol icy decisions t o maintain, discontinue, o r improve a program, performance measurement prov ides information on wh ich t o base a var ie ty of rou t ine manayement decisions. Performance measurement in tends t o improve the process o f rout ine decisionmaking as well as indicate how to improve services t o cit izens.

Three k inds o f chariges are requ i red fo r t h i s improvement. F i rs t , performance measurement means tha t new data collection arid repor t ing procedures must be adopted. Th is can const i tu te the addit ion o r expan- sion o f a research capabil i ty in the organization. The new research process migh t affect, a t a minimum, the record keeping s taf f , o r it might ex tend so f a r as t o requ i re al l workers in t h e organization t o r e p o r t d i f fe ren t o r addit ional information about t h e i r act ivi t ies.

The second kind o f organizational change entailed in performance measurement encourages decisionmaking processes t o become more rational. Issues are t o b e examined analyt ical ly a n d a l l available information b r o u g h t t o bear on decisions. These changes permi t the ear ly ident i f icat ion o f problems in service del ivery , and o f fe r ins ights in to procedures and policies t o improve performance. In the context o f pol icing, these changes might include program innovations such as targeted crime prevent ion programs, organizational changes such as the res t ruc tur ing o f pat ro l allocation arrangements, o r combinations o f b o t h programmatic and s t ruc- t u r a l changes as in the in i t ia t ion o f team policing. The implementation of these new service programs o r procedures i s the third kind o f organiza- t ional change.

T h i s research was suppor ted in p a r t by program and s ta f f development funds made available by the Research Tr iangle I n s t i t u t e while the author was a member o f the RTI research staff.

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Successful implementation o f the performance measurement system pro- duces new information, incorporates it in to a more rat ional decisionmaking process, and suggests changes in d i rec t services t o improve program performance. A n implementation s t ra tegy fo r performance measurement i s e f fect ive t o the ex ten t t h i s three-par t series o f changes occurs. Effective implementation in the context of performance measurement means that new information on service performance is collected ond used explicitly in decisions to modify service delivery. Discussing performance data in the context o f decisionmaking in a s ta f f meeting, incorporat ing performance information in pol icy statements, o r us ing it t o j u s t i f y budget requests are indications the implementation o f a performance measurement system has been effect ive.

Using t h i s def in i t ion o f e f fect ive implementation, we have fewer examples o f successful performance measurement than one might expect. Sev- eral obstacles t o implementation o f performance measurement systems are apparent. Of ten we hear tha t c u r r e n t data collection burdens are substan- t ia l and prec lude addit ional demands fo r information. There may also be a reluctance t o " le t the data speak f o r themselves" o r t o re ly too heavi ly on objective information in decisionmaking because "it doesn't te l l the whole s to ry" about how a service del ivery organization performs. Using performance measures in decisionmaking requi res an analyt ical mindset tha t may no t come natura l l y t o serv ice prov iders. Final ly, the ) 'not invented here" syndrome may create misg iv ings about the applicabi l i ty o f a system created outside the service de l i very organization o r the community as a whole.

While these obstacles t o ef fect ive implementation o f performance measurement may b e prevalent and legitimate, they are no t insurmountable. Successful examples o f performance measurement do exist. However, pol icy implementation research has n o t concentrated on how obstacles t o implementation can b e overcome. In ignor ing t h i s proact ive approach to implementation, much p r i o r research has also failed t o recognize the contr i - but ions t o ef fect ive implementation tha t can b e made by a potential ly key actor in the implementation process--the pol icy analyst. Policy analysts are o f ten invo lved in developing o r adapting performance measurement approaches; they may also define t h e i r role t o include advocacy and sup- p o r t f o r e f fect ive implementation.

What actions o r behaviors can a pol icy analyst under take t o facil i tate implementation o f performance measurement? Below are presented twelve behavioral pr inc ip les fo r po l icy analysts which may help them contr ibute to ef fect ive performance measurement implementation. These pr inc ip les are d rawn from the l imited re levant l i te ra tu re and from a f ie ld s tudy tha t has expl ic i t ly explored t h e ro le o f the pol icy analyst as a par t ic ipant in the implementation process. T h i s f ie ld s tudy invo lved my e f fo r ts as a pol icy analyst t o des ign and implement a performance measurement system fo r police departments in two N o r t h Carolina communities -- Rocky Mount and Chapel Hi l l . In Chapel Hi l l , the implementation s t ra tegy incorporated pr inc ip les f o r e f fect ive implementation. That police department fully implemented several components of the performance measurement system and used information from tha t system f o r decisions t o modify police services. In contrast, the pr inc ip les fo r e f fect ive implementation were much less ev ident in Rocky Mount and the police department there had nei ther implemented nor used the proposed system a t the po in t the research was completed. A comparison o f the implementation strategies and the d i f fe r - ences in the i r effect iveness casts light on the ways in which a pol icy analyst can act as a change agent in a f ie ld sett ing t o suppor t performance measurement implementation.

Wagner: Role o f Policy Analyst i n Implementing Performance Measurement Methods

Necessary Condit ions f o r Ef fect ive Implementation There are two necessary precursors t o ef fect ive implementation as it i s

defined here. A n organization and i t s members must be b o t h willing and able t o e f fect the desired change. A n organization tha t has considered a pol icy change a n d accepted a n outside analyst as a change agent has already evidenced some minimum levels o f b o t h wi l l and ab i l i t y t o implement, The job o f the proact ive analyst, then, i s t o increase the levels o f wi l l and ab i l i t y so tha t full and ef fect ive implementation w i l l resu l t . A n ef fect ive implementation s t ra tegy w i l l contain tact ics t h a t are p r imar i l y in terpersonal and aimed a t motivation f o r change, and tact ics t h a t are technical, in tended t o build capacity t o change. The behavioral pr inc ip les described below recognize th is dual focus o f a n ef fect ive implementation s t ra tegy.

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Behavioral Principles in a Strategy f o r Ef fect ive Implementation The pol icy analyst who part icipates successfully in the process o f

implementing change in a n organization t rave ls t h r o u g h f i v e stages o f relat ionship w i t h the organization. The analyst f i r s t enters the group, learning i t s c u l t u r e and establ ishing a place in i t s s t ruc tu re . Next, the analyst accommodates h is o r her work ing s ty le t o the group. A t the third state, he o r she helps design an implementation p lan su i ted t o the group. The analyst then prepores the g r o u p t o handle the soon-to-be rout ine pol icy change, and f ina l ly withdraws once the g r o u p has b o t h the wi l l a n d abi l i ty t o maintain the change. F igure 1 depicts these f i ve stages, and fu r ther suggests tha t there are specif ic pr inc ip les t o gu ide the pol icy analyst who wants h i s o r her behavior t o improve the organization's wi l l and ab i l i t y t o change. These twelve principles, the relat ionships among them, and the i r cont r ibut ions t o w i l l and ab i l i t y t o adapt t o performance measurement a r e described below.

