the role of u.s. intelligence in american foreign affairs
TRANSCRIPT
McNair Scholars Journal
Volume 2 | Issue 1 Article 8
Winter 1998
The Role of U.S. Intelligence in American ForeignAffairs in the Post-Cold War Era (LiteratureReview)Shannon M. IngramGrand Valley State University
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Recommended CitationIngram, Shannon M. (1998) "The Role of U.S. Intelligence in American Foreign Affairs in the Post-Cold War Era (Literature Review),"McNair Scholars Journal: Vol. 2: Iss. 1, Article 8.Available at: http://scholarworks.gvsu.edu/mcnair/vol2/iss1/8
The Role of u.s. Intelligence in American ForeignAffairs in the Post-Cold War Era (Literature Review)
Shannon M. IngramMcNair Scholar
Polly]. Diven, Ph.D.McNair Mentor
Abstract:Theendof theCold War initiated a revolutionary erafor theAmerican intelligence community. This literature reviewanalyzes theneweraofuncertainty andreform theintelligence community iscurrently facing. First, it presents thebackground andstructure of theintelligence community. Next, it presents ananalysis of theintelligence communitydUring the Cold War era. Finally, it analyzes thecontending arguments and theories on thefuture of theAmericanintelligence community.
This review takes an in-depth lookat theprinCiple groupings that characterize current thought on thefuture roleof intelligence. The two principal schoolsof thought on thefuture role of intelligence are (a) those whobelieveintelligence is no longer needed, and (b)those who recognize a continuing needfor intelligence. Thesecond school ofthought is then subdivided into twofields: (b1) literature advocatingreduced spending on intelligence, and(b2) literature advocating reorganization and restructuring of the intelligencecommunity and its components.
Finally, this literature reviewsuggests avenues for future research.Suggested areas of research include (a)theneed to redefine the term "intelligence' " (b) theneed to update themission statements of intelligence agencies,and (c) theneed to increase intelligencegathering andinformation on regionswhich were not emphaSized dUring theCold War.
Historical BackgroundFrom 1940 through 1989, United States'security policy could be summed up inone word: containment. Containment ofSoviet military power and Soviet globalexpansion dominated .L ... .L.1. .L'-'.L.L'-''-'',.L.L
tional relations. poseda military; political, and ideological threatto the United and intelligenceand intelligence moldedaround the single of protectingUS National interest and containingSoviet influence.
In his 1992 article, "Winds ofChange," j.L. Gaddis stated, "During theCold War, the primary purpose of the USintelligence community was clear.American intelligence was the spyglassfocused on the Soviet Union" (p. 102).Keeping track of Soviet military researchand development and watching Sovietactivities throughout the developing worlddominated the intelligence community
Now the Cold War is over. Adversariesof the US are less apparent. There is lessclarity about the purpose of intelligenceand national security The virtual disappearance of the Soviet threat, or any othercomparable threat, and the disappearanceof a doctrine to guide American foreignaffairs mean that the intelligence community must devise a new mission in a nowunstable world. Redefining the purpose ofintelligence and the role intelligence willplay in the now uncertain world hasmoved to the forefront. As American foreign policy enters a new era, intelligencepolicy is in the spotlight.
This literature review will present thecurrent arguments and theories on intelligence reform. First, there will be a definition of intelligence and a brief overview ofthe intelligence community Second willfollow a summary of the role of intelligence during the Cold War. Next, the twoprimary schools of thought which structure present-day intelligence theory andits future role in foreign affairs will be presented. Finally; there will be a discussion
of the gaps within the research on intelli.:gence reform, and suggestions for otherfruitful avenues for future research.
