the role of the teacher in advanced … · conclusion ... recommendation for future study ......

THE ROLE OF THE TEACHER IN ADVANCED PLACEMENT (AP) ACCESS

Justin Christopher Mason B.A., California State University, Chico, 1995

M.A., National University, 1999

DISSERTATION

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

In

EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP

at

CALIFORNIA STATE UNIVERSITY, SACRAMENTO

SPRING 2010

Copyright © 2010 Justin Christopher Mason

All rights reserved

11


A Dissertation

by

Justin Christopher Mason

Approved by Dissertation Committee:

Robert Pritchard, Ph.D., Chair

Jana Noel, Ph.D.

Susan O'Hara, Ph.D.

SPRING 2010

111


Student: Justin Christopher Mason

I certify that this student has met the requirements for format contained in the University

format manual, and that this dissertation is suitable for shelving in the library and credit is

to be awarded for the dissertation.

-----------------------, Graduate Coordinator Carlos Nevarez, Ed.D Date

IV

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to thank all of the members of my dissertation committee for their

commitment to this work, their expert guidance and thoughtful comments. A special

thank you is necessary for my dissertation committee chair Dr. Robert Pritchard who was

the constant professional and continued to expand my thinking while supporting and

challenging me to achieve this goal.

I would like to thank my wife, Jolynn, for her unconditional love. Thank you for

the constant support, staying up late to transcribe interview recordings, always agreeing

to another proof reading, and taking care of our boys Luke and Aaron during my many

trips to the library. Without your support this long journey would not have been possible.

v

CURRICULUM VITAE

Education

Professional Employment

Publications

Fields of Study

VI

Abstract

of


by

Justin Christopher Mason

The purpose of this study was to investigate the role of the teacher in Advanced

Placenlent (AP) access for high school students. There are many benefits to students who

participate in the AP program including access to a rigorous curriculum, college course

credit or placement for successful completion of an AP exam, and an advantage when

applying to competitive colleges and universities. Access to AP courses remains an

unlikely opportunity for many low-income students who attend schools that offer few AP

courses, and African-American and Latino students are underrepresented in AP

participation.

This study uses a mixed methods design with both quantitative and qualitative

methods. The first phase of the study was an online survey of AP teachers in three school

districts in Northern California. The second phase of the study used follow-up interviews

to collect additional data from selected Advanced Placement teachers. The online survey

and follow-up interviews were designed to collect data on the perceptions and practices

of AP teachers in the pre-screening of AP students, the promoting of AP courses to

students, and in determining AP course offerings.

Vll

This study indicates that the AP teacher plays an important role in determining

both student access to AP courses as well as in the decision making process of

determining whether their school will offer a specific AP course. AP teachers reported

students should be pre-screened before enrolling in an AP course at higher rates in larger

schools (F=3.749, p=.033) and in schools with higher API scores (F=4.478, p=.018).

Additionally, responses from the follow-up interviews indicate that teachers are making

the decision to pre-screen students or to allow open access without following any state,

district, or site policies. While an overwhelming majority of AP teachers report that it is

part of their role to promote their AP course to students, only a small percentage are

actively promoting their AP course to minority students and to students who are not

already in an honors or AP track. This study indicates that the AP teacher can be a

powerful factor in providing a more equitable access to AP courses as well as in closing

the AP participation gap for historically underrepresented students.

VI11

TABLE OF CONTENTS Page

Acknowledgements ....................................................................................................... v

Curriculum Vitae ......................................................................................................... vi

List of Tables ................................................................................................................ x

Chapter

1. INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................. 1

Statement of the Problem ................................................................................. , 4

Nature of the Study ........................................................................................... 5

Theoretical Framework ..................................................................................... 6

Assumptions and Limitations ........................................................................... 7

Significance of the Study .................................................................................. 7

Definition of Terms .......................................................................................... 8

Conclusion ........................................................................................................ 8

2. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE ............................................................ 11

Advanced Placement Background .................................................................. 11

Advanced Placement Benefits ........................................................................ 16

Issues of Access .............................................................................................. 21

Advanced Placement Teachers ....................................................................... 28

Summary ......................................................................................................... 32

3. METHODOLOGY ............................................................................................... 34

Introduction ..................................................................................................... 34

Research Design ............................................................................................. 35

Population ....................................................................................................... 36

Data Collection ............................................................................................... 36

Analysis of Data ............................................................................................. 38

Conclusion ...................................................................................................... 41

IX

4. ANALYSIS OF THE DATA ................................................................................ 42

Introduction ..................................................................................................... 42

Study Participants ........................................................................................... 42

Data Analysis .................................................................................................. 43

Summary ......................................................................................................... 65

5. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS ................................................................... 67

Introduction ..................................................................................................... 67

Overview of the Study .................................................................................... 68

Discussion of Findings ................................................................................... 69

Implications .................................................................................................... 81

Recommendation for Future Study ................................................................. 82

Conclusions .................................................................................................... , 84

6. APPENDICES ...................................................................................................... 86

Appendix A AP Course Offerings: State Mandates ...................................... 87

Appendix B Research Questions and Corresponding Survey Items ............. 90

Appendix C Interview Protocol ..................................................................... 92

Appendix D Online Survey Consent Form .................................................... 93

Appendix E Tables: Responses by Teacher Factors ...................................... 94

Appendix F Interview Informed Consent Form .......................................... 108

REFERENCES ......................................................................................................... 109

x

LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

1. Advanced Placement Courses and Exams.. . .. . .. .. . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . .. ... .... 13

2. Survey items la-Ie: Screening prospective AP students .......................... 44

3. Survey items Id-If: Method of screening prospective AP students ............. 45

4. Survey item Ig: Influence of AP exams scores on perception of teaching .... 46

5. Survey items 2a-2c: Promoting AP courses to students .......................... 47

6. Survey items 3a and 3b: The role of the AP teacher in determining course

offerings ....................................................................................... 48

7. ANOV A Results: Comparisons with number of students ........................ 50

8. ANOV A Results: Comparisons with API score ................................... 50

9. ANOVA Results: Comparisons with API score ................................... 52

10. ANOV A Results: Comparisons with race / ethnicity ............................ 54

11. ANOV A Results: Comparisons with API score ................................. 55

12. ANOV A Results: Comparisons with Percent of Students Qualifying for Free

and Reduced Lunch ......................................................................... 56

Xl

Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION

Since its inception in 1955, the Advanced Placement (AP) program has offered

academically accomplished high school students who were college bound the opportunity

to earn college credit if they could demonstrate sufficient knowledge through AP exams.

AP courses are offered in the high school setting, are taught by participating high school

teachers, and are intended to mirror entry level college courses and improve the overall

curriculum of schools. AP courses are "weighted," offering students an extra grade point

for their grades earned in comparison to grades earned in non-AP courses. In May of

each year, students can take one or more AP examinations as a culminating assessment of

their knowledge acquired through the AP courses (College Board, 2008c). Currently

more than 90 percent of four-year colleges and universities in the United States offer

students introductory course credit, placement, or both based upon successful AP exan1

scores (College Board, 2009). In 2008, over 460,000 graduating students earned a

passing score on one or more AP exams during high school (College Board, 2009).

The College Board (the nonprofit examination board that administers the AP

progranls and exams) offers AP exams in 27 subjects, the most common being U.S.

History, English Literature and Composition, Calculus, U.S. Government and Politics,

Biology, Spanish Literature, Statistics, and Chemistry. Each AP exam is scored using a

five point scale: 5 extremely well qualified; 4 well qualified; 3 qualified; 2 possibly

qualified; and 1 no recommendation. Students who earn a passing score of 3 or better

can earn college credit for the course, reducing the number of general education courses

2

required and potentially lowering the costs of attending college. The current costs

associated with each additional year of attending a college or university is estimated to be

up to $19,000, and students in private colleges and universities can expect to pay $26,197

for each additional year (College Board, 2008a).

A study at the University of California at Berkeley found that AP students who

earn a 3 or higher on an AP exam earn higher college grades and graduate from college at

a higher rate than otherwise similar peers in control groups (Geiser & Santelices, 2004).

Additionally, the vast majority of students that enroll in AP courses in high school persist

to complete a bachelor's degree, including first generation college students (Tierney,

Colyar, & Corwin, 2003). Hargrove et al. (2008) found that even for students who failed

the AP exam, enrollment in an AP class exposed students to college-level standards,

leading to greater college success.

Even though more than 90% of California high schools offer Advanced

Placement (AP) courses, many students across all ethnicities and socio-economic lines

have limited access to AP classes (Brownell & Beasley, 1999). Currently, AP teachers

view the democratization of AP courses differently, with some offering open enrollment

to all students regardless of their academic background, while others prefer to screen

potential students for academic qualifications based upon grade point average or other

pre-set criteria (Sawchuk, 2009). Access to AP courses remains an unlikely opportunity

for many low-income and rural students who attend schools that offer few AP courses

(Zarate & Pachon, 2006). Nationwide the African American and Latino students are

particularly underrepresented in AP test taking as the schools that traditionally have

provided the greater number of AP courses have been located in more affluent, suburban

areas (Furry & Hecsh, 2001).

3

In California, many colleges use the "weighted" grades of AP students when

considering admission. For example, in 1998, UC Berkeley rejected 8,000 applicants

whose grade point averages were 4.0 or higher, choosing rather to accept students with

higher grade point averages due to their enrollment in AP courses (ACLU, 1999). The

California Department of Education and the College Board encourage teachers and

school administrators to make equitable access a guiding principle of all schools' AP

progranls (College Board, 2008b). However, students who attend high schools that fail to

offer or offer a limited number of AP courses may not have the opportunity to earn a

grade point average high enough to qualify for admittance into California's highly

competitive universities. In 1999, the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) filed a

class action lawsuit against the state of California (Daniel v. California) charging that

African American, Latino, and needy students who attended high schools with few A.P.

course offerings are at a disadvantage in applying to colleges (including the University of

California) that consider AP classes when deciding whether to admit students (Carnevale,

1999). While many states have taken measures to make AP more accessible, schools

serving traditionally underrepresented students continue to offer AP courses at a

disproportionate rate compared to high performing schools (Tierney, Colyar, & Corwin,

2003).

4

Statement of the Problem

There have been numerous studies illustrating the positive effects of an AP

curriculum on students' success in college admittance and completion. Many selective

colleges and universities consider grade point averages and AP enrollment when

considering applicants. Barriers to AP access currently exist due to school demographics,

funding, and university admission policies. African American and Latino students

particularly are underrepresented in AP participation. Hoffman (2003) highlighted the

need for continued research that addresses equity of access:

Even though underrepresented students are taking greater advantage of

postsecondary options while enrolled in high school, these benefits remain

unevenly distributed. Many underrepresented students are shut out of participation

in such programs by the lack of rigorous curricula at the high schools they attend,

lack of information about the many options for earning college credit that are

currently available, and by substantial fees for participation in some states. We

need to know far more systematically than we now do what the barriers are for

these students, and how they can be overcome. (p. 48)

AP participation numbers and current research reveal that barriers to AP access and

participation exist for many students. In 2009 African American students made up 14.50/0

of the graduating students nationwide, but were only 3.7% of the successful AP exam

population. In California, Latino students were 40.1 % of the state's graduates in 2009,

but were only 31.7% of the states successful AP exam population (College Board, 2010).

5

One barrier about which the data is particularly limited is the role of teachers in

AP access and barriers to access. This study was designed to fill a gap in the existing

educational literature on the role of the AP teacher in AP course access for students. The

study examined the decision making process of high school teachers in determining

student access and assignment to Advanced Placement courses and in determining

Advanced Placement course offerings in high schools.

Nature of the Study

This study was designed to collect data on the perceptions and practices of AP

teachers. The data for this study was collected in two phases, an online survey of current

AP teachers, followed by interviews of selected AP teachers from the survey. The survey

and interview protocol were designed to collect data on the following research questions:

Research Question # 1 : What are the perceptions and behaviors of Advanced

Placement teachers regarding course enrollment criteria for students?

Research Question #2: What is the role of the Advanced Placement teacher in

encouraging participation in Advanced Placement courses for underrepresented students?


determining Advanced Placement course offerings?

Research Question #4: What is the relationship between school factors and

Advanced Placement teacher factors as measured by the survey?

The data that was collected in the first phase was analyzed to determine any

correlations between AP teacher perceptions and practices to school and teacher factors.

The data was analyzed by using both descriptive statistics and multiple regression

analyses. The data was then used to select AP teachers for the second phase of the study

to collect qualitative data to aid in the understanding of the research questions.

Theoretical Framework

6

The focus of the study is on the role of the teacher in determining AP access for

students. There are many advantages for students who complete and AP course and who

pass an AP exam. Limiting participation in the AP program can limit a student's ability

to compete for admission into selective colleges as well as potentially limit college

success. Due to the importance of AP courses in competing for admission into selective

colleges and universities, the theoretical framework that was used as a guide for the study

was that of operational citizenship.

Operational Citizenship

Operational citizenship is the ability to exercise citizenship and participate in

governance. It includes the ability to access the rights and benefits of participation with

equal opportunity and equal access. The idea of operational citizenship is derived from

the civic participation literature and ideology where each individual has the right to act in

society. All citizens are believed to have a voice through an equal vote or at least by

establishing an environment of self determination where citizens are freely able to access

education, employment, and other opportunities (Hall & Held, 1990). Operational

citizenship is often a challenge for minority groups as they have historically faced

additional challenges to accessing opportunities for advancement and achievement (Day,

2003). As a result, programs and policies should be viewed in the context of providing

equal access to opportunities (information, tools, and awareness) that are necessary for

7

self determination and making decisions for themselves, rather than by others (Hall &

Held, 1990). For students to be able to determine their own educational future, they must

have equal access to all educational programs and opportunities that are necessary for

college admittance and success.

Assumptions and Limitations

This study focuses on the perceptions of Advanced Placement teachers in public

high schools. Specifically, the study will examine the decision making process of

teachers in AP course offerings and course prerequisites. The study examined issues of

access but was limited to current teachers of AP courses. Several assumptions underlie

the study:

1. Participants will teach at least one Advanced Placement course.

2. Participants are computer-knowledgeable.

3. Participants will self-report on the web-based survey.

4. Participants will respond in good faith, honestly, and in a timely manner.

5. Participants will understand the survey questions.

Additionally, the AP teachers participating in the study were all employed within

three school districts in Northern California. The perceptions and practices of the AP

teachers in the study may not be applicable to other geographic area.

Significance of the Study

This study will add to existing educational literature on Advanced Placement and

issues of student access. More specifically, the study is intended to add to the limited

research that exists on the role of the teacher in determining student access and

8

assignment to Advanced Placement courses and in determining the Advanced Placement

course offerings in high schools. In addition, by examining the results through the lens of

operational citizenship, the researcher will provide recommendations for educational

leaders on the policy and practice of providing students access to AP courses.