Figure 1 Behavioral Pr inc ip les f o r Stages i n an E f f e c t i v e Implementation Process

Design Preparation Withdrawal f n t r y Accomnoda t i on

> ABILITY Develop Be

Fami 1 iar i t y F l e x i b l e

I

I orgayize . I, Par t ic loants I- 1

Collaborate

Withdraw i n Phases

L i m i t Team Size

\I Glve Each I Y Par t ic ipant > WlLl

A Stake

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Develop a Famil iar i ty w i t h the Implementation Sett ing It i s impor tant f o r the pol icy analyst t o acqui re an ear ly and extensive

famil iar i ty w i th the implementation sett ing. Mechling (1975 , p. 30) advises tha t "every analyst spend an in i t ia l per iod in which he o r she learns about t h e organization and i t s in te rna l norms and behavior pa t te rns as well as i t s stable relat ionships w i t h the external world. Th is i s t o overcome the danger o f focusing on technical questions t o the exclusion o f behavioral ones.

In the Rocky Mount implementation experience, l i t t le e f f o r t was invested in gain ing a famil iar i ty w i t h the sett ing. The research s t a f f assumed tha t t h e information gained f rom two in terv iews w i t h the C i t y Manager and Assistant C i ty Manager, one in terv iew w i t h the Chief o f Police and two o f h i s Captains, and from a review o f the budget, data collection forms and monthly repor ts gave u s suf f ic ient knowledge o f the information needs o f the c i t y and police administrat ions tha t we could design a performance measurement system t o respond t o those needs. The reaction from depar t - ment personnel t o o u r goal-oriented measurement system was tha t it gene- ra ted information fo r some questions no one was ask ing and failed t o deal w i t h issues t h a t had high priority. What accounted f o r missing the mark was the gap between rhe tor ic and rea l i ty . We had no t become suf f ic ient ly familiar w i t h the people, organizations, o r community t o c u t t h r o u g h the words t o t h e message underneath thern, t o discover the h idden but truly re levant agenda o f the part icipants.

Famil iar i ty was no t increased substantial ly t h r o u g h the course o f the pro ject due t o in f requent s i te v is i t s t o the community and almost no con- tac t w i t h police off icials between visi ts. When something was learned about the informal environment o f police services, such as t h r o u g h the repor ts from the Assistant C i ty Manayer o f the Chief 's leadership problems, th is information was n o t used to a l ter the approach to performance measurement. My ro le as "outside exper t " was in te rpre ted t o preclude my ack- nowledging fami l iar i ty w i t h the Chief 's problems o r permi t t ing tha t knowledge t o inf luence involvement in the implementation process.

In light o f t h i s experience, the Chapel H i l l pro ject was in i t ia l ly d iv ided in to th ree phases; the f i r s t s ix months were spent becoming familiar w i th key people in the police department, t h e i r jobs and at t i tudes toward them, and t h e general environment in which they worked. Dur ing t h i s per iod many hours were spent observ ing and ta lk ing w i t h of f icers while on patrol, a l though it has l i t t le d i rec t appl icat ion t o the needs o f a performance measurement system. It did help counter the contention, however, tha t "you don ' t know what i t ' s l i ke on the street' ' and tha t the system being designed wouldn ' t mesh w i t h the real i t ies o f the job. Th is experience also broke down somewhat the image t h a t I was an extension o f the f r o n t o f f ice o r Town Hall. Knowing the of f icers themselves, who were the repor te rs o f much o f t h e data needed fo r the measurement system, gave a n oppor tun i ty to expla in my presence and the purpose o f the pro ject f i r s thand and t o c la r i f y any misconceptions tha t had arisen. Simply "dropping by" f o r a cup o f coffee o r be ing accessible f o r an inv i ta t ion t o lunch prov ided fur- t h e r background, h is to ry , and context tha t p roved invaluable in understanding the personal dynamics, pol i t ics, and research needs o f the depar tment and i t s members.

T h i s experience suggests tha t the famil iar i ty o f the analyst i s par t icu- la r l y impor tant in acqu i r ing and sustaining t h e wi l l t o implement pol icy change. It has less bear ing on whether an organization i s capable o f doing so. Staff aversion t o the r i s k s o f change i s o f ten reduced when they t r u s t t h a t the pol icy analyst recomniending change i s thoroughly

Wagner: Role of Policy Analyst in Implementing Performance Measurement Methods 125

knowledgeable about t h e i r needs, act ivi t ies, and concerns. Famil iar i ty w i th the implementation set t ing i s also related t o the second pr inc ip le o f e f fect ive implementation, discussed below.

Ident i fy and Organize Key Part icipants in the Implementation Process Those in the organization who must change t h e i r ways and those who

wi l l b e affected by the changes should b e to ld o f the coming implementation, should cont r ibu te t o it and should have some organizational role in the change process. I f ear ly o n the analyst makes key par t ic ipants aware o f the impending change, i t s benefi ts, and t h e i r responsibi l i t ies t o implement it, he o r she avoids the resistance tha t o f ten accompanies the perception tha t the change was I lsprung' l o n part icipants. Understanding the objectives o f key par t ic ipants may also help d i rec t the performance measurement system toward in ternal ly - ident i f ied needs.

The Rocky Mount pro ject was characterized by a mul t i tude o f par t ic i - pants who had somewhat inconsistent objectives fo r the project. Rocky Mount off icials were, a t the C i t y Manager's level, interested in get t ing more usefu l information about community services, increasing the ac- countabi l i ty o f department heads fo r the i r department's performance, and s t rengthening the reputat ion o f Rocky Mount as a progress ive government. The Chief was interested in increasing contro l over h i s men. R T I s ta f f were in terested in s ta f f and market development as well as adequately serv ing t h e in te res ts o f Rocky Mount off icials so tha t t h e i r suppor t would be maintained a n d they would speak favorably w i th in the local government community o f R T l ' s work in performance measurement.