The Intelligence CommunityThis section discusses the definitionof and a briefoverview of the .L.L.L\"''-'.L.L.L>'-.'-'.L.L'-''-' r("\1"YYYY11111,lh:T
Defining intelligence will help generateinsight into how to andthe current formation the U.S.gence community
Defining IntelligenceThe definition and scope of intelligencehas been in a state of continuous evolution since its inception. In 1955, intelligence' as defined by the j. Edgar Hoover'sFBI administration, "dealt with all thethings which should be known inadvance of initiating a course of action"(Ransom, 1970). This definition wasbroad and idealistic. In the 1960's, seeking a more realistic definition of intelligence, ex-Director of Central IntelligenceAdmiral William E Raborn defined it as"information which has been carefullyevaluated as to its accuracy and significance" in terms of national security(Ransom, 1970). In the Dictionary ofUnited States Military Terms for jointUsage, intelligence is defined as:
The product resulting from the collection, evaluation, analysis, integration, and interpretation of all available information which concerns oneor more aspects of foreign nations orof areas of operations and which isimmediately of potentially significantto planning.
In spite of the evolution and variation inthe defining of intelligence throughoutthe years, one link is apparent. The definition of intelligence has always varieddepending on one's position and role.
Great diversity is found in thedefinition and application of the term
38 The Role of U.S. Intelligence in American Foreign Affairs
"intelligence" amongst agencies, foreignpolicy elites, and administrators. As aresult, intelligence has been open to personal interpretation, and has been a termused to cover everything from clandestineactivity to espionage. Ultimatel~ the misuse of the term has resulted in a loss ofprecise meaning. Intelligence inherentlysuggests a foreknowledge of intentionsand information for better decision making, and most of the definitions in printconcerning intelligence imply this fact.However, the precise definition of intelligence has become hazy: The limits andboundaries of the activities and objectiveswhich are included in the bounds ofintelligence have begun to elude thepolitical community:
The haze surrounding the definitionof intelligence becomes important interms of an analysis of the frameworkwithin which the debate on the futurerole of intelligence is occurring. If intelligence is not clearly defined, it is,impossible to agree upon which intelligence activities should continue or be classified as"intelligence" in this post-Cold War era.
Overview of the Intelligence CommunityThe actual scope and size of the intelligence cornmunitys budget and personnelremains uncertain due to the culture ofsecrecy in which the community and itsactivities are set. However, some information about the structure and composition of the intelligence community iswell known. The U.S. intelligence community is composed of 13 agencies thatare managed by the Director of CentralIntelligence. The DCI exercises hisauthority through the National ForeignIntelligence Board and the NationalIntelligence Council. The DCI is responsible to the National Security Council and,through this council, to the President.
The Department of Defense (DOD) isthe largest component of the intelligencecommunity: Two-thirds to three-fourths ofthe federal intelligence budget is spent
within this department. Intelligence forbranches of the armed services, theNational Security Agency, the NationalReconaissance Office, Central Imagery;and the Defense Intelligence Agency allfall under DOD intelligence units. Thisinformation is valuable for understandingsome of the schools of thought in the literature on intelligence reform and thedepartments targeted for reform.
Another crucial fact concerns thecreation of agencies within the intelligence community: Most of the agencieswithin the intelligence community werecreated by executive directive to countera Soviet initiative during the Cold War.The Central Intelligence Agency (CIA)is the only agency created by legislationwith a mission separate from ColdWar objectives.
Intelligence during the Cold WarTo understand why intelligence reform isan issue, one must examine the role ofintelligence during the Cold War. A ColdWar analysis of intelligence will providethe background needed to understand thecontext of current suggestions for reform.
In Abram Schulsky's 1992 essa~
"What Is Intelligence? Secrets andCompetition Among States," he states thatbefore the Cold War the United States didnot have a very extensive and active military of intelligence establishment. DuringWorld War II, the department of Researchand Analysis within the Office of StrategicServices relied heavily on open sources toaid the war effort. "The United Statesrelied heavily upon social scientists, historians, and other academics to provide foreign policy information." (p. 19). Thiswealth of human talent provided relevantinformation concerning the war effort.