Definition of Terms

Advanced Placement (AP) course - a college-level course taught in the high

school setting using a standardized course syllabus aligned with the Advanced Placement

examination (College Board, 2008c).

College Board - a non-profit organization that since 1955 has continued to

develop and maintain the Advanced Placement program, support high schools, colleges

and universities, and coordinate the administration of annual AP examinations (College

Board, 2008c).

Latino - a term used to describe a person of Hispanic, especially Latin-American,

descent.

Low-income student - a student who is eligible for free or reduced-price lunches

under the National School Lunch Act.

Weighted course - a high school course that provides an extra grade point,

allowing student to earn a grade point average above the traditional perfect average of

4.0.

Conclusion

Tierney, Colyar, and Corwin (2003) cite three factors highlighting the importance

of AP course access. First, college enrollment and persistence to graduation are higher

9

among students in college preparatory classes such as AP courses. Second, preparation

through rigorous academic curriculum is important to the college enrollment decisions of

low-income students. Third, schools that fail to provide a rigorous curriculum can

undermine the college preparation of those students who are most in need of assistance.

Due to various policies and practices, AP participation has been limited for many

students, especially for students from traditionally underserved populations. This study

will examine the role of the teacher in determining AP course offerings and student

access to AP courses.

Chapter Two provides a detailed review of the literature on the Advanced

Placement program and issues of student access to AP courses. The chapter provides a

review of the background and growth of the AP program followed by an examination of

contrasting points of view on the benefits of AP for students participating in the AP

program. The review of the literature will also include examining issues of access for

historically underrepresented backgrounds and will examine the existing literature on AP

teachers.

Chapter Three explains the methods used in conducting a mixed quantitative and

qualitative study to determine the decision making processes of teachers for determining

course offerings, student access, and assignment to Advanced Placement courses. This

chapter is also an explanation of how the data were collected and the methods used for

analysis.

10

Chapter Four provides an account of the research tools used for data collection,

the findings from the online survey and follow-up interviews, and an overall analysis of

the data.

Chapter Five examines and discusses the themes that emerged from the data

regarding the influence of the teacher in determining Advanced Placement offerings,

student access, and student enrollment. This chapter includes an interpretation of the

findings as well as recommendations for action and for further study.

11

Chapter 2

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This review of the literature summarizes the history and growth of the Advanced

Placement program and explains the existing program and its criticisms. The summary is

followed by a discussion of the research into the benefits of the AP program for students

and schools. The review will also examine issues of access to AP courses for students in

various school settings and for students from traditionally underserved populations. The

theoretical framework of operational citizenship views equal access as a crucial

component for self determination (Hall & Held, 1990). Current data reveal that barriers

to AP access and participation exist for many students.

Advanced Placement Background

History and Growth

After World War II, the Ford Foundation sought to improve American schools by

forming the Fund for the Advancement of Education (F AE) in 1951, which created a

program for early admission to college for high school seniors (Nugent & Kames, 2002).

Over the next four years, representatives of Harvard, Princeton, and Yale, and the

preparatory schools affiliated with them recommended allowing high school seniors to

take college-level courses and achievement exams that would allow them to earn college

credit. Along with a number of eastern colleges, the president of Kenyon College in

1953 established course descriptions for freshman college courses that could be accepted

by colleges even if taught in high schools (Nugent & Kames, 2002). The first Advanced

Placement examinations began in May of 1954 and the program was taken over by the

College Board in 1955 with the Educational Testing Service (ETS) becoming the

supervising agency for the examination readings (Rothschild, 1999).

12

The College Board is a not-for-profit membership organization founded in 1900.

The association is currently comprised of more than 5,400 schools, colleges, and

universities and provides services in college admissions, guidance, assessment, financial

aid, enrollment, and teaching and learning. Among the best known College Board

programs are the SAT's, the PSATINMSQT's, and the Advanced Placement program

(College Board, 2008c).

Initially, AP examinations were administered to around 100 high schools and

1,200 students who took 2,200 examinations. The AP program grew continually into the

1980's and then grew dramatically in the 1990's with the number of students

participating and the number of examinations administered tripling (College Board,

2004). In 2004, over one million AP students took nearly two million AP examinations

(College Board, 2005). In 2008, 15.2 percent of students (more than 460,000) who

graduated from public schools in the United States earned an AP exam score of at least 3

(passing score) on one or more AP exams. This was an increase from 14.4 percent in

2007 and 12.2 percent in 2003 (College Board, 2009). Currently, more than 90 percent

of four-year colleges and universities in the United States grant students credit and or

placement on the basis of qualifying AP exam scores (College Board, 2009). The large

growth of the AP program in the 1990's has been primarily sustained by ongoing national

reforms in K-12 education, by existing college admission procedures, and by attention in

the popular media (Fithian, 2003).

13

Advanced Placement Courses and Examinations

The purpose of AP courses is to mirror entry level college courses and improve

the overall curriculum of schools (Callahan, 2003). Currently, the AP program offers 27

courses and exams to more than 17,000 schools worldwide. Table 1 shows the courses

and exams offered by the College Board (College Board, 2008c).

Table I

Advanced Placement Courses alld Exallls

Arts

Art History

Music Theory

Studio Art: Drawing Portfolio

Studio Art: 2-D Design Portfolio

Studio Art: 3-D Design Portfolio

English

English Language and Composition

Engl ish Literature and Composition

Social Sciences

Comparative Government and Politics

European History

Human Geography

Macroeconomics

Microeconomics

Psychology

United States Government and Politics

United States History

World History

Mathematics Sciences

Calculus AB Biology

Calculus BC Chemistry

Computer Environmental Science A Science

Computer Physics B Science AS

Physics C: Statistics Electricity and

Magnetism

Physics C: Mechanics

World Language

Chinese Language and Culture

French Language

French Literature

German Language

Ital ian Language and Culture

Japanese Language and Culture

Latin Literature

Latm: Vergil

Spanish Language and Spanish Literature

Each year the AP exams are given in May with each exam divided into a multiple

choice section and a free-response written section. The scores of the two sections are

14

combined to form a total score that is converted into a five-point scale. 5 = extren1ely

well qualified; 4 = well qualified; 3 = qualified; 2 = possibly qualified, and 1 = no

recomn1endation. Individual colleges and universities, not the College Board, set their

own policies for granting introductory level course credit and placement. Most colleges

and universities consider a score of 3 sufficient for introductory level course credit, with

many states such as Kentucky mandating all public state universities to give introductory

level credit for a score of 3 or higher on AP exams (Johnson, 2005). Some exclusive

colleges and universities such as Stanford will only accept a perfect score of a 5 to grant

test credit for introductory courses (Stanford University, 2009).

Students are allowed to take as many AP exams as they wish. Enrolling and

passing an AP course is not required to take an AP exam. Students who are

homeschooled or students who attend a school that does not offer AP courses can still

take AP exams by arranging to test at a participating school. Students with documented

disabilities may receive accommodations on the AP exams including extended time,

large-type exams, and Braille exams. The fee for each AP exam is currently $86

although the College Board provides a $22 reduction for qualifying students with

financial needs. Most states have established additional fee reduction programs to

increase availability and participation in AP courses for low income students (College

Board, 2008c). In California, Assembly Bill 2216 created a grant program for

economically disadvantaged students to cover the costs of advanced placement exam

fees. The grant program permits eligible low-income students to pay $5 for each AP

examination fee with the remainder of the costs being paid with federal grants in

conjunction with state funds (Cal Ed. Code § 52240).

15

AP exams are generally from two to three hours and contain both multiple-choice

and free-response questions. The AP exams in French, German, Italian, Spanish

Language and Music Theory include a listening portion from recorded CDs. The

multiple choice portion of the exam is computer scored and the free-response portion is

evaluated in June by "readers" who are made up of AP teachers and college professors.

AP scores are reported to student designated colleges in July and then sent to students

and high schools in mid July (College Board, 2008d)

Advanced Placement Criticism

While the AP program has grown significantly in the last two decades, there have

been concerns that the AP program can at times have a negative effect on schools and the

overall curriculum. Critics argue that AP courses and exams cover too much information

even for students with a strong academic background (Klopfenstein, 2003a). AP courses

are designed to cover a substantial amount of material in a short period of time to prepare

for the AP exam (Klopfenstein & Thomas, 2005). The National Research Council (2002)

has stated that too much course content may limit long-term student achievement by

forcing the instructor to limit any in-depth study of the content. Additionally, teachers

and students have reported frustration at the rigidity of AP courses, and students in a

focus group have suggested that there was only a limited amount of room for a diversity

of teaching styles in AP courses (Kyburg et aI., 2007).

16

Even though the program continues to grow nationally, some high schools have

begun to discontinue their AP programs to improve the overall curriculum of the school.

Some schools have chosen to focus on designing their own curriculum to meet the needs

of their students, rather than using a standardized curriculum (Matthews, 2005; Santo Ii,

2002). Smaller schools and rural schools have found it more difficult to provide their

students with a comprehensive AP program due to limited resources in comparison to

larger schools and districts. In a rural Pennsylvania study, Gardner (2003) found a

diffusion of higher academic standards and larger class sizes for students not enrolled in

AP courses when scheduling was done to accommodate for AP courses and students.

Larger schools and districts had more funds and scheduling flexibility to offer more

classes for non AP students. Rural schools and districts usually lack the funds and the

qualified teachers that are available to large schools and districts (Dounay, 2006).

Advanced Placement Benefits

Since the early 1980's the College Board has sponsored considerable research on

the Advanced Placement Program. Initial research by Casserly (1986) concluded that AP

students who had passed the AP exam and were given credit for an introductory college

course were more successful in advanced college courses than students who had not

participated in the AP program and had been required to take introductory college

courses. In 1986, Willingham and Morris published a highly publicized longitudinal

study comparing almost 5,000 AP and non-AP students from over 700 high schools. The

researchers found that AP students outperformed their non-AP counterparts academically

and hinted that an "AP advantage" existed for many non-AP students. Students who

17

attended high schools with large AP programs experienced more success in college than

was expected when examining their grades and test scores (Santoli, 2002). Casement

(2003) has criticized the College Board for its conflict of interest in continually offering

positive research in favor of the AP program, which nets the College Board over 20

million dollars per year. Existing research indicates that many of the academic benefits

of AP courses after college admission are due to exposing students to the academic rigor,

expectations, and autonomy that is associated with a college level curriculum (Harris &

Galitsis, 1980).

College Admission

Even though the AP program was not originally intended to give students an

advantage in the college admissions process, today AP courses and tests have become a

popular tool for increasing students' chances for admission into competitive colleges and

universities (Tai, 2008). The way in which colleges and universities award credit to AP

students varies from institution to institution (Geiser & Santelinces, 2004). However, AP

courses and test scores can signal a student's exposure to a challenging curriculum and in

some colleges and universities can be a ticket to more-advanced courses (Oxtoby, 2007).

The California Postsecondary Education Commission (2005) recognizes that

successfully completing Advanced Placement courses will improve a student's chance for

college admission as AP courses are weighted heavier than non-AP courses, giving the

AP student an additional grade point when calculating the student's grade point average.

The majority of colleges and universities recalculate students' high school grade point

averages after eliminating courses viewed as unnecessary and giving preference to

courses deemed to be academically advanced (Hawkins & Clinedinst, 2006).

18

In a 2002 study, college admissions personnel ranked AP course enrollment above

SAT II scores in importance for college admissions (Breeland, et aI., 2002). Institutions

such as the University of California consider the number of Advanced Placement courses

that a student completes and the grades that were earned as independent criteria for

admission (Geiser & Santelices, 2004). Under systems like the University of California,

students who do not take AP courses are at a disadvantage in admissions, regardless of

their academic achievement.

College Success

One of the first systematic analyses of the perfonnance of AP students in college

was conducted by Burham and Hewitt (1967) with students at Yale University. The

study reported that in English and mathematics courses, AP students outperfonned their

non-AP peers. Subsequent studies reported that AP students were more sufficiently

prepared prior to college entry to enroll in upper-level courses and AP students were

more likely to specialize in majors with tougher grading standards and to double major

(Simms, 1982; Willingham & Morris, 1986). In a study of more than 3,000 AP students

in the University of California system, Morgan and Crone (1993) found that AP students

continued to pursue knowledge in the subject area of their exam at greater rates than

other students as well as earned grades that were higher than non-AP students.

In 1992, the State Council of Higher Education reported that academically

prepared high school students were not only more successful in college but were also

19

more self-confident, had higher aspirations, and felt that they "fit-in" more easily into

college. Santoli (2002) revealed that AP courses made a difference in how students

prepared and how they felt for college, and found that AP students had a better four-year

college perfonnance than non-AP students. In a study at Syracuse University, first year

students who entered the university with AP credit maintained a first-year retention rate

of 96% compared to the existing national average of 79% (Miller, 1994). In a

longitudinal study, Hargrove (2008) recognized that there was a trend of students who

had successfully participated in one or more AP courses significantly outperfonning

similar non-AP students. Additionally, students who were given introductory course

credit for passing an AP test had greater success in advanced college courses than non

AP students. A study of 182 college sophomores focused on those who had taken AP

English courses in high school and those who had only taken a first-year writing

composition class. Those students who had taken both the AP English course and the

first-year writing composition class significantly outperfonned students who had just

taken one or the other (Hansen et aI., 2006). A similar study of nearly 5,000 students in

science classes reported that AP students who had received introductory level credit for

science classes perfonned better in advanced science classes than students who had taken

the introductory science course before taking the advanced course (Richards, 2006).

Multiple studies have suggested that even students who do poorly on AP tests by not

scoring a 3 or higher are still more likely to go to college and graduate from college than

non-AP students (Callahan, 2003; Matthews, 2005; Santoli, 2002).

20

While there is much research on the benefits of AP courses and passing AP

exams, some researchers also say that taking AP courses and passing AP exams is not in

itself a reliable indicator of future college success (Hysler, 1999; Klopfenstein, 2003a;

Klopfenstein & Thomas, 2005; Lurie, 2000). Klopfenstein and Thomas (2004)

conducted a study that contradicts findings that AP experiences alone provide superior

academic readiness and achievement. The researchers found that the difference in first

year college grades and dropout rates for AP and non-AP students was better explained

by familiar predictors of college performance: high school grade point averages, SAT

scores, parents' education and income, and the proportion of experienced teachers in the

students' high schools. Klopfenstein and Thomas (2005) later found that AP courses

were no better at preparing students for the academic demands of college than were

challenging high school courses. Geiser and Santelices (2005) report that simply taking

an AP course does not better prepare students for college than other courses and does not

automatically predict college success. Sadler and Tai (2007) warn educators that there is

an inconsistency between enrollments in AP courses as an indicator of college

preparation and there is a variation as to what degree AP courses contribute to college

preparation.