No inventory o f objectives was made during the pro ject so tha t the potential inconsistencies among them could be recognized and the problems they might generate could b e planned for . No o v e r t choice was made about which in terests would b e served i f pressure arose fo r a choice among them. Because the pr imary cl ients were no t art iculated, there was no specific ta rge t ing o f e f f o r t toward meeting the needs o f a par t icu lar group.

The only e f f o r t t o invo lve Rocky Mount off icials in set t ing the d i rect ion of the pro ject was in an in i t ia l meeting w i th the C i t y Manager and Assis- tan t C i t y Manager. The i r views on which community services t o inc lude in the pro ject weighed heavi ly in the final choice o f services. No similar organiz ing act iv i t ies invo lved police officials. Interactions w i t h them were mostly one-to-one and did not put them in the posit ion t o o f fe r d i rect ion to implementation.

In Chapel Hil l, organizing act iv i t ies entailed several p lanning meetings o f police and Town off icials in which par t ic ipants described the management issues facing them and t h e i r hopes f o r resolving them t h r o u g h performance measurement. My role was largely t o g ive guidance on what performance measures could and could no t do and on the i r common uses and abuses. T h r o u g h these interactions, we narrowed down the re levant management issues and set p r io r i t ies among them.

I made a concerted e f f o r t t o describe the potential payof f o f the performance measurement system in terms o f police concerns and information needs. Th is resul ted in my def in ing the police off icials as the key implementors a n d in tended users o f t h e system. The needs o f the police admin- i s t ra to rs gu ided the development o f the pro ject w i t h concerns f o r town administrat ion and academic p u r s u i t s coming second. Working documents f o r police off icials were tai lored t o t h e i r needs and less f requent progress repor ts t o the town administrat ion replaced the pa t te rn o f sending a l l work ing documents t o town hall. T h i s change in st ra tegy sh i f ted police

P o l i c y Studies Review, August 1986, 6 : l 126

off icials in to the c l ient role and the town administrat ion in to a review and monitoring role, permi t t ing t h e performance measurement system t o b e ta i lored t o the needs o f those responsible f o r implementation.

These experiences demonstrate tha t easy involvement in p lanniny change can improve the ab i l i t y o f the organization t o implement change where the implementors use p r i o r knowledge to equip themselves w i t h appropr ia te resources and ski l ls. A potential ly larger e f fect might appear, however, along o ther dimensions o f the analyst 's behavior. Taken together, organiz ing key par t ic ipants and famil iar i ty w i t h the implementation set t ing appear t o increase t h e f lex ib i l i t y o f the analyst in def in ing t h e implementation agenda. Famil iar i ty w i t h the implementation set t ing helps the analyst know who key par t ic ipants are who should be invo lved in implementation. Th is knowledge again helps t o ta i lor the implementation s t ra tegy t o the pecul iar- i t ies o f the organization.

Collaborate Organiz ing key members o f the implementing organization is important

n o t on ly t o p rov ide necessary d i rect ion f o r an implementation pro ject a t i t s outset, but also t o establ ish ongoing par tnersh ips tha t can b e usefu l th roughout the implementation process. In evaluating e f fo r ts to implement educational innovations, Pincus (1976, p. 65) f inds that :

Close col laboration w i t h the schools i s probably the necessary condit ion in implementing innovations.. . . Most impor tant in the t rans i t ion f rom innovat ion t o implementation i s the need for research a n d development personnel to work closely w i t h school s ta f f d u r i n g the implementation period.

Jus t as there was l i t t le e f f o r t t o organize key par t ic ipants in Rocky Mount, there were few oppor tun i t ies t o collaborate in developing the performance measurement system. While the focus on police services were decided jo in t l y w i th the town administration, no examples o f collaboration w i t h police off icials in producing o r us ing p a r t s o f the system can be cited. Collaboration was stressed only in the sense tha t by work ing together, the objectives o f b o t h the research s ta f f and the local off icials could b e met. There was no t a sense, however, tha t objectives were shared. The pro ject was conducted largely by the research s ta f f fo r Rocky Mount administrators. The i r funct ion was pr imar i l y to review and comment o n produc ts until it was time t o put them in to rout ine operation.

In Chapel Hi l l , the d i rect ion o f the pro ject was set col laboratively. Working groups represent ing those affected by the performance measurement system were t h e main mechanism f o r system development. I accepted responsib i l i ty fo r conduct ing analyses of c u r r e n t pat ro l performance us ing available data and t o bring tha t information t o bear on the questions being considered. Police off icials helped develop d r a f t instruments and shared responsib i l i ty f o r o ther pro ject tasks. The f i r s t repor ts us ing performance data were wr i t ten jo in t l y w i t h police officials, and we shared responsibi l i ty fo r a workshop presentation and fo r b r ie f ing the Chief and Town Manager on several occasions.

Collaboration i s a key ingredient in building the t r u s t tha t can make tak ing the r i s k s implied by change easier; decisions t o change and r i sk - tak ing become jo in t endeavors, thereby increasing the wi l l t o implement new policies o r procedures. The feeling " I 'm n o t in it alone" prov ides some comfort in a time as uncer ta in as tha t o f pol icy change. "Safety in num- bersl l may b e an o ld adage, but it appears relevant t o the implementation

Wagner: Role o f P o l i c y Analyst i n Implementing Performance Measurement Methods 127

experience. Collaboration tends t o requ i re more time, more personal interaction and, oftentimes, more uncer ta in ty fo r those involved than would be the case i f e i ther the analyst o r the implementor maintained ind iv idual cont ro l over the implementation process. The investment o f time and energy, however, cont r ibutes t o a stake in the change being implemented and t o an increased wil l ingness t o under take the changes required.

Collaboration also appears t o have an ef fect on the ab i l i t y o f an organization t o implement change. B y par t ic ipat ing in the implementation process, those responsible fo r implementation know what i s needed t o succeed. The implementation process can be a learning experience which may help prepare implementors t o c a r r y o u t t h e i r tasks.

Be Flexible in Designing Changes a n d Implementation Strategies The analyst must b e f lex ib le in selecting designs a n d methods f o r

implementing change so tha t they are appropr ia te t o t h e organization. In any organization, there are mult iple goals a n d objectives toward which improvements might be aimed. When a d i rect ion is chosen, there is general ly more than one option f o r change tha t might achieve the desired improvement, and several methods f o r implementing any one change. Order- ing the options in l ine w i t h the decisionmakers' own pr io r i t ies and choosing methods tai lored t o the par t i cu la r circumstances o f the set t ing helps guar- antee t h a t the des i red improvements occur.