However, when the Cold War began,a different kind of intelligence problemwas posed to the United States. TheUnited States could no longer rely solelyon academics to serve as open sources toprovide information concerning the Soviet
Union, because the Soviet Union did notprovide open in formation about theinternal workings of the country:"Information that other countries published as a matter of course (e.g., defensebudget or maps) was regarded as secret inthe Soviet Union, and either was not published or was published only in a distorted fashion" (p. 22). As a result, the UnitedStates was forced to construct specializedmechanisms for researching Russia inorder to address U.S. national securityinterests. The United States began to formand develop an array of technical collection methods to acquire informationabout the Soviet Union. The formation ofthese methods of intelligence gatheringinevitably revolutionized American foreign policy and historical intelligenceorganizations. "Various sorts of technicalcollection existed previously, but this newtype of intelligence had the importantcharacteristic that it did not totallydepend on the other side not knowingyou were engaged in it" (p. 23). The phenomena of technical collection provedvery different from human intelligencegathering, and soon the intelligence community evolved, serving as a countervailing force in a then bipolar world. Neworganization were created to sustain theintelligence community "With the exception of the CIA, which was created by legislation, the other major communityorganizations were created by executivedirective to cope with requirements generated by the Cold War" (p. 148).
Through the decades of the ColdWar, national funds flowed into the intelligence establishment based on publicperception of the Soviet threat. Thebiggest economic boost for the intelligence community occurred in the 1980's."There was a broad political consensus inthe early Reagan years that intelligenceneeded to be strengthened with expandedcovert action programs, personnel, andtechnical collection assets" (p. 25). Theearly Reagan years became the "fat years"
GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 2. 1997-1998 39
for the intelligence community The resultwas an unprecedented buildup of U.S.intelligence assets: collection and information procession technologies, personnel,and infrastructure. Although some of thegrowth of the intelligence community wasa result of new requirements, most of theincrease was a product of the emphasisbeing placed on Soviet and East-Westissues by the administration.
Now that the Cold War is over, academics and foreign policy leaders andelites must decide what kind of intelligence system will best suit the needs andinterests of the United States in the future.
Literature on the futurerole of intelligence:Two primary schools of thoughtTwo primary schools of thought seem todominate the debate on the kind of intelligence system needed by the UnitedStates to meet the challenges of thefuture. The two principal schools consistof the literature by authors who (a)believe that the intelligence community isno longer needed, or (b) believe thatintelligence is still a vital component ofthe American foreign policy system. Theliterature in the second category is furthersubdivided into two subgroups. The firstsubgroup (b1) is comprised of literaturearguing for reduced spending within theintelligence community or reduction ofintelligence as a whole. The second subgroup (b2) is comprised of literatureadvocating a reorganization of the internal dynamics, roles, and purposes of theintelligence community
No needfor intelligenceSome analysts argue that the U.S. intelligence community should be abolished.Marcus Raskin, author of the essay "Let'sTerminate the CIA" (1992) andcofounder of the Institute for PolicyStudies, argues that in the post-Cold Warworld, "The CIA and other intelligenceagencies of the United States should be
dismantled or transformed not merelyreorganized." Advocating a cooperationmodel for international relations, Raskinproposes that the CIA and other intelligence agencies be abolished or transformed because their presence has created a "culture of suspicion and secrecythat is dangerous to a democratic society"(p. 55). Raskin criticizes the way inwhich the CIA and the intelligence community has an "above the law" status inAmerican society He proposes that abolishing the present CIA will further thequest toward a more idealistic Americanforeign policy
Roger Hilsman, in the article, "Doesthe CIA Still have a Role" (1995), contends that ever since the demise of theSoviet Union, the CIA has been "scrounging to justify its existence," and the moneyit requires as well, which totaled $3.1 billion in its request to Congress late lastyear [which year?] (45). Hilsmans argument attacks two of the main intelligencegathering roles of the CIA: espionage andcovert action. Hilsman contends that espionage (to which he refers as "the stuff ofspy-thriller fiction") makes no significantdifference to foreign policy "its contribution to wise decisions in foreign policyand defense is minimal. But the cost inlives, treasure, and intangibles is high"(1995). To support this idea, Hilsmanuses examples from World War I to theCold War in his effort to prove that espionage is difficult to coordinate and maintain, because the process of espionage isintricate, dangerous, and time-consuming.