While AP students do generally outperform non-AP students in college, there is

some debate to whether it is due to AP participation itself or primarily due to exposing

students to a rigorous curriculum in high school. According to the U.S. Department of

Education, a rigorous curriculum has been shown to be the most significant factor in

determining whether a student would earn a bachelor's degree. A rigorous curriculum

21

was more significant than traditional benchmarks such as a student's grade point average

or class rank in determining college success (Weiss, 2001).

Issues of Access

Over the last decade there has been increasing concern about the availability of

AP courses for all students, especially those in rural areas and students from historically

underserved populations. The predominance of AP courses are offered in more affluent,

suburban areas with African American and Latino students underrepresented in AP

participation (Furry & Hecsh, 2001). Klopfenstein (2004) suggested that the availability

of AP courses depended upon three main factors: college expectations, school size, and

school resources. Students who had high expectations for attending college tend to

request and demand more AP programs from their high schools. Schools with large

proportions of low-income and English Leamer (EL) students tend to offer fewer AP

courses due to low expectations about attending college. African American and Latino

students tend to reject high-level mathematics courses despite a demonstrated relationship

between a strong math background and college success and personal economic success

(Klopfenstein, 2004; Rose & Betts, 2001). Secondly, large schools tended to provide

more AP courses since the scheduling and cost of AP programs were easier to

accomn10date than in smaller schools. Third, schools with limited resources found it

difficult to fund a comprehensive AP program that may only be utilized by a limited

portion of the student population.

Regardless of the number of AP courses offered at a student's high school, many

students continually face limited access to AP participation as many schools use grades,

22

teacher recommendation, and other criteria to determine AP course placement. The terms

"barrier" and "gatekeeper" have been used to describe teachers and counselors who make

decisions about AP design, placement, and recommendations (Barber, 1995; Lazarin,

2001; Lee, 2001). According to Oakes (1990), course placement in most high schools

requires teacher appraisal of student ability through grades and recommendations.

Practices of early tracking or grouping students together based upon their similar

abilities, also impacts the AP participation for many students. Beginning as early as sixth

grade, many students are advised to take courses that are not college preparatory,

providing a distinct disadvantage when compared to students who are tracked into more

rigorous courses (Oakes, 1995). Teacher recommendation or permission to enroll in an

AP course has had a significantly large impact on minority students' participation

(Escalante, 1990). In her 1995 study, Oakes found a racial bias in teachers who were

more likely to recommend and place white and Asian students in college preparatory

courses, even when minority students had similar test scores.

Historically Underserved Populations

AP courses have been criticized for failing to provide an equal opportunity for

minority students around the country (Klopfenstein & Thomas, 2005; Lichten, 2000;

Santoli, 2002). AP courses have been traditionally found in communities with resources.

The likelihood of the availability of AP courses is greater for students of middle class and

wealthy communities (Hacsi, 2004). In a Texas study, Klopfenstein (2003a) found that

African American students participated at half the rate of white students in AP courses,

and poverty was a factor that reduced AP participation by 40 percent.

23

In 1999, the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) sued the state of California

(Daniel v. California) on behalf of minority students at traditionally low performing high

schools. The class action lawsuit charged that African American, Latino, and needy

students who attended high schools with few AP offerings were at a disadvantage in

applying to colleges that consider AP classes when admitting students. According to the

lawsuit, 333 high schools with large minority student populations provide four or fewer

AP courses while 144 high schools have 15 or more AP courses. Sixty percent of the

high schools offering 15 or more AP courses have majority white and Asian student

bodies (Carnevale, 1999). Since there existed an unequal access to AP courses, and

selective California colleges and universities placed a strong emphasis on AP courses

when considering applicants, African American and Latino students were limited not

only in their educational program offerings but also in their future college opportunities

(Attewell, 2000). In response to the lawsuit, the California Department of Education

initiated the AP Challenge Grant program which was designed to increase the availability

and participation in AP courses for ethnic minority students by limiting costs and fees.

Despite the implementation of grant and fee waiver programs around the country,

schools severing traditionally underrepresented students continue to offer AP courses at a

disproportionate rate compared to high performing schools (Tierney, Colyar, & Corwin,

2003). Inner city schools, schools with limited funding, and students who come from

low-income backgrounds are not proportionally represented in AP statistics. African

American and Latino students specifically have been unrepresented, especially in inner

city schools and in the southeastern region of the United States. In the late 1990's,

24

minority students had a passage rate on AP exams at half the majority rate (Lichten,

2000). Klopfenstein (2003b) found that magnet schools in Texas tended to promote AP

participation among white students but did not equally promote participation among

African American students.

Equity Gap

An equity gap exists when traditionally underserved students, such as African

American and Latino students, make up a smaller percentage of the group of students

participating in AP than the percentage these students represent in the overall student

body. In Michigan, white students make up 75 percent of the school population and 85

percent of the students in AP English, AP calculus, and AP biology. African American

students in Michigan make up 20 percent of the school population but less than five

percent of the AP students (Education Trust, 2002).

According to the College Board (2009), eighteen states have closed the equity gap

(Alabmna, Alaska, Arkansas, District of Columbia, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky,

Louisiana, Maine, Maryland, Mississippi, Missouri, Ohio, South Carolina, Tennessee,

Vermont, Virginia, and West Virginia) but no state has closed the gap for African

American students alone. Alabama has seen the largest five-year increase in the

percentage of its successful AP students who are African American. African American

students made up 31. 7 percent of the state's student population in 2008 and were 7.1

percent of the state's successful AP student population, up from 4.5 percent in 2003

(College Board, 2009).

25

Klopfenstein (2003b) discovered in her study that low income was the single most

important factor behind the minority AP participation gap. Low-income students were

n10re likely to be pressured to work or take on family responsibilities while attending

school, and low-income students typically had limited access to a culture of learning that

leads students to pursue a rigorous high school curriculum. Her study revealed that low

income limited AP participation for all races, and in Texas specifically, African

American and Latino students were three times more likely to be low-income as white

students.

Federal and State Policies

In response to concerns of student equity and access to AP, federal and state

governments implemented incentive programs that primarily target traditionally

underserved students. Some states have required all high schools to offer a minimum

number of AP courses, or for small rural school districts, to provide an online AP course

option for students (see appendix A).

Originally passed in 1965, the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA),

reauthorized as the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) of 2002, is the main federal law

affecting K-12 education. NCLB created the "Access to High Standards Act" which

includes section 1704, the Advanced Placement Test Fee Program, and section 1705, the

Advanced Placement Incentive Program Grants program. The Advanced Placement Test

Fee Program offers grants to states to reimburse qualified low-income students for part of

or all of the costs of AP test fees. For the year 2009, the U.S. Department of Education

appropriated $14,703,549 in grants to states to pay the Advanced Placement test fees for

26

low-income students (U.S. Department of Education, 2009a). The Advanced Placen1ent

Incentive Program Grants awards 3 year grants on a competitive basis to educational

entities for teacher training, pre-advanced placement course development, books and

supplies, and other activities and resources (NCLB, 2002). For the 2008 fiscal year, the

U.S. Department of Education appropriated $31,539,834 to 64 educational entities (U.S.

Department of Education, 2009b).

Section 51228( a) of the California Education Code requires all school districts to

offer to all of their qualified high school students a curriculum that meets the

requirelnents and prerequisites for admission to California's post secondary institutions.

Additionally, the California Education Code also states that "standardized tests" are a

major factor in the admission of students in post secondary education, and it defines

"standardized tests" to include "Advanced Placement tests" (Cal Ed. Code §99151).

The California Education Code section 200 (a) states, "it is the policy of the State

of California to afford all persons ... equal rights and opportunities in the educational

institutions of the state." Additionally, "No person shall be subjected to discrimination

on the basis of disability, gender, nationality, race or ethnicity, religion, sexual

orientation, or any other characteristic ... or any program or activity conducted by an

educational institution that receives, or benefits from, state financial assistance or enrolls

pupils who receive state student financial aid" (Cal Ed. Code § 220). Section 66204 (a)

requires the State Superintendent of Public Instruction to assist all school districts in

ensuring that all public high school students have access to a curriculum that meets the

admission requirements of the University of California and the California State

University.

Suggested Reforms

27

In addressing the concerns of inequity of student access and the

underrepresentation of students participating in AP from traditionally underserved

backgrounds, researchers have suggested some reforms. Solorzano and Omedas (2004)

call for a comprehensive restructuring of school culture to influence minority students to

take rigorous courses leading up to high school and culminating in AP courses. They

also suggest a reform of university admissions policies that consider AP course

enrollment alone as a criterion for admissions. Instead, the researchers call for an index

that considers the number of AP courses offered by the student's high school as well as

the number of courses taken. This would eliminate the advantage that a student has if

they attend a high school that offers significantly more AP courses than other high

schools. The Geiser and Santelices (2004) study identified disparities created by the

current college and university system of admissions, and attributed much of the blame for

low representations of minority students in AP programs to schools' tracking low-income

and underrepresented minority students into non-college preparatory courses. The

restructuring of the school culture to promote a supportive, rigorous curriculum was

supported by a Texas study that found that gifted children in urban areas, of any

ethnicity, will succeed if they have the support from their community, school

administrators, and their teachers (Kyburg, Hertberg-Davis, & Callahan, 2007).

28

Klopfenstein (2004) encourages school districts to increase the personalization of

education by creating smaller school settings that have the ability to direct the curriculum

towards the individual needs of the students, rather than focusing on a standardized

curriculum regardless of the needs of the students and school community. Additionally,

Klopfenstein (2003b) recognized that students who received individual mentoring and

had positive role models had enrolled in AP courses at higher rates and that AP incentive

programs have the potential to dramatically increase minority student participation.

Minority students had fewer resources available in terms of parental support and

institutional knowledge in navigating the educational system, and mentoring at the school

site could help students understand the importance and benefits of a rigorous high school

curriculum.

Klopfenstein and Thomas (2005) cite the importance of giving teachers the

flexibility to design AP courses that provide the greatest value for their individual

students. They argue that more resources should be allocated for ongoing professional

development to aide teachers and administrators in promoting and implementing AP

programs that give all students the tools necessary to succeed in college.

Advanced Placement Teachers

AP courses are taught at an accelerated pace and are intended to mirror a college

level introductory course. AP courses generally require more of teachers in their

knowledge base and their preparation for their classes (Oberjuerge, 1999). Historically,

successful teachers are those that can use a broad range of instructional strategies in

response to the specific needs of their students (Darling-Hammond, 2000). Because the

29

AP cuniculum covers many topics with high expectations of mastery, developing

successful strategies for all students can be a challenge for AP teachers. Research has

shown that some teachers are hesitant to teach an AP course as many AP teachers feel

scrutinized by the annual public reporting of student test scores (Bodenhausen, 1989;

Oberjuerge, 1999). A study of the characteristics of teachers revealed that AP teachers

traditionally have more experience teaching and have on average a higher graduate

school background than non-AP teachers (Milewski & Gillie, 2002). According to 2009

Farkas Duffett Research Group survey, AP teachers were generally satisfied with the

program's quality at their school site. More than three in four (770/0) rated the AP

program as "good" or "excellent." Of the over 1,000 teachers surveyed, 59% said that

the level of difficulty and complexity of the material covered in their AP courses had

stayed about the same over the last five years, 270/0 said it had gotten more difficult, and

only 13% said that the material had gotten easier. Almost two thirds (65%) believed that

many of the other teachers at their schools did not want to teach AP courses due to the

demanding work load (Duffett & Farkas, 2009).

Teaching Experience

Teacher training and expertise have been found to have a significant effect on the

quality of teachers' practices (Darling-Hammond, 2000; Ferguson & Womack, 1993).

Researchers Darling-Hammond (2001) and Murnane and Phillips (1991) found a positive

relationship between teachers' effectiveness and their years of teaching. Overall,

teachers who had taught for less than three years tended to be less effective than teachers

with more experience. Teaching experience also has an effect on the personal goals and

30

priorities of AP teachers for their class and for their students. AP teachers with an

average of four years of teaching AP reported their least important goal (on a rating scale

of one to five) was that their students earn a passing score of 3 or higher on the AP exam

(Burton, et aI., 2002). In contrast, a study of new AP teachers revealed that a passing

grade on the AP exam was the highest priority for new AP Biology and AP U.S. History

teachers (Burton, et aI., n.d.). To the more experienced teachers, the most important

goals were that the students experience college-level work, build their confidence in the

subject, and build their confidence regarding success in college (Burton, et aI., 2002).

AP Teacher Screening of Students

Research has demonstrated that students' preparation prior to taking AP courses

has been significantly related to how well students performed on AP exams (Camara,

1997; Camara and Millsap, 1998). As more schools have pushed for open access to AP

courses, teachers report concerns of struggling students and difficulties maintaining the

rigor of the program (Winebrenner, 2006). Even though most teachers report that AP

course quality and student achievement on AP exams have remained the same over the

last five years, many teachers also report that the overall ability of their students has

lowered, with many students struggling in their AP courses (Duffett & Farkas, 2009). In

a study of three California high schools, Oakes (1995) found that many educators

assumed that minority students were not prepared for Advanced Placement courses due to

a perceived poor educational and economically disadvantaged background. Minority

students were continually enrolled in classes based upon the cultural assumptions of

teachers, the structure of the school, and the ability of parents and students in

31

communicating their academic needs. Eworo-Enfumo (2004) examined the role of the

perceptions of teachers and guidance counselors and their impact on minority

underachievement in AP courses. The study reported that institutional barriers of policy

implementation were contributing to enrollment disparities in AP courses for African

American and Latino students. Many teachers and guidance counselors subjectively

decided to implement policies for parents that knew "what buttons to push". The study

noted that "white, middle class parents were successful in advocating for their students to

have high school grades changed and raised, and for their children to receive specific

teachers and gain admittance into specific courses" (p. 57).

In 2002, the College Board reported that in a study of 31 ,811 AP teachers, 49% of

AP teachers used previous course grades, 58.8% used teacher recommendations, and

53.3% used prerequisite course requirements before admitting students into their AP

course. The 2009 Farkas Duffett Research Group survey reported that 52 percent of

teachers favored screening students based upon a pre-set criterion such as grade point

average or teacher approval before allowing a student to enroll in an AP course. Only 38

percent of the teachers surveyed reported that AP courses should be open to all interested

students. Overall, 63 percent of all teachers surveyed reported that they supported some

fonn of screening to ensure that students who enroll in an AP course are prepared

appropriately (Sawchuk, 2009).

Teacher Recruitment of Students

There are many benefits to a diverse learning environment for students and

teachers. Pettigrew and Tropp (2005) conducted a meta-analysis that analyzed 515

32

studies and indicated that racial diversity in the classroom promotes higher student

achievement and that increased contact of different student groups reduces prejudice and

stereotypes. A study by Burton, Whitman, Yepes-Baraya, Cline, and Myung-in Kim

(2002) reported that only half of the school principals in the study made any effort to

recruit minority students into AP courses. Even fewer teachers reported recruiting

students into AP courses, mainly due to the belief that it was not part of their job or role.