In Rocky Mount, the content o f the performance measurement system and i t s development process followed the t rad i t ional approach o f most ear l ier research. Much l i te ra tu re on performance measurement has demon- s t ra ted an apparent consensus on the appropr ia te performance measurement process. The f i r s t step has been t o ident i f y the goals and objectives o f the program. These serve as the c r i te r ia against which t o assess performance. A n inventory o f act iv i t ies performed t o meet the objectives is then made. The ou tpu ts o r un i ts o f service prov ided and the level o f e f f o r t expended t o p rov ide them are ident i f ied fo r each act iv i ty . These counts o f e f fo r t , ou tpu t and outcome, alone o r in ra t io form, consti tute measures o f performance. Assuming t h i s approach is equally worthwhile f o r any service and fo r the same service in any jur isd ic t ion, standard measures were soon developed. A common set o f objectives were posited f o r a g iven service and the der ivat ion o f measures f o r those objectives was then automatic.

While the approach has been common pract ice f o r developing performance measures, closer sc ru t iny has revealed deficiencies tha t make it inappropr ia te f o r some communities. One shortcoming involves the assumed goals o f police services. These might include prevent ing o r de ter r ing crime, he lp ing to maintain a feeling o f secur i ty in the community, appre- hending persons responsible fo r crimes, o r enforcing t r a f f i c laws.

While each o f these objectives describes a major element o f pol icing, performance o f these act iv i t ies may no t be the key issues confront ing a g iven police administrator a t a par t icu lar time. We know v e r y l i t t le about what accounts f o r changes in crime rates o r perceptions o f safety, f o r example, so t h a t it i s d i f f i c u l t t o d i rec t police act iv i t ies toward changing them. Police of f ic ia ls may d is regard such ult imate outcome measures in favor o f more immediate measures they know they can inf luence t h r o u g h decisions about service de l i very . Police administrators may also have information needs concerning management issues tha t d o n o t d i rec t l y con- cern services t o the community. While we might argue tha t any adminis- t r a t o r ought t o know how h i s o r her department performs in terms o f outcomes, more immediate concerns may involve morale problems, t ra in ing o r leadership needs, o r s ta f f shortages.


A f u r t h e r potential shortcoming o f the t rad i t ional performance measurement approach i s i t s emphasis o n in ter jur isd ic t ional comparisons o f performance. P a r t o f the motivation behind predetermined goals, objectives, and measures is the des i rab i l i ty o f standardizing information so tha t the performance o f d i f fe ren t jur isd ic t ions can be compared. For an administrator, in ter jur isd ic t ional comparisons can b e valuable because, by comparing one's performance t o others' o f similar size o r form, dimensions o f performance needing improvement can be identi f ied. However, such comparisons of ten generate new questions ra ther than addressing questions already in the minds o f administrators. They of ten stop shor t o f p rov id iny information on why deficiencies occur o r what can b e done about them.

In addit ion, much o f the work on performance measurement has put the accent on "measurement." L is ts o f measures and data needs are presented under categories labeled "workload ,I' "eff iciency , ' I o r others. Administra- to rs can discover tha t the values belonging t o the measures are n o t self- ev ident and determining where and how t o g e t the information is f requent- ly le f t t o the admin is t ra tor 's judgment. If the measures are disected and va l id data are collected, knowing what t o do w i t h them and deciphering the message they c a r r y regard ing service del ivery i s o f ten least clear o f all. Despite these shortcomings, t h e applicabi l i ty o f t h e t rad i t ional approach t o performance measurement was no t questioned in the Rocky Mount project.

In the implementation process in Chapel Hi l l , I sought t o avoid shor t - comings o f the t rad i t ional approach t o performance measurement by being f lexible in def in ing the na ture o f the system f o r the department. In Chapel Hi l l the performance measurement system was const ructed around objectives determined by t h e police off icials as real ist ic and manipulable by them.

There was a notable lack o f emphasis on such ult imate outcomes as overa l l cr ime rates. The system went beyond specific objectives t o more general issues such as b e t t e r matching needs f o r service and available staff, achieving a greater consistency between platoons, and other personnel a n d s ta f f ing issues.

There was also considerable emphasis o n apply ing performance informa- t ion t o issues being deal t w i t h by the department. One example is the use o f data t o suppor t an increase in manpower t o serve newly annexed areas. F u r t h e r examples include the use o f an analysis o f dif ferences in calls for service and in services del ivered a t d i f fe ren t times o f day t o a id in re- s t r u c t u r i n g the s h i f t system, an examination o f dif ferences in act iv i t ies car r ied o u t by police o f f i cers vs. public safety of f icers t o a id in determining if a pay d i f ferent ia l was warranted, and an analysis o f the effects o f vacant posit ions on services prov ided t o suppor t requests fo r s ta f f in- creases. While I par t ic ipated in several o f these analyses, it was always in conjunction w i t h one o r more police off icials so tha t it became a learning experience fo r them in the application o f information t o t h e i r problems.

F lex ib i l i ty i s synonymous w i t h a responsiveness t o the needs o f the people in t h e implementation sett ing. Response is easier when the analyst i s already familiar w i t h the set t ing and the par t ic ipants have already been organized. The pr inc ip le o f f lex ib i l i t y establishes a relat ionship o f reci- p r o c i t y w i t h par t ic ipants in t h e implementing organization. The pol icy analyst and the implementors b o t h ad just to the demands o f the other as an ef fect ive implementation s t ra tegy evolves. McLaughlin (1976, p. 169) describes the process as Ilmutual adaptation. 'I

Mutual adaptation describes successful ly implemented projects.. . . Where implementation was successful a n d where s ign i f icant change in par t i c ipant att i tudes, skil ls, and behavior occurred,

Wagner: Role o f P o l i c y Analyst i n Implementing Performance Measurement Methods 129

implementation was characterized by a process of mutual adapta- t ion in which pro ject goals a n d methods were modified t o s u i t the needs a n d in te res ts o f the local s ta f f and in which tha t s ta f f changed t o meet the requirements of the project.

The mutual i ty o f change implied in the pr inc ip le o f f lex ib i l i t y cont r ibutes ult imately t o the wi l l o f par t ic ipants t o adapt t o changes.