Covert action, or, as Hilsman calls it,"cloak and dagger gimmickry;"was "a fad"used to solve every problem during theCold War (p. 45). Covert action, according to Hilsman, helped the UnitedStates get around the "moral problem ofintervention and the political problemof appearing to be a bully" (p. 46). LikeRaskin, Hilsman believes that covertaction has created an aura of secrecy andsuspicion within the democratic society
of the United States. However, he believesthat the largest issue in discussing covertaction is the manner in which "Covertaction has been overused as an instrument of foreign policy," and the consequent suffering of the reputation of theUnited States (p. 48).
Hilsman's argument concerning theCIA diverges from Raskin, as Hilsmandoes not believe the CIA should beentirely abolished. Hilsman is a proponent of using certain forms of intelligence-gathering within the CIA, prioritizing those intelligence-gathering forms,and dismantling those which are ineffective. "The United States should get out ofthe business of both espionage and covertpolitical action. However, the CIA shouldstill have an important role to playas theindependent research and analysis organization contemplated in the 1960s" (p.48). Hilsman believes that implementingthis type of reform in the CIA will resultin the elimination of substantial duplication and substantial savings.
Need for IntelligenceAnother school of thought argues thatintelligence is still needed. Most intelligence scholars believe that the end of theCold War is not the end of conflict of ofthreats to American national securityAlthough this category shows diversity inopinion and suggested reform, all of theliterature acknowledges the need forcontinued intelligence and intelligencegathering. The diversity arises whendiscussing the kind of intelligence systemthe United States will require in order tomeet the challenges of the future.Opinions diverge when discussing thetwo key areas, budget and policy priority
40 The Role of U.S. Intelligence in American Foreign Affairs
Reduction-Based Restructuringof the Intelligence CommunityThe literature in this school of thought isbased on reform aimed at restructuringthe financial and programmatic prioritiesof the intelligence community This literature is founded on the common thread ofthought that the intelligence communityno longer requires the substantive funds itneeded during the Cold War. Conflictingopinions arise in the literature over theextent to which reform needs to occurand what the new priorities should be.One main argument binds the literaturethat supports reduction-based reform: theideal intelligence configuration will beable to provide foreknowledge on adversary intent, even in the midst of a streamlined budget.
Less CapitalThe first subgroup within reductionbased restructuring of intelligence is literature that advocates reduced intelligence-gathering capacity and less moneyfor intelligence-gathering. These authorsargue that intelligence is needed, butthey contend that in this time of peace,we do not need to "recklessly use fundson intelligence" or boost the intelligencecommunity with additional funds.Lauren Spain (1995) argues thatalthough the federal government has cutdefense and national security spendingfor the U.S., spending in many areas wasonly 7 percent lower than Cold Warspending levels. In her essay; she discusses why she believes deeper budget cutsshould be made.
Other literature suggests diminishedallocations to the intelligence communityand advises against spending money onnew projects. O'Hanlon (1995) discusses"reducing the emphasis on nuclear deterrence and shaping forces more explicitlyfor multilateral military activities" (1'. 32),in an effort to curtail the U.S. defensebudget to 75 percent of the average ColdWar level. Thomas McNaugher (1996)
also advocates reduction-based reform:"The defense budget cannot afford intelligence readiness and new weaponssomething has to go." McNaugher contends that the Cold War mindset"excessive money equals the road topower"-will have to go in order to successfully pursue a post-Cold War foreignpolicy (1'. 27).
Reform of certainintelligence-gathering formsOther literature reflects the increasingskepticism concerning specific forms ofintelligence-gathering. Doherty (1990)examines the broadening skepticism inCongress about covert aid programs. Heanalyzes the consequent change in votingon the budgets of covert aid programs,noting a significant decrease since theend of the Cold War. Schlesinger (1993)also acknowledges domestic political limitations on intelligence spending. Henotes, "While America may have thephysical strength to carry on three ofmore discrete operations simultaneously;it is not physical resources that constrainit. Our political capital, both domesticand foreign, is limited and should not bespent recklessly" (1'. 22).
Peace DividendsOthers who favor reductions and reformsof intelligence operations argue that"peace dividends" created from thereduced levels of intelligence and defenseexpenditures should be spent on domestic programs such as education, homelessness, or deficit reduction. For example, Korb (1996) addresses the need to"decrease defense and intelligence spending to reduce the budget deficit" (1'. 24).Carlucci (1992) advocates spending the"peace dividend" on reduction of theU.S. deficit.