In 2002, most schools (88(%) did not have any specific policies for increasing minority

student participation in AP. Additionally, only 8.4% of all AP teachers reported

recruiting minority students into their AP course (College Board, 2002). A Milewski and

Gillie (2002) study reported that, similar to the underrepresentation of African American

and Latino students in AP participation, there also existed an underrepresentation of

African American and Latino AP teachers as well.

Summary

Since its beginning in 1955, the Advanced Placement program has undergone

tremendous growth. Currently the College Board offers 27 AP courses and exams to

more than 17,000 schools worldwide. Multiple studies have demonstrated many positive

effects of AP participation for students, including advantages when competing for college

admissions and superior academic performance in comparison to non-AP students. Some

research has pointed to the importance of a rigorous curriculum, not AP participation in

itself, as more of factor when comparing student academic performance. Although the

growth of AP has included greater participation of students from historically underserved

populations, an equity gap continues to exist where African American and Latino

33

students represent a larger proportion of the student population than they do in AP

participation. Federal and many state polices encourage schools and districts to promote

AP participation and to remove any barriers to access for underrepresented students.

Research has revealed that some barriers to AP access exist due to high school funding

and scheduling issues as well as AP teacher policies and practices. In surveys of AP

teachers, most prefer to screen prospective AP students to ensure they are academically

prepared for a rigorous curriculum. Even though there are benefits of a diverse student

body, AP teachers have not actively promoted AP participation to historically

underrepresented students such as African American and Latino students.

Chapter 3

METHODOLOGY

Introduction

34

There have been numerous studies illustrating the positive effects of an Advanced

Placement (AP) curriculum on students' success in college admittance and completion.

According to the research, many selective colleges and universities consider grade point

averages and AP enrollment when considering applicants. Barriers to AP access

currently exist due to school demographics, funding, and the disparity of AP course

offerings. African American and Latino students particularly are underrepresented in AP

participation. This study was designed to examine the perceptions and practices of high

school AP teachers in determining student access and assignment to Advanced Placement

courses and in determining Advanced Placement course offerings in high schools. The

data collection and analysis for this study was guided by the following four research

questions:

Research Question # 1 : What are the perceptions and behaviors of

Advanced Placement teachers regarding course enrollment criteria for students?

Research Question #2: What is the role of the Advanced Placement teacher

in encouraging participation in Advanced Placement courses for underrepresented

students?


in determining Advanced Placement course offerings?

35



Research Design

This study uses a mixed methods design with both quantitative and qualitative

methods. Using both quantitative and qualitative methods has typically become the

major approach to research in the social and human sciences (Creswell, 2008). Using

mixed Inethod research highlights the strengths of both quantitative and qualitative

research methods, and helps alleviate the weakness of each (Stange, Crabtree, & Miller,

2006). The first phase of the study was a voluntary sampling of Advanced Placement

teachers through the use of an online survey. The second phase of the study used follow

up interviews to collect additional data from selected Advanced Placement teachers.

The instrument used in phase I of the study was a survey developed by the

researcher to measure the perceptions of Advanced Placement teachers about teacher

behavior and student access. The items on the survey were designed to gather data on the

four research questions. The surveys contained an introductory section to obtain

demographic information that was considered in evaluating the results of the study. This

information included the participant's age, gender, ethnicity, years of teaching, and years

of teaching AP courses. The research questions and the corresponding survey items are

listed in Appendix B. The questions on the survey were in the form of a five point Likert

Scale of: strongly agree (l), agree (2), neutral (3), disagree (4), and strongly disagree

(5).

The instrument used in phase II of the study was an interview protocol that was

developed by the researcher to collect additional data on key areas of selected AP

teachers' perceptions and behaviors. The items on the interview protocol are listed in

Appendix C.

Population

The population of the study consisted of Advanced Placement teachers within

three school districts in northern California. In each school district the criterion for

participation was that the subjects were currently teaching at least one Advanced

Placement course. Once the criteria had been selected, potential school districts in

California were identified and contacted by the researcher. Formal research requests

were submitted and approved at each school district, and the researcher contacted each

school site in each district to collect the contact information on the schools' Advanced

Placement teachers. The researcher was granted permission to contact 100 Advanced

Placement teachers within the three school districts.

Data Collection

36

The researcher obtained the approval of the Committee for the Protection of

Human Subjects of California State University, Sacramento to conduct the study. The

three school districts granted permission to contact their Advanced Placement (AP)

teachers for the survey and to interview selected AP teachers. The AP teachers were

contacted by their email addresses and were informed of the study and encouraged to

participate in the online survey. The AP teachers initially contacted were contacted again

after the first week to remind and encourage them to participate in the online survey.

Each of the survey participants denoted their agreement on the online survey consent

form (see appendix D).

37

Using the data collected from the survey in phase I of the study, selected AP

teachers were chosen for phase II, the follow up interview. There were five criteria for

selecting AP teachers for participation in phase II. The first criterion is the AP teachers

had denoted on the initial survey in phase I of the study that they would be willing to

participate in a follow up interview. The second criterion was AP teachers who had self

reported on the initial survey that they were firmly committed to either screening students

before allowing them to enroll in the AP course that they were teaching, or had

committed to allowing open access to all students into their AP course. The third

criterion was new AP teachers who had been teaching for less than 10 years, or AP

teachers who had been teaching for 21 years or more. The fourth criterion for selection

was AP teachers who worked at a school site that had demographics representing either

high or low API scores. For the purposes of this study, a high API score was a score of

over 800 and a low API score was a score of below 699. The final criterion was AP

teachers who worked at a school site that had demographics representing either high or

low percentages of students who qualified for free and reduced lunches. For the purposes

of this study, a school with a high percentage of students who qualified for free and

reduced lunches was a school with 81 % to 91 % of its students qualifying. A school with

a low percentage of students who qualified for free and reduced lunches was a school

with 120/0 to 230/0 of its students qualifying.

38

The process of identifying AP teachers to be interviewed involved the researcher

creating a matrix of survey respondents who had responded that they would be willing to

participate in the follow-up interview. Additionally, tables were created by the researcher

to show the percentages of responses of the survey participants by years of teaching,

years of teaching AP courses, teacher age, gender, and race / ethnicity. The tables

created of responses by teacher factors are listed in Appendix E. Using the data from the

matrix and tables, the researcher determined which of the AP teachers met the various

aspects of the interview criteria. Each of the interview participants agreed to and signed

the online survey consent form (see appendix F).

Analysis of Data

The goal of the study was to determine Advanced Placement teachers'

perceptions and behaviors regarding issues of student access to their schools' AP courses.

Using the four research questions to guide the study, data was collected from AP teachers

in two phases: an online survey and a follow-up interview. The AP teachers were

currently teaching at least one AP course in a public high school.

Phase I

The questions on the survey were in the form of a five point Likert Scale of:

strongly agree (1), agree (2), neutral (3), disagree (4), and strongly disagree (5). Survey

data with the highest number indicated the highest level of disagreement, and the lowest

score represented the highest level of agreement. The data was analyzed by scoring the

returned surveys using SPSS, a statistical software program designed to tabulate data for

analysis.

39

The dependent variables for the study were AP teacher perceptions and AP

teacher practices. There are two categories of independent variables that were used to

test each of the dependent variables. The first category was AP teacher factors, including

AP teacher age, gender, race/ethnicity, years of teaching, and years of teaching AP

courses. The second category was school factors, where the AP teachers were employed,

number of students, number of AP courses offered school wide, percent of students who

qualified for free or reduced lunch, and school academic performance index (API) scores.

The Likert Scale survey questions were aimed at ascertaining both teacher

perceptions and teacher practices. The first phase of the data analysis was a two-pronged

approach. The first prong used descriptive statistics and frequency charts to descriptively

describe the quantitative findings from the survey. Second, the items targeting teacher

perceptions were summed to arrive at a teacher perception score. The same was true for

teacher practices. Separate multiple regression analyses were conducted to look at the

relationship of school and teacher factors (independent variables) with the two outcome

measures: teacher perceptions and teacher practices (dependent variables). The school

factors were grouped into three categories for analysis of high, mid, and low. A high API

score was a score over 800, a mid API score was a score between 700 and 799, and a low

API score was a score between 600 and 699. A school with a high number of students

was a school with over 2000 students, a mid number of students was a school with

between 1000 and 1999 students, and a low number of students was a school with less

than 1000 students. A school with a high number of AP courses offered was a school

with between 30 and 36 AP courses, a mid number of AP courses was a school with

40

between 13 and 17 AP courses, and a school with a low number of AP courses was a

school with less than 9 AP courses. A school with a high percent of students who

qualified for free and reduced lunch was a school with between 81 % and 91 % of the

students qualifying, a mid percent of the students qualifying was between 400/0 and 620/0,

and a low percent of students qualifying was a school with between 120/0 and 230/0.

Phase II

Each of the selected AP teachers were contacted through their work email address

and were scheduled to be interviewed. The researcher interviewed all eight AP teachers

at their work site. All of the interview subjects agreed to and signed the required

interview consent form. All of the interviews were recorded by the researcher.

The recorded interviews were transcribed verbatim by the researcher. The

responses of the subjects were analyzed by the researcher in an effort to detennine

patterns or themes in the data. In the first level of analysis of the interview responses, the

researcher looked for common themes by interview question. This was done by coding

the prinlary responses given by the interview respondent for each questions, as well as

the main sentiment or rationale given to explain their primary response. In the initial

analysis, several themes emerged related to responses to the interview questions. The

second level of analysis of the interview responses was done to look for themes or

patterns outside of the interview questions.

41

Conclusion

These procedures were designed to collect data concerning AP teachers and issues

of student access to AP courses. The analysis of those data and the results they yielded

are discussed in the following chapter.

Chapter 4

ANALYSIS OF THE DATA

Introduction

42

This study was designed to examine the perceptions and practices of high school

AP teachers in determining student access and assignment to Advanced Placement

courses and in determining Advanced Placement course offerings in high schools. This

study utilized a mixed methods research design to examine the impact of teachers'

perceptions and practices on the enrollment of students in Advanced Placement (AP)

courses. In phase one of the study, an online survey with Likert survey questions was

used to collect quantitative data. Phase two of the study used interviews to collect

qualitative data. The chapter contains an overview of the study participants and an

analysis of the data in each phase of the study.

Study Participants

The participants in this study were forty-one Advanced Placement (AP) teachers

from three school districts in northern California. Twenty-seven percent of the

respondents were from an urban school district (n=II), 630/0 were from a suburban school

district (n=26), and 10% were from a rural school district (n=4). Forty-four percent of

the participants were female (n= 18), and 560/0 were male (n=23). Thirty-nine percent of

the respondents were between the ages of 56 years and over (n=16), 240/0 were between

the ages of 46 and 55 (n=10), 170/0 were between the ages of 36 and 45 (n=7), 150/0 were

between the ages of26 and 35 (n=6), and 3% were between the ages of 18 and 25 (n=l).

Of the respondents there were no AP teachers who self identified their race or ethnicity as

43

African American, Latino - Hispanic, or Native American. Ten percent self identified

their race or ethnicity as Asian-Pacific Islander (n=4), 76% self identified as white

(n=31), 120/0 self identified as "other" (n=5), and 20/0 skipped the survey question (n= I).

Forty-six percent of the respondents had been a teacher for 21 years or more (n=19), 10%

had been teaching from 16 to 20 years (n=4), 22% had been teaching from 11 to 15 years

(n=9), 170/0 had been teaching from 6 to 10 years (n=7), and 50/0 had been teaching from

o to 5 years (n=2). In contrast, only five percent of the respondents had been teaching

Advanced Placement courses for 21 years or more (n=2), 50/0 had been teaching AP

courses for 16 to 20 years (n=2), 15% had been teaching AP courses for 11 to 15 years

(n=6), 27% had been teaching AP courses for 6 to 10 years (n=11), and 49% had been

teaching AP courses from 0 to 5 years (n=20).

Data Analysis

Phase I

The Likert scale survey questions were aimed at ascertaining both teacher

perceptions and teacher practices. Descriptive statistics and frequency charts were used

to describe the quantitative findings from the survey. Separate multiple regression

analyses were conducted to look at the relationship of school and teacher factors

(independent variables) with the two outcome measures: teacher perceptions and teacher

practices (dependent variables). The data from the survey was analyzed by scoring the

returned surveys using SPSS, a statistical software program designed to tabulate data for

analysis.

44

Research Question One - What are the perceptions and behaviors of Advanced


The survey items for research question one (l a-I g) were analyzed using

descriptive statistics. Survey item 1 a (All students should be allowed to take an AP

course), survey item 1 b (Prospective AP students should be pre-screened to determine if

they are prepared to take an AP course), and survey item 1 c (I currently use some sort of

pre-set criteria for students to enroll in my AP course) were designed to collect data on

the perceptions and current behaviors of AP teachers regarding student enrollment in the

AP course that they teach.

Table 2

Survey items 1 a-I c: Screening prospective AP students

la Ib lc

Strongly Agree

32% 15% 15%

Agree

44% 56% 44%

Neutral

12% 5% 12%

Disagree

10% 17% 15%

Strongly Disagree

2% 5% 15%

Even though 76% of the respondents reported that they strongly agreed or agreed

that all students should be allowed to take an AP course, 61 % of these respondents also

reported that they also strongly agreed or agreed that prospective students should be pre-

screened to determine if they are prepared to take an AP course. Additionally, 61 % also

strongly agreed or agreed that they currently use some sort of pre-set criteria for students

to enroll in their AP course. The responses indicate that even though many teachers

believe that all students should be allowed to take an AP course, the same teachers also

45

believe that students need to be screened to determine if they are prepared, and are

actively screening students with some sort of pre-set criteria.

Survey item 1d (I currently use students' grade point average (GPA) as a

screening criterion for AP course enrollment), survey item 1 e (I currently use teacher

recomlllendation as a screening criterion for AP course enrollment), and survey item 1 f (I

currently use grades earned in previous courses as a screening criterion for AP course

enrollment) were designed to collect data on the method of screening that AP teachers

use before allowing students to take the AP course that they teach.

Table 3

Survey items 1 d-l f: Method of screening prospective AP students

Id Ie If

Strongly Agree

2% 15% 22%

Agree

15% 29% 39%

Neutral

22% 15% 20%

Disagree

34% 22% 7%

Strongly Disagree

27% 20% 12%

Of the survey respondents who reported that they "strongly agree" or "agree" with

survey items 1 d, 1 e, and 1 f, 61 % reported using grades earned in previous courses as a

screening tool, 44%) reported using teacher recommendation to screen students, and only

170/0 reported using overall GPA as a screening tool to determine student enrollment

eligibility. The greater use of grades earned in previous courses may reflect AP teachers

preferring grades earned in similar, lower level courses. AP calculus teachers may find

grades earned in previbus math courses a better indicator of preparedness than the

students overall grade point average.

