The Role of Theory in Research

BHV 390: Research MethodsKimberly Porter Martin, Ph.D.

What is a Theory?

Definition: a set of related hypotheses that provide a better explanation than any single hypothesis.

Each of the following is a kind of hypothesis:

• Definitions.• Assumptions.• Proposed explanations.• Logical connections between

definitions, asumptions and explanations.

If people are talking about any of these things, they are talking about theory.

The World of Theories

• Theories can be based on logic, ideas or belief without the use of empirical evidence

• Grounded theories are derived from empirical evidence, and are continuously tested against new empirical evidence

• Many different and sometimes conflicting theories can coexist and be used for different purposes

• Theories are the basis from which world views are developed and changed

Examples of Theories

Marx’s Theory

Freud’s Theory

Social Learning Theory

Parental Investment Theory

Some of Marx’s Definitions• Private property – surplus production• Capital – the resources needed to

produce surplus• Social labor – the labor needed to

produce surplus• Bourgeoisie – those who control capital• Proletariat – those who provide social

labor• Capitalism – the system of conflict

between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat

Logical Connections from MarxPrivate property is produced by social labor

using capital.The bourgeoisie control the capital needed

to produce private property.The proletariat provide the social labor

needed to produce private property.The proletariat cannot produce without

capital.The bourgeoisie and the proletariat fight to

control capital and, therefore, private property.

Three of Marx’s Assumptions

Social behavior primarily results from the control and/or manipulation of economic factors.

The economic systems of all types of societies work in much the same way.

Conflict is inherent in social behavior and organization.

Some of Freud’s Definitions• Oral Stage – gratification through oral

stimulation 0-2 years• Anal Stage – gratification through control of

bowels 2-3 years• Phallic Stage – conflict over attraction to

opposite sex parent (Oedipal and Electra Complexes) 3-5 years

• Latent Stage – avoidance of opposite sex peers 5-12 years

• Genital Stage – emergence of adult sexuality in teens 12+ years

Logical Connections from Freud

• The first stage for infants is associated with eating/drinking.

• The second stage for toddlers is associated with potty training.

• The third stage is associated with first awareness of genitalia.

• The fourth stage provides a break from sexual development for other skills to emerge.

• The fifth stage takes individuals into adult sexuality.

Freud’s Assumptions• Children develop in stages• Each stage deals with a major task that must

be learned at that time in the child’s life. • Physical pleasure and control are primarily

focused on sexuality.• Child development is primarily affected by

stages of sexual awareness.• Stages must be completed successfully for

normal development.• Problems at a any developmental stage will

result in problems in adult functioning.

Some Parental Investment Theory (PIT) Definitions

• Parental investment – biological, economic, social and emotional support for offspring.

• Differential reproduction – variability in the number of offspring produced by individuals.

• Reproductive potential – the maximum number of offspring possible for an individual.

• Reproductive success – production of offspring that survive and reproduce.

Logical Connections from PIT• Human males only have to make a minimal

parental investment to obtain reproductive success (a few sperm)

• Female humans must make an enormous parental investment to obtain reproductive success (+/- 5 years)

• Male humans have reproductive potential limited only by the number of partners

• Females have limited reproductive potential because of the investment needed from mothers

• Males and females will have significantly different mate selection strategies because of differential parental investment.

Some PIT Assumptions• Human mate choice is influenced by

inherited characteristics

• Inherited characteristics will reflect the most successful mating strategies over time

• Human mate choice is influenced by both conscious and unconscious factors

• Culture is the learned set of strategies that help individuals maximize their reproductive success.

Some Definitions from Bandura’s Social Learning Theory

• Attention – noticing and being interested in what others are doing

• Retention – remembering what others do

• Reproduction – copying or modeling what others do

• Motivation – having the desire to do what others do

• Reinforcement – rewards and punishments for doing what others do

Some Logical Connections from SLT• When the behaviors of others are rewarded or

punished, the behaviors will be noticed.• When the behaviors of others are rewarded or

punished, the behaviors will be remembered.• The behaviors of others that are rewarded will

be reproduced• Individuals will be motivated to reproduce

rewarded behaviors• Individual will be motivated to avoid punished

behaviors.

Some SLT Assumptions

• Behavior is socially learned.

• Individuals will model the behaviors of others in their social environments.

• Individuals will try to maximize rewards and minimize punishments for behaviors.

Powerpoint Study Guide

• Theory

• Hypothesis

• Definitions

• Assumptions

• Logical Connections

• Grounded Theories• Marx’s Theory• Freud’s Theory• Social Learning Theory• Parental Investment Theory