Reform in Foreign Policy ApproachAmong those advocating a reduction inintelligence activities, there are some
analysts who favor reducing intelligencespending and encourage an isolationistforeign policy agenda in the post-ColdWar era. Clarke (1995) states thatAmerica needs to distinguish between"sentimentality and reality" and rediscoverits "duty to itself" (1'. 45). Clarke alsobelieves that if the United States wouldstop acting as a world police force, thesubstantive funds required for intelligencewould not be needed. According to thisview, a more isolationist foreign policywill require less intelligence-gatheringcapacity Others refer to this literature as"backward-looking," since these opinionsaim at trying to avoid the mistakes andfaults the intelligence community madeduring the 19805, instead of necessarilytaking into account the uncertainties ofwhat lies ahead.
Reorganization of IntelligenceThis category of literature advocates areorganization of intelligence capacityusing similar or additional budget allocations. The literature promoting reorganization within intelligence is basedon reform aimed at altering and revisingthe current intelligence community,using "forward looking" techniques.This literature advocates using formerintelligence structures only as a guidefor what not to do in the future.Focusing on the uncertainty of thechanging world, these authors noteareas in which the intelligence community is weak. They cite the need to buildupon those weak areas, equipping theintelligence community to deal withpotential future threats. These analystsdiverge when discussing which elementsand agencies of intelligence-gatheringneed to be priorities. However, the arguments found in this literature can be classified as advocating changes in the goals,infrastructure, emphasis, and overall priorities of the intelligence communities.
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GoalsSome authors believe that the intelligencecommunity needs to construct a newoverarching purpose to replace the ColdWar purpose of containing Soviet globalexpansion and presence. FormerCongressman Dave McCurdy (1994) contends that the Cold War doctrine provided a uniting vision of objective for theintelligence communityr, where everyoneknew their mission and the primary reason behind their actions. Therefore, anuncertainty concerning the responsibilitiesand duties of the intelligence communityaccompanied the end of the Cold War.McCurdy believes, "The U.S. intelligencecommunity needs a new defining purposethat serves to focus and justify the communitys efforts" (p. 127), a purposewhich will provide "the leaders of U.S.intelligence with a grander notion of whatthey are about and a more sweepingnotion of their job" (p. 129). McCurdysuggests that the following three pointsshould be a part of the new and reformedmission for intelligence: "RevitalizingU.S.economic strength and competitiveness,maintaining a strong defense posture, andpromoting democracy abroad" (p. 129).
In his article, "Intelligence Backinginto the Future," Ernest may (1994) contends that in this changed world, weneed an intelligence community that will"serve the needs of the government as awhole in an effective and timely manner"(p. 67). According to May, "serving theneeds of the government as a wholeimplies generating information and analysis about new subjects and new things"(p. 68). Therefore, May contends that thegoal of the intelligence communityshould be striving for a higher level ofpreparedness in all areas, especially nontraditional areas.
Godson, May, and Schmitt (1995)believe that the reform debate concerning intelligence in the mid-1990'sbecame a dispute over "whether U.S.intelligence had reach a kind of bureau-
cratic 'old age' ... no longer up to its joband incapable of changing its ways" (p.7). However, these authors believe thatthe real question "is not whether intelligence will be a factor in the future butwhether the large intelligence bureaucracies spawned by World War II and theCold War continue to suit U.S. nationalsecurity needs" (p, 9).
In his article, Intelligence for aNewWorld Order, " Stansfield Turner (1995)argues that information is the key topower. Thus, the goal of U.S. intelligence should be obtaining informationthat will boost its hegemonic power and"identifying today exactly what information will give us the most power adecade or so from now" (p. 153). Turnerbelieves that this goal can be achievedby maintaining and expanding humanintelligence efforts and by building arobust network of satellites with a variety of sensors. Turner suggests that thepreeminent threat to U.S. national security lies in the economic sphere.