46

Survey Item 1 g (The student scores on the AP exam influence how my teaching is

perceived at my school) was designed to determine if there was a relationship between

teachers screening prospective students and how the AP exam scores were perceived at

the school site.

Table 4

Survey item 1 g: Influence of AP exams scores on perception of teaching

S trongl y Agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly Disagree

Ig 41% 240/0

Of the survey respondents who reported that they "strongly agree" or "agree" with

survey item 1 g, 72% also reported using some sort of pre-set criteria for students to enroll

in their AP course (n=18). Similarly, of the survey respondents who reported that they

"disagree" or "strongly disagree" with survey item 19, 63% reported not using any pre

set criteria for students to enroll in their AP course (n=5). The higher rate of the use of a

pre-set screening criteria for enrollment by AP teachers who perceive that the student

scores reflect directly on how their instruction is perceived may be due to AP teachers

limiting access to certain students for fear that they will not perform well on the AP exam

and in return lower the perception of the quality of instruction.

Research Question Two - What is the role of the Advanced Placement teacher in

encouraging participation in Advanced Placement courses for underrepresented

students?

47

The survey items for research question two (2a-2c) were analyzed using

descriptive statistics. Survey item 2a (It is part of my role as an AP teacher to promote

my AP course to students), survey item 2b (It is part of my role as an AP teacher to

promote AP course taking to traditionally underserved students such as African American

and Latino students), and survey item 2c (I actively promote AP courses to traditionally

underrepresented students such as African American and Latino students) were designed

to collect data on the perceptions and current behaviors of AP teachers regarding

promoting their AP course to all students and to historically underrepresented students in

AP participation such as African American and Latino students.

Table 5

Survey items 2a-2c: Promoting AP courses to students

2a 2b 2c

Strongly Agree

590/0 44% 27%

Agree

320/0 29% 290/0

Neutral

7% 190/0 34%

Disagree

2%

5% 5%

Strongly Disagree

0% 2%

50/0

While 90.20/0 of the survey respondents strongly agreed or agreed that it is part of

their role as an AP teacher to promote their AP course to students, 73% reported that it

was part of their role to promote their AP course to historically underrepresented students

such as African American and Latino students, and only 560/0 reported that they actively

are promoting their AP course to traditionally underrepresented students. While most AP

teachers feel it is part of their job to promote their course to students, a significant

48

number of AP teachers are not promoting their course to African American and Latino

students.

Research Question Three - What is the role of the Advanced Placement teacher in


The survey items for research question three (3a & 3b) were analyzed using

descriptive statistics. Survey item 3a (I have a significant role in determining whether

my school offers the AP course that 1 currently teach), and survey item 3b (Teacher

interest is the primary factor in determining whether my school offers an AP course) were

designed to collect data on the perception of AP teachers on the role that the teacher plays

when schools decide whether to offer an AP course.

Table 6

Survey items 3a and 3b: The role of the AP teacher in determining course offerings

3a 3b

Strongly Agree

370/0 22%

Agree

370/0 190/0

Neutral Disagree

50/0 320/0

Strongly Disagree

7% 50/0

While 73%) of the survey respondents strongly agreed or agree with survey item

3a, 41 % reported that that teacher interest was the primary factor in determining whether

to offer an AP course and 37% disagreed or strongly disagreed. While teachers play an

important part in determining whether to offer an AP course, teachers are not

overwhelmingly the primary factor. Other factors may include the role of the school's

administration, counselors, or student population.

49

Research Question Four - What is the relationship between school factors and Advanced

Placement teacher factors as measured by the survey?

The AP teachers' survey responses were analyzed by both school factors and

teacher factors. The school factors were the number of students enrolled, API score, and

percent of students qualifying for free and reduced lunch. The teacher factors were

teacher ethnicity, gender, the number of years of teaching and the number of years

teaching AP courses. The school factors and teacher factors were analyzed using

multiple regression analysis.

The results of the data analysis for survey items 1 a (all students should be allowed

to take an AP course), Id (I currently use student's grade point average (GPA) as a

screening criterion for AP course enrollment), 1 f (I currently use grades earned in

previous courses as a screening criterion for AP course enrollment), 2b (It is part of my

role as an AP teacher to promote AP course taking to traditionally underserved students

such as African American and Latino students), and 3b (Teacher interest is the primary

factor in determining whether my school offers an AP course) showed no statistically

significant difference by number of students, API score, percent of students qualifying for

free and reduced lunches, teacher ethnicity, teacher gender, years of teaching, or by years

of teaching an AP course.

Survey item 1 b (prospective AP students should be pre-screened to determine if

they are prepared to take an AP course) showed a statistically significant difference by

number of students and by the school's API score. The number of students (F=3.749,

p=.033) with the post hoc test (Tukey's Honestly Significant Difference) showed the

50

difference was between <1000 and 1000-1999. The school's API score (F=4.47S,

p=.OlS) with the post hoc test (Tukey's HSD) showed the difference was between 600-

699 and over SOO. There was no statistically significant difference by percent of students

qualifying for free and reduced lunches, teacher ethnicity, teacher gender, years of

teaching, or by years of teaching AP courses.

Table 7

ANOYA Results: Comparisons with number of students

Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.

Between Groups 8.021 2 4.011 3.749 .033

Within Groups 39.579 37 1.070

Total 47.600 39

Table 8

ANOYA Results: Comparisons with API score


Between Groups 9.276 2 4.638 4.478 .018

Within Groups 38.324 37 1.036

Total 47.600 39

51

AP teachers who worked in schools where the number of students was between

1000 and 1999 reported that students should be pre-screened at a higher rate (760/0) than

AP teachers who worked at a schools where there were less than 1000 students enrolled

(400/0). The higher rate of screening in larger schools may be due to fact that schools

with more students enrolled have more students who are interested in taking an AP

course.

AP teachers who worked in schools where the API scores were over 800 reported

that students should be pre-screened at a higher rate (760/0) than AP teachers who worked

in schools with API scores between 600 and 699 (33%). Schools with higher API scores

may also have a greater student demand for AP courses, requiring teachers to limit

enrollment.

Survey item 1 c (I currently use some sort of pre-set criteria for students to enroll

in my AP course) showed a statistically significant difference by API score. The API

score (F=5.424, p=.008) with the post hoc test (Tukey's HSD) showed the difference was

between over 800 and both other groups of 600-699 and 700-799. There was no

statistically significant difference by number of students, percent of students qualifying

for free and reduced lunch, teacher ethnicity, teacher gender, years of teaching, or years

of teaching AP courses.

52

Table 9

ANOYA Results: Comparisons with API score


Between Groups 15.210 2 7.605 5.424 .008

Within 1.402 Groups 53.278 38

Total 68.488 40

Seventy-six percent of the survey respondents who worked in schools with an API

score of 800 or higher reported that they currently used some sort of pre-set enrollment

criteria for students to enroll in their AP course. In contrast, 55% of the survey

respondents who worked in schools with API scores between 700 and 799 reported using

a pre-set enrollment criteria for enrollment in their AP course, and only 33% of the

survey respondents from schools with an API score from 600 to 699 reported using a pre-

set enrollment criteria. The higher rate of the use of enrollment criteria in schools with

higher API scores may be due to a greater student demand for AP course enrollment in

schools with higher API scores. Schools with lower API scores may have fewer students

vying for AP courses and thus may not feel the necessity to screen out interested students,

regardless of their previous academic history.

Survey item 1 e (I currently use teacher recommendation as a screening criterion

for AP course enrollment) showed a statistically significant difference by percent of

students who qualify for free and reduced lunches. The percent of students qualifying for

53

free and reduced lunch (F=5.098, p=.Oll) with the post hoc test (Tukey's HSD) showed

the difference was between 40%-620/0 and 120/0-230/0. There was no statistically

significant difference by number of students, API score, teacher ethnicity, teacher gender,

years of teaching, or years of teaching AP courses.

In schools with a low percent of students who qualify for free and reduced lunch

(12-23%), only 260/0 of the AP teachers reported that they currently use teacher

recommendation as a screening criterion for students, while 660/0 of AP teachers in

schools with a moderate percent of students who qualify for free and reduced lunch (40-

62%) reported currently using teacher recommendation as a screening criterion. AP

teachers in schools with a higher percentage of students qualifying for free and reduced

lunch may use previous teachers' recommendations at a higher rate due to a more

socioeconomically diverse student body with more diverse levels of academic

achievement.

Survey item 2a (It is part of my role as an AP teacher to promote my AP course to

students) showed a statistically significant difference by teacher ethnicity. Teacher

ethnicity (4.658, p=.016) with the post hoc test (Tukey's HSD) showed the difference

was between "white" and "other." There was no statistically significant difference by

API score, number of students, percent of students qualifying for free and reduced lunch,

teacher gender, years of teaching, or years of teaching AP courses.

Table 10

ANOV A Results: Comparisons with race/ethnicity

Sum of Squares df Mean Square

Between Groups 4.420

Within Groups

Total

17.555

21.975

2

37

39

* The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level.

2.210

.474

F Sig.

4.658 .016

Ninety percent of the respondents who self identified as "white" reported that it

54

was part of their role as an AP teacher to promote their AP course to students and 80% of

the respondents who self identified as "other" reported that it was part of their role to

promote their AP course to students. All of the respondents who self identified as

"Asian-Pacific Islander" reported that it was part of their role to promote their AP course

to students. While there was a statistical significance, it is not a definitive finding due to

the low numbers in some of the categories such as number of teachers and various

responses.

Survey item 2c (I actively promote AP courses to traditionally underrepresented

students such as African American and Latino students) showed a statistically significant

difference by API score. The API score (F=5.534, p=.008) with the post hoc test

(Tukey's HSD) showed the difference was between API scores over 800 and both other

groups and 600-699. There was no statistically significant difference by number of

55

students, percent of students qualifying for free and reduced lunch, teacher ethnicity,


Table 11

ANOV A Results: Comparisons with API score


Between Groups 10.574 2 5.287 5.534 .006

Within 38 Groups 36.304 .955

40 Total 46.878

Of the respondents from schools with low API scores (600-699),100% reported

that they promote their AP course to traditionally underrepresented students. Of the

respondents from schools with moderate API scores (700-799), 780/0 reported promoting

their AP course to underrepresented students, and in schools with high API scores (over

800), only 29% reported that they promote their AP course to traditionally

underrepresented students. AP teachers at schools with lower and moderate API scores

promote their AP courses to underrepresented students at significantly higher rates than

AP teachers at schools with high API scores.

Survey item 3a (I have a significant role in determining whether my school offers

the AP course that I currently teach) showed a statistically significant difference by

percent of students who qualify free and reduced lunch. The percent of students who

qualify for free and reduced lunch (F=4.027, p=.026) with the post hoc test (Tukey's

56

HSD) showed the difference was between 40%-62% and 12% -23%. There was no

statistically significant difference by number of students, API score, teacher ethnicity,


Table 12

ANOV A Results: Comparisons with percent of students qualifying for free and reduced lunch


I have a Between significant Groups 9.725 2 4.863 4.027 .026 role in determining Within whether my Groups 45.885 38 1.207 school offers the Total 55.610 40 AP course that I teach.

* The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level.

In schools where the percent of students who qualify for free and reduced lunch is

low (12-23%),87% of AP teachers reported that they have a significant role in

detennining whether their school offers the AP course they teach. In schools with a

moderate percentage of students who qualify for free and reduced lunch, 53% of AP

teachers reported that they have a significant role in detennining whether their school

offers the AP course they teach. The higher rate of teachers reporting that they playa

significant role in the detennination of course offerings at schools with a low percent of

students who qualify for free and reduced lunch may indicate a larger administrative or

counselor role in detennining course offerings at schools with a lower percentage of

students qualifying.

57

Phase II

Participants for the follow-up interview were selected using five criteria. The first

was the AP teacher had denoted on the initial survey in phase I of the study that they

would be willing to participate in a follow up interview. The second criterion was the AP

teacher had self reported on the initial survey that they were finnly committed to either

screening students before allowing them to enroll in the AP course that they were

teaching or they had committed to allowing open access to all students into their AP

course. The third criterion was teachers who were either new AP teachers who had been

teaching for less than 10 years or more veteran AP teachers who had been teaching for 21

years or more. The fourth criterion for selection was AP teachers who worked at a school

site that had demographics representing either high or low API scores. For the purposes

of this study, a high API score was a score of over 800 and a low API score was a score

of below 699. The final criterion was AP teachers who worked at a school site that had

demographics representing either high or low percentages of students who qualified for

free and reduced lunches. For the purposes of this study, a school with a high percentage

of students who qualified for free and reduced lunches was a school with 81 % or more of

its students qualifying. A school with a low percentage of students who qualified for free

and reduced lunches was a school with 230/0 or fewer of its students qualifying. Based

upon the criteria, eight AP teachers from within three school districts were chosen.

Of the teachers selected for the follow-up interview, 50%) were female (n=4) and

50% were male (n=4). Fifty percent of the teachers interviewed reported on the online

survey that they currently use some sort of pre-set criteria to detennine if students could

58

enroll in their AP course (n=4), and 50% of the teachers interviewed reported that they

did not use any pre-set criteria to determine student enrollment into their AP course

(n=4). Sixty-three percent of the teachers interviewed had reported on the survey that

they had been teaching for over 21 years (n=5), 130/0 reported having been teaching from

11 to 15 years (n= 1), 13 % reported having been teaching from 6 to 10 years (n= 1), and

13% reported having been teaching for 0 to 5 years (n=1). Fifty percent of the teachers

interviewed were employed in high schools with low API scores (n=4), 380/0 of the

teachers were employed in high schools with high API scores (n=3), and 13% of the

teachers were employed in a high school with a medium API score (n=l). For the

purposes of the study, a low API score was a score from 600 to 699, a medium API score

was a score from 700 to 799, and a high API score was a score over 800. Thirty-eight

percent of the teachers interviewed work in a high school with a high percentage of

students who qualified for free and reduced lunches (n=3), 250/0 of the teachers worked in

a high school with a medium percentage of students who qualified for free and reduced

lunches (n=2), and 38% of the teachers worked in a high school with a low percentage of

students qualifying for free and reduced lunches (n=3). For the purposes of the study, a

high school with a high percentage of students qualifying for free and reduced lunches

was a school with 81 % to 91 % of the student body qualifying. A high school with a

medium percentage of students qualifying for free and reduced lunches was a school with

40% to 620/0 of the student body qualifying. A high school with a low percentage of

students qualifying for free and reduced lunches was a school with 120/0 to 23% of the

student body qualifying.

59

The responses of the AP teachers interviewed were analyzed by the researcher to

detennine patterns or themes in the data. The first level of analysis was to look for

common themes or categories by interview question. This was done by listing the

primary response given by the interview respondent for each question, as well as the

main sentiment or rationale given to explain their primary response. In the initial

analysis, several themes emerged related to responses to the interview questions. The

second level of analysis of the interview responses was done to look for themes or

patterns outside of the interview questions. Several themes from the second level of

analysis were also revealed in the data.