Give Organizational Part icipants a Stake in the Change Being Implemented The in ten t o f collaboration and the mutual i ty o f power over decisions i s

t o create f o r implementors a sense o f stake in the changes being implemented. The importance placed o n th is sense o f stake in change is based on the general p r inc ip le tha t " ind iv iduals who have some control over the i r own w o r k wi l l b e more committed t o and satisf ied w i th the functions re- q u i r e d t o per form the i r job" (Havelock e t a l . , 1969, pp. v-2).

Though no t a l l members o f an organization are l ike ly to develop t h i s sense o f stake, the implementation process wi l l be smoother i f a t least four sets o f actors do: the pr inc ip le intended users o r beneficiaries o f the proposed change, those who manage o r oversee it, those who c a r r y it out, and the pol icy analyst him o r herself. In the context o f police performance measurement, the pr inc ip le intended user i s the Chief and, t o a lesser extent, pol icymakers in the town administration. The manager o f the change is the records of f icer o r another administrat ive s taf fer , while those who c a r r y o u t the change are the prov iders o f information, the police off icers.

The analyst wi l l know when collaborative e f fo r ts have ef fect ive ly gen- erated a sense o f stake by par t ic ipants ' language and behavior concerning the pol icy change. When " the program1' becomes loour program," when organization par t ic ipants in i t ia te action o r change w i th l i t t le o r no prompt- ing from the analyst, the pol icy change is Ilowned" by the organization.

The stake which police off icials in Rocky Mount had in the performance measurement system appeared t o be low, perhaps p a r t l y because o f the vo lunteer na ture o f the project. The performance measurement system was designed and implemented a t almost no cost t o the town government o r the police department. One might expect tha t because the project was donat- ed, police personnel would be more wi l l ing t o accept it in a "what do we have t o lose?Il frame o f mind. However, the l i t t le investment in the pro j - ect or1 t h e i r p a r t may have made the project easy t o abandon in the face o f competit ion f o r time and attention.

We made l i t t le consistent e f f o r t t o increase the sense o f stake in the pro ject on the p a r t o f Rocky Mount part icipants. B y stressing tha t we were n o t trying t o change o r in te r fe re in Rocky Mount police operations, but were in terested in having the i r input in to o u r performance measurement e f for ts , we may have had the opposite effect. When competing demands arose fo r the Chief 's attention, he may have fe l t tha t the per - formance measurement approach could b e shelved a t no considerable loss from s u n k costs.

The Assistant C i t y Manager exhib i ted a s t ronger sense o f stake in the performance measurement system. Th is was no t due t o a par t icu lar in ten t o n o u r p a r t t o foster tha t feeling, but may have resul ted from h i s suppor t fo r the pro ject from the outset, h is request tha t police off icials cooperate, and h i s responsib i l i ty t o see tha t the pro ject was successfully completed. The Assistant C i t y Manager was not, however, a member o f the implementing organization so tha t h i s stake in the project had only a ind i rec t impact on implementation w i th in the police department.

130 Pol icy Studies Review, August 1986, 6:l

hly sense of stake in the Rocky Mount project also waned a s it pro- gressed. It did not have the authority of a contract with external funding to induce compliance with timetables or expectations for performance. While my stake i n t h e project appeared higher than other staff members because I was one of its initiators, because it was a substantive area of particular interest, and because it was my first project management experience, I was under similar demands for work on other projects and my interest would not sustain the momentum of a large project team.

In Chapel H i l l , the effort to address felt needs of the department, and the level of effort several of them invested in collaborative relationships appeared to increase their investment in the project and their stake in its outcomes. Police officials had invested heavily in developing and managing the system and in extensive management improvement activities. Problems within the department were perceived a s serious by the command staff, the information and improved procedures associated w i t h performance nieasure- ment were viewed a s useful aides in dealing w i t h them and, therefore, they were worthy of a substantial investment.

My stake in the Chapel H i l l project was also extremely high. Frustra- tion with the Rocky Mount project heightened my interest i n doing a similar project in another community so that I might put into effect the lessons learned in the first experience. The fact that Chapel H i l l was my home also contributed to a commitment to the success of the project. My decision to focus my doctoral dissertation on performance measurement implementation invested a singular importance i n the project. Most impor- tantly, however, the growing friendship and trust shown me by the police officials with whom I worked increased my determination that their investment would reap rewards in the form of a system that would be useful to them.

A mutual sense of stake in effective implementation will reinforce the wil l to undertake whatever is necessary to make the project successful. Long meetings, innumerable hours of gathering data and doing analyses, and endless negotiations w i t h others are tolerated more easily by implementors who are personally committed to a successful outcome.

Limit the Size of the Implementation Team The size of the implementation team can affect the utility of the collab-

orative approach. A smaller number of people generally find it easier to become familiar w i t h and t rus t one another than do larger groups. The behavior of a few familiar people is easy for one to learn to predict and thereby reduces the uncertainty of the change enterprise. A larger group is often more difficult to keep organized and moving steadily through the implementation process. Consensus becomes more difficult to achieve, creating delays along the implementation path.

The appropriate size of the implementation team may vary according to the task a t hand. A team of two or three may be most effective for writing reports or preparing a briefing in which a premium is placed on coherence and consistency. When other values a re to be maximized, the size may increase. In making a major decision that has broad implications, for example, soliciting the opinions and ideas of a greater number of people may result in a better decision, In such cases, there may also be a symbolic value in avoiding the perception that decisions a re made by a select f e w .

The Rocky Mount implementation team did not include members of the police department because the importance of collaborative relationships was not reflected i i i the implementation strategy. The team did, however,

131

include eleven work ing members and several advisors from the research staff. The numerous competing demands on the time o f tha t many people posed d i f f icu l t ies f o r sustaining the momentum o f the project and coor- d inat ing i t s par ts .

The pro ject team in Chapel Hi l l included, in addit ion t o myself, whatev- e r police and town administrat ion representatives seemed relevant t o the task being considered. I t s size f luctuated accordingly, ranging from two to s ix people, w i t h larger g roups general ly employed in design act iv i t ies and decisionmaking and p a i r s o r threesomes involved in wr i t ing o r per - forming analyses.

The fact tha t I was, f o r most act ivi t ies, the only pol icy analyst invo lved seemed t o make it easier t o contro l pro ject act iv i t ies and schedules and sustain momentum. The reasonably small size o f pro ject teams also aided the development o f a truly col laborative s p i r i t among team members. We gradual ly grew t o understand how each member thought about issues and a common language developed tha t helped u s ef fect ive ly define and c a r r y o u t implementation activi t ies.