Research Question One - What are the perceptions and behaviors of Advanced


Theme One - No existing state, district, or school policies regarding student

enrollment in AP courses.

Interview item 7 asked AP teachers if their department, school, or district had any

policies regarding student enrollment in AP courses. Of the interview respondents, 62.5

percent responded that there were no policies (n=5), 25% responded that there were

existing policies but that they did not know what the policies were (n=2), and 12.50/0

responded that they did not know (n=l). Most of the AP teachers responded that there

were no policies or guidelines regarding student enrollment into AP courses and each

individual teacher established their own screening policy.

"There are no policies. Different teachers have different philosophies on that. I

know some teachers who think it should only be the A and B kids."

60

"I'm really allowed to set it up myself. I have complete autonomy."

"Official policies? No, not really. Different teachers traditionally have their own

ways, not a uniform practice."

"I don't know. There could be something in the books ... our enrollment is so low

that I will literally take any kid that wants to try."

Research Question Two - What is the role of the Advanced Placement teacher in


students?

Theme One - Teachers promote AP courses primarily to existing honors and AP

students.

Interview item 10 asked AP teachers if they promoted AP participation to

students. Of the interview respondents, 75 percent responded that their methods of

promoting AP participation was directed primarily to students in lower level AP or

honors courses to take their AP course (n=6), 250/0 responded that they did promote AP

participation to students but did not give any example of how they promoted their AP

course (n=2).

"Now we do have an AP world history, so that kind of feeds my program. I

always go down and talk to them. So I would say that usually, probably 700/0 of my class

comes out of that. The other 300/0 are kids that teachers recommend or they hear it's a

good class, and they show up."

Theme Two- Teachers do not actively promote AP courses to historically

underrepresented students.

61

Interview item lOa asked AP teachers if they promoted AP participation to

historically underrepresented students such as African American or Latino students. Of

the interview respondents, 50 percent responded that they did not promote their AP

course to historically underrepresented students (n=4), 25% responded that they did

promote their AP course to historically underrepresented students (n=2), 12.5%)

responded that they promoted their course to Latino students only (n=l), and 12.5%

responded that their school did not have a significant population of African American or

Latino students (n= 1).

"I don't go out of my way. I really try to be color blind and live that way. So I

promote it to everybody. Now with that said, my class is underrepresented in African

Americans. Typically has been. It's been a struggle to get African Americans to step up

and take the challenge. Maybe that's something 1 need to work a little harder on ... it's

tough because it's true in my feeder program too."

"I do not specifically. But everybody in general. 1 don't know how to target

them, if 1 could, 1 would consider it."

Research Question Three - What is the role of the Advanced Placement teacher in


Theme One - AP teachers course offerings are primarily driven by teacher

interest.

Interview item 3 asked AP teachers how they had begun teaching an AP course.

Of the interview respondents, 37.5 percent responded that they had taken over the AP

course from another teacher at the bequest of the teacher or department (n=3), 250/0

responded that they had begun the course themselves (n=2), and 37.50/0 responded that

they were asked to by a school administrator (n=3).

62

Interview item 6 asked AP teachers how their school or department decided to

offer an AP course. Of the interview respondents, 62.50/0 responded that the decision was

teacher driven at their school site (n=5), 12.5% responded that the school administration

wanted to offer certain AP courses and solicited participation from existing teachers at

the school site (n= 1), and 250/0 responded that they did not know how the decision was

made at their school site (n=2).

"Up to this point, it really has been more teacher driven, it's been teachers who

are interested in doing it, go get trained and then we offer it and the numbers are there."

"It usually comes from the teachers, that if we have enough kids to justify

enrollment in it, our administration will usually find a way to make it happen."

"This one was the principal's thing; he really wanted an AP course. Usually it is

the department, they decide they want one and then they will ask the administration."

Other Themes

Theme One- No single school factor or teacher factor was responsible for the

decision to screen or not screen students.

The interview participants equally represented both decisions to either screen or

not screen students, as well as a diversity of both school factors (API scores, number of

students, number of courses, percent of students qualifying for free and reduced lunch)

and teacher factors (gender, age, years of teaching, years of teaching AP courses,

ethnicity). Teachers in schools with similar factors as well as teachers at the same school

63

reported unique and differing policies regarding whether to screen or not screen students.

Teachers from schools with low API scores and a high percentage of students qualifying

for free and reduced lunch reported both screening students before enrollment and having

a policy of open access.

"I'm sure all teachers are very different, but if a kid wants to take the class, then

I'n1 all for it because you just never know. You really don't. Usually, to be honest, most

of the kids that do well are the kids that aren't like the regular honors kids, who aren't on

this track and they just try it, and they end up loving it and are totally engaged."

"We have some sort of a screening process for honors and AP. We don't want to

deny kids an opportunity, but you also don't want to get slackers, put people in over their

head ... seems to me some kids don't have the work habits; really, really don't have the

smarts, 70 to 750/0 of the kids minimum can't do it."

Additionally, teachers from schools with high API scores and a low percentage of

students qualifying for free and reduced lunch also reported both screening and open

access.

"If you're willing to try, then we're willing to work with you and see if you can

get there. And I like that. I can't image saying to a kid, oh you're not capable of this,

don't even try it."

"Some AP courses you have to have an A or B in a previous course ... calculus, as

long as they got a C or above in pre-calculus I'll take them."

Theme Two- Teachers primarily enjoy teaching AP courses due to the nature of

the students.

64

Interview item 4 asked AP teachers what they liked about teaching an AP course.

Of the interview respondents, 62.5 percent responded that they liked teaching the type of

students who took their AP course (n=5), 250/0 responded that they liked being stimulated

by the material and the students (n=2), and 12.50/0 responded that they like the challenge

of teaching an AP course (n=I).

"Number one, the caliber student of the course is one that would expect to be

challenged, and they're pushing me to know my stuff and pushing and generating the

energy in class instead of me generating it for a change."

"I like that the kids are willing to challenge themselves ... they come in ready and

willing, and they are the scholars of the bunch. They are willing to work. They're fun to

work with."

"I love being mentally stimulated and the kids are wonderful, I absolutely love the

kids."

Theme Three - AP Teachers dislike the additional teacher workload of an AP

course, and some dislike the AP test design.

Interview item 5 asked AP teachers what they disliked about teaching an AP

course. Of the interview respondents, 37.5 percent responded that they disliked the

additional teacher work load required to teach an AP course (n=3), 250/0 responded that

they disliked the AP test design of how and what questions were asked (n=2), 12.5%

responded that they disliked the fast pace required to cover all of the material (n= I),

12.50/0 responded that they disliked the lack of ongoing teacher training provided (n= 1),

65

and 12.50/0 responded that there was nothing that they disliked about teaching an AP

course (n=l).

"It's a lot of work. Maybe I don't like spending five hours on Sunday grading

papers, which usually, to go through a stack, takes that long."

"It takes hours to grade the tests because I look at every single step, I don't just

look at the answers. So, my worst was 5 am, I was up until 5 am because I want to grade

it right away. And I do tutoring because the kids are really dedicated and they will come

. " In.

"After the test happens each year, I always get a chance to get an idea of what's

on the test when they get sent back. And sometimes it's very frustrating because it's like,

'Did you really need to ask that?' Really, there are some that I don't think are fair. .. you

could have asked that in a different way or you didn't have to be so miniscule on a

particular act."

Summary

In summary, this chapter presented the data analysis and findings from multiple

data collection methods to address the research questions. Data analyses from the online

survey were detailed in descriptive statistics. Analyses and results from the follow up

interview were also presented. The results served to provide insight into the perceptions

and practices of Advanced Placement teachers regarding student enrollment and access to

AP courses.

Chapter V summarizes the study and provides conclusions drawn from the

findings. The discussion of the findings includes screening prospective AP students, AP

enrollment policies, promoting AP courses to students, and AP course offerings. The

chapter concludes with implications for stakeholders and recommendations for further

study.

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67

Chapter 5

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Introduction

Numerous studies have illustrated the positive effects of an Advanced Placement

(AP) curriculum on students' success in college admittance and completion. Many

selective colleges and universities consider grade point averages and AP enrollment when

considering applicants. Barriers to AP access currently exist due to school demographics,

funding, and university admission policies. African American and Latino students

particularly are underrepresented in AP participation. In 2009 African American students

made up 14.50/0 of the graduating students nationwide and only 3.7% of the nationwide

successful AP exam population (College Board, 2010).

The purpose of the study was to fill a gap in the existing educational literature on

the role of the AP teacher in AP course access for students. This study was designed to

examine the perceptions and practices of high school AP teachers in determining student

access and assignment to Advanced Placement courses and in determining Advanced

Placement course offerings in high schools. The data collection and analysis for this

study was guided by the following four research questions:

Research Question #1: What are the perceptions and behaviors of

Advanced Placement teachers regarding course enrollment criteria for students?


in encouraging participation in Advanced Placement courses for underrepresented

students?

68


in determining Advanced Placement course offerings?



This chapter presents a discussion of the findings of the study, the implications of

the findings, and recommendations for further research.

Overview of the Study

This study examined the decision making process of high school AP teachers in

determining student access and assignment to AP courses and in determining AP course

offerings in high schools. This mixed methods research study was conducted during the

200912010 school year. The first phase of the study was an online survey used to collect

qualitative data on AP teachers' perceptions and practices. The second phase of the study

followed up the online survey with interviews of selected AP teachers to collect

qualitative data. One hundred AP teachers in three school districts in Northern California

were contacted through their work email addresses that were provided by their school

districts. Forty-one AP teachers from the three school districts participated in the study.

The 17 items on the online survey were in the form of a five point Likert Scale of:

strongly agree (1), agree (2), neutral (3), disagree (4), and strongly disagree (5).

From the forty-one survey participants, eight Advanced Placement teachers

representing the three school districts were selected for a follow-up interview. The

selection was based upon five criteria, established primarily to select AP teachers

representing the school and teacher factors that were reported statistically significant in

phase I of the study. The criterion for selection is discussed in chapter four.

69

The data from phases I and II of the study provided findings regarding the four

research questions. Quantitative analyses of responses from the online survey were

conducted using an ANOV A and descriptive statistics to analyze each factor for

significance. The school factors examined in the study were schools' Acadelnic

Performance Index (API) scores, the number of students enrolled, the number of AP

courses offered, and the percentage of students who qualify for free and reduced lunches.

The teacher factors examined in the study were a teacher's age, gender, race or ethnicity,

years of teaching and years of teaching AP courses. The data collected in the follow-up

interviews of phase II was used to collect qualitative data in response to the first three

research questions. The responses from the AP teachers interviewed were analyzed

within interview questions as well as across interview questions to look for themes or

patterns.

Discussion of Findings

From the analysis of the data from phase one and two of the study, four primary

themes emerged relating to the perceptions and practices of AP teachers. The primary

themes involved the role of the AP teacher in screening students, current enrollment

policies, the promoting of AP courses to students, and the role of the teacher in AP course

offerings. Additional findings unrelated to the research questions also emerged from the

data. These themes emerged from either phase I or phase II of the study and in many

cases from both the quantitative and qualitative data.

70

Screening Students

The responses from the online survey indicate that even though many teachers

reported that all students should be allowed to take an AP course (76%), they also believe

that students should be pre-screened to determine if they are prepared for the accelerated

curriculum (61 %). Sixty-one percent of the teachers surveyed also reported that they are

currently using some sort of pre-set criteria for students to enroll in their AP course. The

findings were similar to a Farkas Duffett Research Group survey (2009), where 63% of

AP teachers reported that they supported some form of screening to ensure that students

who enroll in AP courses were prepared appropriately. While this study did not directly

address the issue of why teachers made the decision to use some sort of pre-set screening

criteria before allowing students to enroll, the AP teachers interviewed who offered a

reason for screening reported that their main intent was to determine if the student had

the ability to handle the rigor and the faster pace of an AP course.

The analysis of the survey responses showed a significant difference in whether

AP teachers believed that AP students should be pre-screened to determine if they are

prepared to take an AP course by the number of students enrolled in a high school

(F=3.749, p=.033), and by the API score of the school (F=4.47S, p=.OlS). In schools

with a smaller student population (below 1000), AP teachers reported that students

should be screened at a lower rate than AP teachers reported in schools with larger

student populations. The higher rate of AP teachers reporting that students should be pre

screened in schools with a larger number of students may be due to larger schools having

more students interested in AP courses as well as the larger schools having a more

71

established AP program and schedule of courses. Klopfenstein (2004) suggested that the

availability of AP courses depended upon three main factors: college expectations, school

size, and school resources. Large schools tended to provide more AP courses since the

scheduling and cost of AP programs were easier to accommodate in larger schools than in

smaller schools. Additionally, schools with limited resources found it difficult to fund a

comprehensive AP program that was only being utilized by a limited portion of the

student population. The decreased rate of screening in smaller schools may reflect the

attempt to enroll more students into the school's AP program, regardless of their

academic background, where larger schools may have the luxury of a larger pool of

students interested in taking AP courses.

In schools with higher API scores (over 800), AP teachers reported that students

should be pre-screened at higher rates than in schools with lower API scores (600 - 799).

Additionally, AP teachers reported currently using some sort of pre-set screening criteria

for student enrollment at higher rates in schools with higher API scores over 800

(F=5.424, p=.008). The higher rates of AP teachers reporting that students should be

screened and that they are currently screening indicates that students may encounter more

established AP course entry prerequisites in the academically higher performing schools.

Schools with lower API scores may have fewer students vying for AP courses and thus

may not feel the necessity to screen out interested students, regardless of their previous

academic history. In the study, AP teachers who worked in schools where the API scores

were over 800 reported that students should be pre-screened at a higher rate (760/0) than

AP teachers who worked in schools with API scores between 600 and 699 (330/0).

72

Methods of Screening

Of the survey respondents who reported that they pre-screened students, 61 0/0

reported using grades earned in previous courses, 44% reported using "teacher

recommendation," and 17 % reported using overall grade point average (GPA) as a

screening tool. The greater use of grades earned in previous courses may reflect AP

teachers preferring grades earned in similar, lower level courses, due to the similar

academic content. In the follow-up interviews, two AP teachers (an AP physics teacher

and an AP calculus teacher) reported that in their perception, grades earned in previous

math courses were a better indicator of preparedness than the students' overall grade

point average.

AP teachers at schools with a moderate percent of students who qualify for free and

reduced lunch reported using "teacher recommendation" to pre screen students at a higher

rate (66%) than AP teachers at schools with a lower percentage of students who qualify

for free and reduced lunches (260/0). The free and reduced lunch percentage has been the

best indicator of the socio-economic background of a school's student population. The

increased rate of the use of "teacher recommendation" to screen AP students in schools

with a higher percentage of students from lower socio-economic backgrounds may be due

to working with a more diverse student body with diverse levels of academic

achievement. Garnering other teachers' input on a student's strengths and weaknesses

may be a better indicator of a student's academic ability than relying on overall GPA and

grades in previous courses.