Wagner: Role o f Po l icy Analyst i n Implementing Performance Measurement Methods

Establ ish a Liaison Within the lmplementating Organization Over the long haul o f ten requ i red fo r effect ive implementation, it i s

o f ten d i f f i c u l t f o r the analyst t o sustain the continued involvement necessary t o keep a pro ject on t rack. Th is d i f f i c u l t y can b e of fset by selecting a member o f t h e implementing organization t o b e an ongoing l iaison o r contact person. Collaboration wi l l o f ten resu l t in several members of the organization acqu i r ing the in terest and ab i l i t y t o take increased respon- s ib i l i t y f o r implementation.

A l iaison can serve several functions. He o r she can be a pr inc ipa l access po in t and in formant fo r the analyst so t h a t ne i ther the momentum o f the pro ject n o r information concerning implementation ceases when the analyst i s absent from the implementation sett ing. The liaison can monitor each step in the implementation pro ject and cal l t o the analyst 's attention any obstacles t h a t may dictate adjustments in the implementation s t ra tegy. Also, i f the analyst has been successful in achieving a par t i cu la r ly close relat ionship w i t h the l iaison and ensur ing h i s o r her thorough understanding o f the implementation project, the l iaison can answer others' questions and g i v e guidance and suppor t in car ry ing ou t implementation tasks.

The liaison should b e a person whose stake in implementation i s high and who perceives a personal benef i t in successful implementation. He o r she must also have the technical sk i l l fo r tasks the l iaison is expected to perform. More impor tant ly , the liaison should b e in a posit ion to have and g ive information and should have the respect o f peers t o lend c red ib i l i t y to the implementation project.

In Rocky Mount, the Assistant C i ty Manager served as a liaison. Because he was no t a member o f the implementing organization, he could no t serve as a key source o f information t o o r about the police department. Even though he was our liaison, no e f f o r t was made systematically t o maintain contact w i t h him between o u r v is i t s there. No liaison was established d i rec t l y w i t h the police department. A l l contacts were w i t h the Chief; however, due t o the mult iple demands on h i s time, it was d i f f icu l t to g e t enough of h i s time and at tent ion a t appropr ia te po ints in the pro ject t o assure progress in implementation. The important role of sustaining the momentum and d i rect ion of the pro ject and prov id ing information on implementation was un fu l f i l l ed in Rocky Mount.

In the Chapel H i l l project, the Administrat ive Aide t o t h e Chief was the liaison. Weekly meetings and telephone calls sustained close contact during

1 3 2 P o l i c y Studies Review, August 1986, 6:l

the time 1 was n o t v is i t ing the department f requent ly . He was involved in as many facets o f performance measurement system design and implementa- t ion as possible so t h a t he would b e completely familiar w i t h the reasons f o r i t s design, the way it operated, i t s l imitations and i t s potential uses. In addi t ion t o repor t ing on the latest events in the department, the A. A. monitored the operation o f the system. He was also centra l t o the con- t inued operation o f t h e system a f te r my wi thdrawl f rom the organization.

Ass ign ing a l iaison is one indication tha t the implementing organization i s already wi l l ing t o undergo change. The liaison's presence and enthusi- asm fo r implementation helps sustain tha t w i l l and ensures tha t o thers o n whom implementation depends remain committed t o the change. Ask ing questions and trying o u t new sk i l ls and ideas i s easier among those w i th whom one i s familiar. Having "one o f o u r own1' t o deal w i t h in the process o f change, ra ther than hav ing to deal a t al l times d i rec t l y w i th an outside analyst can reduce the sense o f r i s k invo lved in change fo r organization part icipants.

Limit t h e Extent o f Each Change "Change is more l i ke ly t o b e accepted i f it is implemented slowly"

(Havelock, pp. V-3). Smaller scale changes involve fewer people, act iv - it ies, o r organizational un i ts . T h e i r e f fects a re l imited a n d less cost ly in terms o f psychic d is rup t ion and organizational resources than are la rger scale changes. In many cases, however, the scale o f change does no t appear to be control lable. One s t ra teyy f o r bringing the ex ten t o f change more w i th in the analyst 's cont ro l i s t o design changes t o be implemented incrementally. Rather than packaging change in one unit, the analyst can arrange component p a r t s f o r phased implementation so tha t there is more time fo r understanding and adaptation t o l imited alterat ions in behavior, status, o r funct ion before o ther components o f the change come along.

In the Rocky Mount project, some recognit ion was g iven t o the need t o develop the system slowly, but t h i s was no t car r ied ou t consistently in practice. All major police funct ions were inc luded as targets f o r the measurement e f fo r ts and a l l needs f o r data collection changes were iden- t i f ied simultaneously. A full set o f performance measures fo r patrol, investigation, and crime prevent ion was del ivered a t one time, along w i th a simpli f ied monthly repor t format, a new procedure f o r monitoring the disposit ion o f cases as they proceed t h r o u g h the courts, a new process fo r t rack iny allocation o f time, and a questionnaire and survey operations gu ide fo r determining cit izens' evaluations o f police services. A n acute case of information overload as well as an unwil l ingness and inab i l i t y t o deal w i th it should have been predicted.

A l though the to ta l amount o f change recommended in Chapel H i l l was greater than in Rocky Mount, the s t ra tegy o f in i t ia t ing the performance measurement system allowed f o r staged implementation o f discrete proce- d u r a l chanyes. The Board o f Aldermen in i t ia l ly set the tone by ins is t ing only one serv ice would b e used t o tes t the utility o f the performance measurement approach. The implementation process w i th in the police department began w i t h one d iv is ion and extended t o others one a t a time. Th is gradual development allowed f o r the building o f t r u s t between pro ject team members. It also prov ided a tes t run for the process which f lagged weaknesses o r unanticipated needs tha t requ i red alterat ion o f the process.

Ear ly in the project, changes in analyt ical processes were n o t conf ront - e d d i rect ly . Only by the example o f my analyt ical approach was i t in- fe r red tha t the decisionmaking process i t se l f might b e d i f fe ren t from the somewhat unsystematic set t ing o f po l icy tha t had gone on before. A f t e r

Wagner: Role of P o l i c y Analyst i n Implementing Performance Measurement Methods 133

st rong work ing relat ionships were established, the needs o f the decisionmaking process were approached more d i rect ly . Th is s h i f t t o a manayement improvement focus resul ted from the jo in t decisions o f several members o f the command staff. When new management practices became familiar, we in t roduced a task force approach as a mechanism tha t would con- t inue t o p rov ide a n analyt ical basis f o r decisionmaking. T h i s incremental s t ra tegy helped t o reduce the r i s k and uncer ta in ty associated w i th change and thereby re in forced the wi l l and abi l i ty o f members o f the department to cooperate in i t s implementation.

S t r i v e f o r Technical Quali ty The technical qual i ty o f the pol icy change can per ta in e i ther to the

conceptual underp inn ings o f the change (e.g., i s it a "good idea," i s it feasible and well thought th rough) o r t o the qual i ty o f information on which decisions t o change are based. The theoretical framework, rel iabi l- i ty , systematic inquiry, object iv i ty and appropriateness o f the research tha t suppor ts calls fo r change are a l l included in the umbrella o f technical qual i ty .

The salience o f technical qua l i t y issues may b e determined by the effect iveness w i t h which the prev ious behavioral pr inc ip les have been followed. I f l i t t le a t tent ion has been g iven t o developing t r u s t i n g relationships and foster ing the w i l l and abi l i ty o f implementors t o change, ques- t ions o f qua l i t y may never arise. A t the other extreme, if t r u s t i n g rela- t ionships are s t rong and i f implementators have been thoroughly invo lved in the design and implementation process, the technical qual i ty o f the analyst 's information o r recommendations f o r change may b e taken f o r granted. It may be when the implementation s t ra tegy creates a situation between these extremes tha t issues o f qual i ty arise.

In Rocky Mount, the changes recommended in data collection procedures and r e p o r t formats were never considered seriously enough fo r the Chief t o question whether they were well-conceived. The implementation strategy did not reach the point where analyses were performed, so questions o f the qua l i t y o f information fo r decisionmaking also failed to arise.

Questions regard ing the qual i ty o f analyses and the i r resul ts also were never raised by police off icials in Chapel Hi l l . Perhaps because o f o u r t r u s t i n g relat ionships a n d / o r because the technicalit ies o f analysis were largely fore ign t o most o f them, there seemed t o be an acceptance tha t the analyses were accurate.

Despite these examples, it i s l i ke ly tha t policymakers would be more wi l l ing t o make decisions and implement the resu l ts of decisions which have a technical ly sound basis. Similarly, sound analysis and careful ly-conceived programs should increase the capabil i ty o f organizations t o implement change. In e i ther case, r i s k and uncer ta in ty can be reduced by high qua l i t y analysis.

Develop Information That i s Easily Used Patr ick (1979, p. 1 5 ) suggests tha t timeliness, pertinence, format, and

the presence o f clear recommendations in analytica-l information encourage decisionmakers to ac t on changes indicated by research. Br i t ta in (1970, p. 149) adds tha t simply the quant i t y o f information may also be important in expla in ing i t s usefulness o r appl icabi l i ty. The performance measurernent pro jects suppor t the importance o f usabi l i ty considerations t o a modest degree.

The only information products whose applicabi l i ty could be assessed in Rocky Mount were a p royram s t ruc ture o f objectives and activi t ies, data

134 P o l i c y Studies Review, August 1986, 6:l

collection forms, and a rev ised repor t format fo r police services. As described earl ier, the t rad i t ional approach taken t o performance measurement was largely i r re levant t o the management issues a t the time. The products were no t a response t o a specific information need so there was no par t i cu la r timeframe w i t h i n which t o p rov ide them t o decisionmakers. The Assistant C i ty Manager did comment tha t the measures fo r police services and t h e i r just i f icat ion statement were clearly presented. Howev- er , the Chief did not g ive the produc ts suf f ic ient attention f o r the i r c la r i t y t o be a re levant issue to him.

In Chapel Hi l l , my f requent contact w i t h police and town administrat ion off icials t h r o u g h t h e i r involvement in developing the system increased my understanding o f what would make information per t inent and timely. I was aware o f the salient issues and kept t r a c k of the t iming o f par t icu lar decision points f o r which performance information might be useful. The importance o f the c l a r i t y o f presentation in the Chapel H i l l case was also apparent. Patrol captains commented on several occasions tha t wr i t ten materials were easy to understand, in contrast t o t h e i r experience w i t h prev ious consultants.

Gearing the t iming and format o f materials to specific users appeared to have increased b o t h the wil l ingness and ab i l i t y o f par t ic ipants t o use them in decisionmaking. Not hav ing t o wrestle w i th unfamil iar o r over ly complex languaye and arialyses made police off icials more wi l l ing t o g ive the i r a t tent ion t o the information arid more able t o see i t s relevance and implica- t ioris f o r pol icy.

T r a i n Part icipants Implementation par t ic ipants of ten must be t ra ined in new sk i l ls t o inst i -

t u t e and operate the program change ef fect ive ly . In the context o f per fo r - mance measurement, t ra in ing may be needed in the collection, calculation, and repor t ing o f performance data. Because implementation is no t e f fect ive until the data are used, t ra in ing may also be necessary in us ing analyt ical information fo r decisionmaking. These two k inds o f t ra in ing of ten invo lve d i f fe ren t sets o f people arid methods. Line s ta f f are general ly responsible fo r c a r r y i n g o u t change and the i r t r a i n i n g should focus on the accurate performance o f new activi t ies. Using information involves management personnel no t on ly in activi t ies, but also in a new, more analyt ical thought process. The i r t ra in ing should invo lve a more subtle d i rect ion and must be based on a more extensive famil iar i ty w i th the people involved.

In Rocky Mount, mention was made o n several occasions tha t the research s ta f f would be available upon request t o work w i t h administrators in calculat ing o r in te rpre t ing measures; however, th is fa in t approximation o f a t ra in ing role was never car r ied out . A f inal workshop t o in t roduce the performance measurement system was more a demonstration than an actual t ra in ing session. It was intended to serve as ins t ruc t ion in b o t h the act iv i t ies o f const ruct ing rat ios and p lo t t ing t rends and in the analyt ical process o f us ing performance measures in decisionmaking. The presence o f the Chief and the records of f icer exemplif ied th is dual function. Nei- t h e r was performed satisfactori ly.

Irt the f ina l meeting w i t h the administrat ive captain, uncer ta in ty re- mained about the correctness o f h i s calculations. A n understanding o f what the data communicated regard ing performance was never reached. The Chief had made no use of the information. No ins t ruc t ion was of fered t o members o f the c i t y administrat ion in the use o f performance measures, o r in how t o apply the process o f developing performance measures t o other services.