73

While 440/0 of the teachers who pre-screen students reported using "teacher

recommendation," this method of screening has been criticized in the past due to the

subjective nature of teachers from previous courses in previous school years making a

decision on whether a student would be successful in an AP course. According to

Escalante (1990), teacher recommendation or permission to enroll in an AP course has

had a significantly large impact on minority students' AP participation. In 1995, Oakes

found a racial bias in the teachers in her study who were more likely to recommend and

place white and Asian students in college preparatory courses, even when minority

students had similar test scores. Her study indicated that many educators assumed that

minority students were not prepared for AP courses due to a perceived poor educational

and economically disadvantaged background. The use of "teacher recommendation" as a

screening method may inadvertently eliminate students who had not been successful in

previous courses, or who had a personal conflict with a previous teacher, from being able

to enroll in an AP course later in their high school career.

Advance Placement (AP) Enrollment Policies

Of the AP teachers participating in the follow-up interview, 50% reported that

they were currently using some sort of pre-set enrollment criteria as a screening tool, and

500/0 reported that they offered open access to all students. One of the themes that

emerged from the AP teacher interviews was that regardless of the teacher's policy

towards AP access, none of the teachers were following any school, district, or state

policy. Sixty-two percent of the AP teachers interviewed reported that there were no

existing AP enrollment polices, 250/0 reported that there were existing policies but that

74

they did not know what those policies were, and 12% reported that they did not know if

there were any AP enrollment policies.

The decision to screen or to not screen students was clearly not based upon any

existing policy, but was implemented by individual teachers at their own discretion.

"There are no policies. Different teachers have different philosophies on that. I

know some teachers who think it should only be the A and B kids." (AP teacher)

While some states have implemented policies on how many AP courses a

comprehensive high school must offer, there do not appear to be any policies regarding

pre-screening methods before enrolling students into AP courses. The California

education code (section 66204 a) requires the State Superintendent of Public Instruction

to assist all school districts in ensuring that all public high school students have access to

a curriculum that meets the admission requirements of the University of California and

the California State University. However, this section of the California education code

has not been used to require that all students have equal access to AP courses.

According to the AP teachers interviewed, teachers are implementing student

enrollment policies with little or no uniformity or guidance, even within the same subject

areas. One AP teacher may allow open access to all interested students in taking AP U.S.

History, and another teacher in the same district may require all students to have a 3.5

overall GP A, an "A" in world history, and a teacher recommendation before being

allowed to take the course. While there may be legitimate reasons to pre-screen students

to ensure that they are prepared for an accelerated course, without the assistance of

guidelines or polices, teachers may inadvertently or purposely end up creating

disproportionate levels of access to certain students.

Promoting AP Courses to Students

75

An overwhelming majority (90%) of the AP teachers responding to the online

survey reported that it was part of their role as an AP teacher to promote their course to

students. The AP teachers felt that it was part of their role and were actively promoting

their course to students. In the follow-up interviews, 75% of the AP teachers reported

that the primary method of promotion they used was to encourage students in lower level

AP courses or honors classes to take their AP course. None of the AP teachers

interviewed reported promoting their course to students who were not already in an

accelerated academic program or enrolled in college preparatory courses such as AVID, a

course with a built in support structure for students.

While an overwhelming majority of AP teachers do promote their AP course to

students annually, there exists a pattern to target the promotion to existing "AP type"

students. Students who were not involved early in the honors or AP track were

essentially left out of any encouragement to participate in AP courses regardless of their

grades or test scores.

Promoting AP Courses to Traditionally Underrepresented Students

While 90% of the AP teachers surveyed in this study reported that they believe that it

is part of their job to promote their course to students, only 560/0 reported that they are

currently promoting their AP course to African-American and Latino students. Of the AP

teachers interviewed who had reported promoting their course to underrepresented

students on the online survey; none were able to offer any examples of how they

specifically promoted their course to African -American and Latino students.

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The analysis of the survey responses showed that AP teachers at schools with higher

API scores reported promoting their AP course to traditionally underrepresented students

at higher rates than AP teachers in schools with lower API scores (F=5.534, p=.008). In

schools with low API scores (600-699), all of the teachers reported promoting their AP

course, while only 29% of teachers from schools with API scores over 800 reported

promoting their course to traditionally underrepresented students. One factor

contributing to the higher rate of promoting AP course participation to historically

underrepresented students at schools with lower and moderate API scores may be due to

the schools having a higher percentage of African-American and Latino students. When

asked if they promote AP participation to African-American and Latino students, an AP

teacher at a school with a low API score responded:

"Absolutely, you can't help not to here."

The response indicated that while they are promoting their course to historically

underrepresented students, it was not due to implementing any unique method but was

simply a result of the student demographics of the school. Another AP teacher at a

school with a low API score responded:

"I don't go out of my way. I really try to be color blind and live that way. So I

promote it to everybody. Now with that said, my class is underrepresented in African

Americans. "

An AP teacher at a school with a moderate API score responded:

77

"I do not specifically. But everybody in general. I don't know how to target them, if

I could, I would consider it."

Over the last 1 0 years AP courses have been criticized for failing to provide an

equal opportunity for minority students around the country (Klopfenstein & Thomas,

2005; Lichten, 2000; Santoli, 2002). In 2009, African American students made up 14.5%

of the graduating students nationwide, but were only 3.70/0 of the successful AP exatn

population. This study indicates that schools are not adequately addressing the

ethnic/racial gap in AP participation. Schools with mid and high API scores specifically

are promoting AP participation at lower rates, even though there are reported benefits to

having a diverse learning environment for both students and teachers. In a meta-analysis

of 515 studies, Pettigrew and Tropp (2005) indicated that racial diversity in the classroom

promotes higher student achievement and that the increased contact of different student

groups reduces prejudice and stereotypes. While not specifically addressed in the study,

there is an indication that many AP teachers are aware of the underrepresentation of

African American and Latino students, but are unaware of any useful strategies to

prOlnote their participation.

Advanced Placement course offerings

Tierney, Colyar, & Corwin (2003) report that schools serving traditionally

underrepresented students continue to offer AP courses at a disproportionate rate

compared to high performing schools. The schools with comprehensive AP programs are

predominantly in more affluent, suburban areas where African American and Latino

students continue to be underrepresented in AP participation (Furry & Hecsh, 2001). In

78

schools where there are a limited number of AP courses offered, students are at a

disadvantage in not only having access to a challenging college preparatory curriculUlTI,

but also at a disadvantage in college admission since many colleges use the "weighted"

grades of students, and take into consideration the number of AP courses a student has

taken in high school. While some states have mandated schools to offer a minimum

number of AP courses (Appendix A), schools continue to offer a disproportionate amount

of AP courses to students in high and low performing schools.

The finding from the survey and interviews indicate that the AP teacher does

play an important role in determining whether a school chooses to offer an AP course.

While only 390/0 of the survey respondents reported that teacher interest was the

"primary" factor in determining AP course offerings, 73% reported that teachers do play

a significant role in determining AP course offerings. When responding to how their

school or department decides to offer an AP course, 62.5% of the interview respondents

reported that the decision was primarily if not totally driven by the teacher. The analysis

of the survey data showed a statistical significance in responses by AP teachers in schools

with mid and low percentages of students who qualify for free and reduced lunch

(F=4.027, p=.026). In schools with a low percentage of students qualifying for free and

reduced lunch (12-230/0), teachers reported having a significant role in determining

whether their school offered the AP course that they teach at higher rates than teachers in

schools with a higher percent of students qualifying for free and reduced lunch (40-620/0).

The higher rates may indicate a larger administrative or counselor role in determining

course offerings at schools with a lower percentage of students qualifying for free and

reduced lunch.

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In her 2004 study, Klopfenstein reported that students who had high expectations

for attending college tended to request and demand more AP programs, and schools with

large proportions of low-income and English Learner (EL) students tended to offer fewer

AP courses due to low expectations about attending college. While there appear to be

multiple factors that influence the decision whether to offer certain AP courses (students,

parents, administrators, and counselors), the involvement of the teacher also plays a

significant and important role. In order for schools to offer more AP courses to give their

students a greater opportunity to be competitive in enrolling in competitive universities, it

is important to have the support and interest of the teachers at the school site. Even

though teachers at traditionally low performing schools may have reservations about

offering an AP course to students that have not been previously exposed to an accelerated

curriculum or who have not been academically successful in the past, offering students

the option to challenge themselves may produce surprising results. Hargrove et al.

(2008) found that even for students who failed the AP exam, enrollment in an AP class

exposed students to college-level standards, leading to greater college success.

Additional Findings

In the course of the study some additional findings that were unrelated to the

research questions were found in the data.

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AP Course: Teacher Satisfaction

In the follow-up interviews the AP teachers were asked to respond to what they

liked about teaching an AP course and to what they did not like about teaching an AP

course. Overwhelmingly teachers reported that what they liked about teaching AP

courses was the nature of the students. AP teachers reported that the students in AP

courses were more motivated and willing to go more in depth with the material. An AP

U.S. History teacher responded:

"I only have one course with them and I enjoy it every 2nd period because I know that

we'll be able to go farther and I'll be able to discuss why and when more so than 'this is

what happened. '"

Although some of the AP teachers interviewed responded that they disliked the

AP test design, the primary aspect that AP teachers disliked the most about teaching an

AP course was the additional workload required of the teacher.

Decision to screen or not screen students

While this study did not focus on why teachers had decided to screen or not

screen students, the AP teachers who participated in the follow-up interviews indicated

that it was primarily a personal decision, not based upon school or teacher factors.

Teachers in schools with similar factors as well as teachers at the same school reported

unique and differing policies regarding whether to screen or not screen students.

Teachers from schools with low API scores and a high percentage of students qualifying

for free and reduced lunch reported both screening students before enrollment and having

a policy of open access.

Implications

Implications for educational leadership

81

This study indicates that teachers playa significant role in determining student

access to AP courses, as well as an important role in determining what AP courses a

school offers. Teachers are implementing student enrollment policies to their AP courses

without any uniformity or following any district guidelines. Currently, AP teachers are

primarily promoting their AP course to traditional "AP type" students and are not

promoting their course to historically underrepresented students.

Educational leaders interested in addressing the existing gap in AP participation

should focus on the teacher as an important factor in determining AP participation.

Course screening methods and the methods of promoting AP participation can have an

important impact on student access. Districts and school sites can implement policies

and guidelines for AP teachers that promote AP participation to all students, including

students historically underrepresented in AP participation. In schools with a high

percentage of low-income students it is increasingly important for educational leaders to

offer and promote a challenging curriculum for students to gain the exposure needed to

be successful in college. The restructuring of the school culture to promote a supportive,

rigorous curriculum was supported by a Texas study that found that gifted children in

urban areas, of any ethnicity, will succeed if they have the support from their community,

school administrators, and their teachers (Kyburg, Hertberg-Davis, & Callahan, 2007).

82

Implications for policy makers

Under systems like the University of California, students who do not take AP

courses are at a disadvantage in admissions, regardless of their academic achievement.

This study has illustrated the importance of reiterating the reforms suggested by

Solorzano and Omedas in their 2004 study where they call for a restructuring of schools

to influence minority students to take rigorous courses and AP courses. They also

suggest a reform of university admissions policies that consider AP course enrollment

alone as a criterion for admissions. An index considering the number of AP courses that

a school offers would eliminate the advantage that a student has if they attend a high

school that offers significantly more AP courses than other high schools.

Additionally, school districts should establish policies that ensure a minimum

number of AP courses will be available to all students and that schools will continually

offer and encourage teachers in schools with significant populations of traditionally

underrepresented students to offer access to a challenging AP curriculum for all

interested students.

Recommendations for Future Study

This study was an attempt to understand the role of the teacher in Advanced

Placement enrollment and course offerings. Upon completion of the study, several areas

for future study become apparent.

Pre-screening AP Students

A primary focus of the study was to determine whether AP teachers were

currently pre-screening their prospective students before allowing them to enroll in an AP

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course. The study did not address the question of "why" teachers had chosen to either

pre-screen or had chosen to allow open access to students. There was some indication in

the follow-up interviews that teachers who were screening were doing so because that

was the way it had been done previously by other teachers, but the question was not

thoroughly examined. Of the survey respondents who reported that it was their

perception that the AP exam scores of their students was a reflection of how their

teaching was perceived at the school, 720/0 were also committed to prescreening students

before allowing enrollment. Of the survey respondents who reported that AP exam

scores were not considered an indicator of how their teaching was perceived at their

school site, 630/0 reported that they prescreened students before allowing enrollment.

While one screening factor may be due to AP teachers limiting access to certain students

for fear that they will not perform well on the AP exam, the decision to screen or to not

screen students does not appear to be primarily due to the perception that the student

scores impact the perception of the quality of instruction. A further examination into

why AP teachers have decided to pre-screen or to allow open access to students is

recomnlended to determine the teacher rational for their enrollment policy.

Additionally, during this study the researcher began to see some evidence that

some subject areas may pre-screen students at a higher rate than other subject areas.

Additional research examining the frequency of screening by subject area would help

policy Inakers in determining any guidelines of policies for screening. For example, do

teachers of AP calculus need a certain level of screening to ensure a student is prepared

that AP English teachers do not need?

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Promoting AP Courses to Students

Another primary focus of the study was to determine the role of the teacher in AP

course offerings at their school sites. Survey item 2a (It is part of my role as an AP

teacher to promote my AP course to students) showed a significant difference by teacher

ethnicity (4.658, p=.016). While there was a statistical significance between responses of

teachers who had self identified as "white" and "other," because of the low numbers in

some of the categories (number of teachers and various responses), it was not a definitive

finding. The findings suggest that a possible area for future research would be to

examine AP course promotion by AP teacher ethnicity.

Conclusions

Advanced Placement courses offer high school students a variety of benefits

including exposing students to a rigorous curriculum, giving students an advantage when

applying to competitive colleges, and providing the opportunity for students to earn

college credit which can reduce the overall cost of earning a college degree.

Additionally, students who pass an AP exam earn higher college grades and graduate

from college at higher rates than their non-AP peers (Geiser & Santelices, 2004). Where

AP courses have been criticized is for failing to provide an equal opportunity for minority

students around the country (Klopfenstein & Thomas, 2005; Lichten, 2000; Santoli,

2002). This study indicates that the AP teacher plays an important role in determining

both student access to AP courses as well as in the decision making process of

determining whether their school will offer a specific AP course. Currently, AP teachers

are the primary "gatekeeper" to the AP course that they teach. Some teachers provide a

85

course with open access to all students who are interested while most prefer to screen

potential students for academic qualifications based upon a pre-set criteria such as grades

or teacher recommendation. An overwhelming majority of AP teachers report that it is

part of their role to promote their AP course to students, yet only a small percentage are

actively promoting their AP course to minority students and students who are not already

in an honors or AP track. The AP teacher is an important factor in determining AP

access for all students. The AP teacher can be a powerful factor in providing a more

equitable access to AP courses as well as in closing the AP participation gap for

historically underrepresented students.