Wagner: Role o f Po l icy Analyst in Implementing Performance Measurement Methods 135

Several aspects o f the Chapel H i l l pro ject incorporated a recognit ion o f the need t o t r a i n l ine s ta f f t o assume new functions. Inst ruct ions were developed t o accompany pa t ro l ac t i v i t y forms and were reviewed in person w i th al l pat ro l o f f icers so they would understand the new repor t ing act iv i - ty expected o f them. The secretary in the detective d iv is ion was coached in how t o compile and r e p o r t performance data from t h a t division. The Chief 's A. A. was helped in calculat ing pat ro l performance measures and making estimates o f s ta f f requirements.

Tra in ing in the use o f performance measures in decisionmaking invo lved the command s ta f f o f the department. Some ins t ruc t ion in apply ing in fo r - mation t o problems was over t , as in w r i t i n g an ins t ruc t ion manual fo r how task forces should conduct and r e p o r t background studies on pol icy issues. Most of t h e t ra in ing was less obvious. Host i l i ty could resu l t i f command s t a f f members were too o f ten over t l y put in the s tudent role while the pol icy analyst maintains the super io r i t y o f the teaching role. Care had to be taken n o t t o upset the balance o f rec iproc i ty tha t we had established t h r o u g h our col laborative relationships.

The presence o f the analyst in the research sett ing is general ly tempo- r a r y . T ra in ing organizational par t ic ipants t o gather arid process needed information and t o implement change i s an important inf luence on implemen- tat ion ab i l i t y . T ra in ing can also s t rengthen the rec iproc i ty o f relation- sh ips w i t h the implementors. The analyst can actively prov ide information and sk i l ls in exchange fo r the accommodations made by organization par- t ic ipants to the change being implemented.

Withdraw in Phases f rom the Implementation Set t ing The f ina l p r inc ip le inc luded in the model o f e f fect ive implementation

governs the termination o f the design and implementation process and the withdrawal o f the analyst from the organizational sett ing. The implementa- t ion process of ten covers an extended time period. There i s a tendency f o r the organization t o become dependent o n the analyst. The analyst might have taken o n par t i cu la r roles o r functions in the organization that , upon withdrawal, could remain unperformed t o the detr iment o f the per - formance measurement system.

The analyst faces the job o f carefu l ly ex t r i ca t ing him o r herse l f from the set t ing when the implementation process is completed. The analyst can begin a phased wi thdrawal by f i r s t re l inquish ing d i rec t responsibi l i ty fo r specific tasks t o those who have been t ra ined t o per form them. The informal act iv i t ies and uns t ruc tured interactions tha t were crucial t o estab- l ish ing relat ionships ear ly in the pro ject should slowly be reduced in f requency and then terminated as the project winds down. Part icipation in formal decisionmaking act iv i t ies can be sustained somewhat longer, but a more passive role should be adopted as full responsibi l i ty sh i f t s back t o the organization. The analyst can in the f inal stage s h i f t t o a consult ing role and o f fe r advice and suppor t from a distance. The analyst should remain available t o respond to requests from the organization fo r assis- tance, but the analyst ult imately wi l l no longer in i t ia te professional contact w i t h the organization.

The events of o u r f ina l workshop in Rocky Mount demonstrate the sudden depar ture of the research team wi thout preparation o f the organization t o adopt the procedures tha t had been developed. We presented the measures and data collection instruments to be used, gave a few sugges- t ions f o r how the information might be in terpreted, and then said, essen- t ial ly, " the bal l 's in y o u r court." A l though we made two follow-up visi ts, the workshop terminated o u r formal responsib i l i ty t o the department.


In contrast , t h e f ina l phase o f t he Chapel tiill pro ject was devoted to g radua l t r a n s f e r o f responsib i l i ty and wi thdrawal f rom the research set- ting. I spoke increas ing ly o f t h e g row ing demands o f o the r pro jects tha t would no t pe rm i t me t o b e so f r equen t l y a p a r t o f management meetings and o the r act iv i t ies as t h e s p r i n g approached. I moved increas ing ly i n t o a rev iewer 's role as tha t time approached r a t h e r than se rv ing as i n i t i a to r o r be ing d i r e c t l y responsible f o r de l i ve r ing p roduc ts o r per forming tasks. I cont inued to Ilcheck in" a t t h e police department eve ry th ree o r f ou r weeks t o keep abreast o f t h e use o f t he p ro jec t resul ts t h r o u g h the budge t cycle wh ich ended in Ju ly 1979. T h i s o rde r l y t rans i t i on was accomplished wi th- o u t d i s rup t i on o r termination of any o f t he processes o r procedures tha t had been ins t i t u ted as p a r t o f the project.

T h i s analysis has demonstrated behavioral pr inc ip les of an ef fect ive implementation s t ra tegy t h a t were associated w i t h more successful implementation outcomes in two communities. It has also attempted to define the abst ract p r i nc ip les in terms o f concrete examples and operational charac- te r i s t i cs wh ich cou ld gu ide pol icy analysts in t h e i r own implementation act iv i t ies in o the r sett ings.

Case studies such as these cannot p rov ide de f i n i t i ve conclusions as "what works" in implementing performance measurements systerns o r o the r po l icy innovat ions in a l l sett ings. However, t hey do o f f e r suggested behaviors to o the r po l icy analysts who might l i ke t o d i r e c t t h e i r e f f o r t s toward improv ing t h e reco rd o f t he successful implementation and use o f performance measures in decisions about community serv ice de l i ve ry .

REFERENCES

B r i t t a n , J.M. (1970) . Information and i t s users. Bath: Ba th Un ive rs i t y Press.

Havelock, R., e t al. ( 1 9 6 9 ) . Planning for innovation. A n n A r b o r : Un ive rs i t y o f Michigan.

McLaughlin, M. (1967) . Implementation as mutual adaptation. In W. Williams & R. Elmore (Eds.), Social prograin implementation. New York : Academic Press.

hlechliny, J . (1975) . The roles o f po l icy analysts in large pub l i c organizations. In E. Mangrove, The missing l i nk . Washington, DC: The Urban Ins t i t u te .

Patr ick , M. (1979, A p r i l 19-21). Ut i l i z i ng program evaluation products . Paper presented a t t he 1979 annual meeting o f t he Midwest Polit ical Science Association, Chicago, I L.

Pincus, J . (1976) . Incent ives fo r innovat ion in the pub l i c schools. In VI. Williams 8 R. Elmore (Eds.), Social Program Implementation. New York : Academic Press.

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