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APPENDICES

Arkansas

Idaho

Illinois

Indiana

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Appendix A

AP Course Offerings: State Mandates

State mandates AP course offerings

Yes. Beginning with the 2008-2009 school year, all high schools must offer at least 4 AP courses, adding at least 1 core course each year. In addition, beginning with the 2008-2009 school year, all districts must offer 1 AP course in each of 4 areas: English, math, science and social studies. These offerings must be phased in over a 4-year period beginning in the 2005-2006 school year. Unlike districts, however, high schools are not required to offer courses in specific subject areas.

Districts must also offer pre-AP courses. "In order to prepare students for the rigor inherent in AP courses, it is recommended to begin with the 2004-2005 school year by offering Pre-AP courses to prepare students for the demands of AP coursework. Aligned with the four (4) required AP courses, the Pre-AP courses will be fully operational by the 2008-2009 school year." A district pre-AP program must follow a clearly recognizable sequence, i.e., 6th, 7th, 8th, 9th, 10th grade pre-AP English, 11th grade AP English Language and Composition, 12th grade English Literature and Composition.

Statute exempts any high school offering the International Baccalaureate (IB) Diploma Program from the requirement to offer AP and pre-AP courses. However, in practice in the state, high schools offering IB are also expected to meet the AP offering mandates of non-IB high schools.

No, although effective with the 2007-2008 school year, all high schools must either offer "advanced opportunities," (defined as AP courses, dual credit courses, Tech Prep, or IB programs), "or provide opportunities for students to take courses at the postsecondary campus."

No. However, the state board must "encourage" districts to offer rigorous courses in grades 6-11 to prepare students for AP coursework. In addition, 2005 legislation directs the state board to "seek federal funding through the Advanced Placement Incentive Program and the Math-Science Partnership Program ... and to support the implementation of an integrated instructional program for students in grades 6 through 12 in reading, writing, and mathematics that prepares all students for enrollment and success in Advanced Placement courses and in college."

Yes. Each high school must provide at least two AP courses to qualified students. In addition, each district must provide science and math AP courses.

88

Kentucky No, although each high school is mandated to "offer a core curriculum of advanced placement, International Baccalaureate, dual enrollment, or dual credit courses, using either or both on-site instruction or electronic instruction through the Kentucky Virtual High School or other on-line alternatives. "

Yes. Beginning with the 2007-2008 school year, all public high schools must offer at least 1 AP course in each of the core areas of English, math, science and social studies. Statute notes, however, that use of the state's online "Advanced Placement Instructional Program is an appropriate

Mississippi alternative for the delivery of' AP courses. A public high school offering the International Baccalaureate Diploma Program is exempt from this requirement.

Ohio

Oregon

South Carolina

Tennessee

Vermont

Virginia

In addition, all districts may offer pre-AP courses.

No. However, all districts are required to offer at least one "dual enrollment" program, which may include Advanced Placement courses, the postsecondary enrollment options program, or "any similar program established pursuant to an agreement between" a district and an institution of higher education.

No, although all districts must offer the Expanded Options Program, which provides opportunities for 11 th- and 12th-graders to earn postsecondary credit through dual credit technical preparation programs, such as two-plustwo programs, AP and International Baccalaureate.

Yes, although contingent on school size. "Each school district shall provide advanced placement courses in all secondary schools of the district which enroll an adequate number of academically talented students to support the course." The state board is mandated to determine what constitutes an adequate number of students for an AP course. However, state board policy indicates, "All secondary schools whose organizational structure includes grade 11 or 12 shall offer an Advanced Placement course(s)."

No. However, if a district offers AP courses, it must annually approve a list of AP courses and must "ensure that approved courses substantially incorporate the learning objectives and course descriptions as defined by the College Board[.]"

No. State does not require AP in all high schools but does require high schools to offer students the opportunity to take advanced course work such as college level courses and AP.

No, although all schools must provide either three AP courses, dual enrollment courses, International Baccalaureate courses, Cambridge courses, or any combination thereof.

89

West No, although all districts must offer AP courses. Effective with the 2008-Virginia 2009 school year, all high schools must offer a minimum of four AP courses

or the International Baccalaureate program.

Source: Advanced Placement Database (2006). Education Commission of the States.

Retrieved from:

http://www.ecs.org/htmllIssueSection.asp?issueid= 1 08&subissueid= 161 &ssID=O&s=Wh

at+States

90

Appendix B

Research Questions and Corresponding Survey Items

Research Question #1: What are the perceptions and behaviors of Advanced


Survey Item 1 a: All students should be allowed to take an AP course.

Survey Item 1 b: Prospective AP students should be pre-screened to determine if

they are prepared to take an AP course.

Survey Item 1 c: I currently use some sort of pre-set criteria for students to enroll

in my AP course.

Survey Item Id: I currently use student's grade point average (GPA) as a

screening criterion for AP course enrollment.

Survey Item 1 e: I currently use "teacher recommendation" as a screening

criterion for AP course enrollment.

Survey Item 1 f: I currently use grades earned in previous courses as a screening

criterion for AP course enrollment.

Survey Item Ig: The student scores on the AP exam influence how my teaching

is perceived at my school.



students?

Survey Item 2a: It is part of my role as an AP teacher to promote my AP course

to students.

Survey Item 2b: It is part of my role as an AP teacher to promote AP course

taking to traditionally underserved students such as African American and Latino

students.

91

Survey Item 2c: I actively promote AP courses to traditionally underrepresented

students such as African American and Latino students.



Survey Item 3a: I have a significant role in determining whether my school offers

the AP course that I currently teach.

Survey Item 3b: Teacher interest is the primary factor in determining whether nly

school offers an AP course.



Survey Item 4a: What is your age?

Survey Item 4b: What is your gender?

Survey Item 4c: What is your race or ethnicity?

Survey Item 4d: How many years have you been teaching?

Survey Item 4e: How many years have you been teaching at least one AP course?

Appendix C

Interview Protocol

1. How long have you been a teacher?

2. Why did you decide to go into teaching?

3. How did you begin teaching an AP course?

4. What do you like about teaching an AP course?

5. What do you dislike about teaching an AP course?

6. How does your school or department decide to offer an AP course?

7. Does your department, school, or district have any policies regarding student

enrollment into an AP course?

92

8. What led you to currently screen or not screen students before they can take your

AP course?

a. How did you decide to use your current method of screening?

9. Would you feel different about screening prospective AP students if you taught at

a different school site or taught in a different community?

10. Do you promote AP participation to students?

a. Do you promote AP participation to historically underrepresented students

such as African American or Latino students?

11. Do you have any questions for me?

93

Appendix D

Online Survey Consent Form

You are being asked to participate in research which will be conducted by Justin Mason, a doctoral student in the Independent Education Doctoral Program at California State University, Sacramento. This study was designed to examine the perceptions and practices of high school Advanced Placement teachers in determining student access and assignment to Advanced Placement courses and in determining Advanced Placement course offerings in high schools.

You will be asked 19 questions about yourself and your perceptions and practices regarding student access to Advanced Placement courses. The online survey was designed to take 10 minutes or less to complete. If you agree to be contacted, you may also be asked later to participate in a follow-up interview. The follow-up interview was designed to take less than 30 minutes to complete.

Some of the questions may seem personal, but you do not have to answer any questions you do not want to. You may gain additional insight into factors that affect student access to Advanced Placement courses or you may not personally benefit from participating in this research.

All participants in the study will remain anonymous to the public along with the researcher using pseudonyms in place of school and school district names. However, you might be identifiable from the answers you provide on the survey. The researcher will have access to your identity and responses solely to select participants for the follow-up interview. Your responses will be kept confidential to the degree permitted by the technology used. However, no absolute guarantees can be given for the confidentiality of electronic data.

You will not receive any compensation for participating in this research.

Your participation in this research is entirely voluntary. By completing this survey, you are agreeing to participate in the research:

o I agree

o I do not agree

94

Appendix E

Tables: Responses by Teacher Factors

YEARS TEACHING

All Students should be allowed to take an AP course.

Strongly A Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly D 0-5 50 50 0 0 0 6-10 28 42 28 0 0 11-15 33 44 22 0 0 16-20 0 50 25 25 0 21-More 37 42 0 16 5

Prospecti ve AP students should be pre-screened to determine if they are prepared to take an AP course.


I currently use some sort of pre-set criteria for students to enroll in my AP course. Strongly A Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly D

0-5 50 0 0 0 50 6-10 0 28 14 28 28 11-15 11 66 0 0 22 16-20 0 75 25 0 0 21-More 21 37 16 21 5

I currently use student's grade point average (GP A) as a screening criterion for AP course enrollment.


I currently use "teacher recommendation" as a screening criterion for AP course enro llment.


I currently use grades earned in previous courses as a screening criterion for AP course enrollment.


It is part of my role as an AP teacher to promote my AP course to students. Strongly A Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly D

0-5 100 0 0 0 0 6-10 71 0 28 0 0 11-15 55 33 11 0 0 16-20 50 50 0 0 0 21-More 53 42 5 0 0

It is part of my role as an AP teacher to promote AP course taking to traditionally underserved students such as African American and Latino students.


95

96

I actively promote AP courses to traditionally underrepresented students such as African American and Latino students.


I have as significant role in determining whether my school offers the AP course that I currentl y teach.


Teacher interest is the primary factor in determining whether my school offers an AP course.


The student scores on the AP exam influence how my teaching is perceived at my school. Strongly A Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly D

0-5 100 0 0 0 0 6-10 0 28 42 14 14 11-15 12 50 25 12 0 16-20 25 50 25 0 0 21-More 5 47 21 21 5

97

YEARS TEACHING AP COURSES



Prospective AP students should be pre-screened to determine if they are prepared to take an AP course.



0-5 15 35 5 20 25 6-10 9 55 27 9 0 11-15 0 67 17 17 0 16-20 50 50 0 0 0 21-More 50 0 0 0 50

I currently use student's grade point average (GPA) as a screening criterion for AP course enrollment.


98

I currently use "teacher recommendation" as a screening criterion for AP course enrollment.





0-5 65 20 15 0 0 6-10 54 45 0 0 0 11-15 67 33 0 0 0 16-20 0 50 0 50 0 21-More 50 50 0 0 0



99








0-5 15 35 30 15 5 6-10 10 50 20 20 0 11-15 17 50 33 0 0 16-20 0 50 0 0 50 21-More 0 50 0 50 0

100

AGE OF TEACHER


Strongly A Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly D 18-25 0 100 0 0 0 26-35 50 33 17 0 0 36-45 14 42 28 14 0 46-55 40 60 0 0 0 56-Over 31 31 12 19 6




18-25 100 0 0 0 0 26-35 17 17 0 17 50 36-45 0 57 14 14 14 46-55 10 50 20 20 0 56-Over 19 44 12 12 12

I currently use student's grade point average (GP A) as a screening criterion for AP course enrolln1ent.


101




Strongly A Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly D 18-25 100 0 0 0 0 26-35 17 33 17 0 33 36-45 14 71 14 0 46-55 40 30 10 20 0 56-Over 12 37 31 0 19


18-25 100 0 0 0 0 26-35 67 17 17 0 0 36-45 57 28 14 0 0 46-55 90 10 0 0 0 56-Over 31 56 6 6 0



102



I have as significant role in determining whether my school offers the AP course that I current! y teach.





18-25 100 0 0 0 0 26-35 17 33 17 17 17 36-45 14 57 28 0 0 46-55 20 40 30 10 0 56-Over 0 40 27 27 7

103

GENDER


Strongly A Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly D Male 36 45 9 5 5 Female 28 39 17 17 0




Male 14 36 14 27 9 Female 17 50 11 0 22

I currently use student's grade point average (GP A) as a screening criterion for AP course enrollment.


I currently use "teacher recommendation" as a screening criterion for AP course enro 11m en t.





Male 68 27 0 5 0 Female 50 33 17 0 0

104









The student scores on the AP exam influence how my teaching is perceived at my school.


RACE / ETHNICITY All Students should be allowed to take an AP course.

Strongly A Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly D African-Amer. 0 0 0 0 0 Asian /Pacific 50 50 0 0 0 Latino/Hispanic 0 0 0 0 0 Native Amer. 0 0 0 0 0 White 32 42 13 13 0 Other 20 60 0 0 20

105




African-Amer. 0 0 0 0 0 Asian /Pacific 25 50 0 0 25 Latino/Hispanic 0 0 0 0 0 N ati ve Amer. 0 0 0 0 0 White 13 42 13 16 16 Other 20 40 20 20 0

I currently use student's grade point average (GPA) as a screening criterion for AP course enrollment.




106


Strongly A Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly D African-Amer. 0 0 0 0 0 Asian /Pacific 25 50 0 25 Latino/Hispanic 0 0 0 0 0 Native Amer. 0 0 0 0 0 White 26 39 16 10 10 Other 0 40 40 0 20


African-Amer. 0 0 0 0 0 Asian /Pacific 50 50 0 0 0 Latino/Hispanic 0 0 0 0 0 Native Amer. 0 0 0 0 0 White 71 19 10 0 0 Other 0 80 0 20 0





I have as significant role in determining whether my school offers the AP course that I currently teach.

107





African-Amer. 0 0 0 0 0 Asian /Pacific 25 50 25 0 0 Latino/Hispanic 0 0 0 0 0 Native Amer. 0 0 0 0 0 White 13 42 20 17 7 Other 0 40 40 20 0

108

Appendix F

Interview Informed Consent Form

You are being asked to participate in research which will be conducted by Justin Mason, a doctoral student in the Independent Education Doctoral Program at California State University, Sacramento. This study was designed to examine the perceptions and practices of high school Advanced Placement teachers in determining student access and assignment to Advanced Placement courses and in determining Advanced Placement course offerings in high schools.

You will be asked 11 interview questions about yourself and your perceptions and practices regarding student access to Advanced Placement courses. The interview protocol was designed to take less than 30 minutes to complete. The interview will be audio recorded and later will be transcribed verbatim. The audio recordings will be temporarily stored in the researcher's home office and will be destroyed as soon as they have been transcribed. The responses of the subjects in all of the interviews will be analyzed by the researcher in an effort to determine patterns or themes in the data.

Some of the questions may seem personal, but you do not have to answer any questions you do not want to. You may also discontinue the interview at any time. You may gain additional insight into factors that affect student access to Advanced Placement courses or you may not personally benefit from participating in this research.

Your identity will be kept confidential along with the researcher using pseudonyms in place of school district names. You will not receive any compensation for participating in this research.

Your participation in this research is entirely voluntary. Your signature below indicates that you have read this page and agree to participate in the research.

Signature of Participant Date

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