In his 1992 essay, "Thinking AboutReorganization," James Q. Wilson, once amember of the Presidents ForeignIntelligence Advisory Board, believes thatthere are two types of agencies. The firsttype includes the agencies that produceoutcomes that can be specified inadvance. "The State Department, the FBI,the DEA, and the CIA are agencies of thesecond type; we cannot say in advancewhat we want these agencies to produceand we will not find it easy to agree onwhether they have produced it: (p. 30).Wilson believes that the goal of reorganizing type-two agencies should be "decidingwhat operating culture we wish to produce amongst rank-and-file employeesand then designing an organizationalstructure that will increase the chances ofthat culture being created and sustained"(p, 32). From his earlier experience as areorganizer for the Drug EnforcementAgency; he believes that the most unsuccessful reorganization ventures have been
those that have sought to alter the outputsof an agency rather than looking inward.Thus, by understanding the daily workand operating culture of the agencieswithin the intelligence community andfinding the breakdown in the linkbetween these routines and the policyobjectives they should fulfill, effectivereorganization can occur. "The reason formy suspicion is that reorganization planstend to be developed by staff people whoare brought in from outside the government and know little about the agenciesthey propose to change" (p. 32).
InfrastructureDuring the Cold War, the intelligencecommunity acted in secrecyr, with activities hidden from the scrutiny of publicopinion. In this period, there was littlecoordination between intelligence agencies, between intelligence agencies andpolicy makers, between intelligence agencies and the military, and between theintelligence community and the generalpublic. Some analysts believe that cooperation within the infrastructure of intelligence will produce a more efficient andthorough intelligence communityr, as wellas erase past Cold War mindsets of interagency separation.
In the article, "U.S. Intelligence in anAge of Uncertainty: Refocusing to Meetthe Challenge," Paula Scalingi (1992) predicts that "the effectivenessof U.S. intelligence will depend on how well Congress,the executive branch, and the communitycooperate in undertaking the necessaryinitiatives" (p. 148). Scalingi contendsthat the demise of Soviet and other international conflicts has birthed a newdemand for "constant congressional monitoring" (p. 148). Scalingi implies a needfor reform aimed at restructuring the traditional relationships between the intelligence community and its consumers byreducing secrecy:
Bruce Weinrod (1996) agrees withScalingi'sadvocacy of reform aimed at
42 The Role of U.S. Intelligence in American Foreign Affairs
greater communication and more jointcoordination among the intelligence community and other members of the politicalcommunity "The intelligence communityin the post-Cold War era can make itsinformation and reports as user-friendly aspossible" (p. 88). Weinrod and Scalingiboth propose that the United willrequire an intelligence community that isuniformed and networks from within inorder to produce efficient foreknowledgeand maintain its superpower status.
Areas for further researchThe literature indicates a broad range ofopinions as to how intelligence shouldbe defined, structured, and funded in thepost-Cold War era. Much of the diversityfound in the literature can be directlylinked to the fact that what qualifies asintelligence has not been revisited orrevised as the intelligence communityhas evolved.
In the post-Cold War era, theredefining of intelligence is crucial to thelarger debate over the reorientation andrestructuring of the intelligence community As stated earlier, the definition ofintelligence is outdated, lacking precision and specificity As a result, it hasbeen manipulated and used to cover ahost of activities. The term intelligenceand consequently the application of theterm has been open to individual interpretation since the evolution f the intelligence community
A definition helps bind and provideceilings and walls within which to containthe concept being defined. Now, as waysof restructuring and reorienting intelligence are being discussed, it is also necessary to wade through what has been illegitimately and what has been justly calledintelligence in the past, and to determinewhich activities will qualify as intelligencein the future. This process of "separatingthe sheep from the wolves" will streamlinemany agencies and rid the intelligencecommunity of financially draining
projects created during the 19805 andmistakenly categorized as intelligence dueto bureaucratic momentum.
It has been often stated, "There cannot be agreement on a solution if there isno agreement on how to problem." Actual implementation of revisionsto the community will be andsparse, until a ror'hr:lrtorlr'1CT
tion of intelligence occurs. Without arechartering of the term and what itentails, the intelligence community willcontinue trying to provide foreknowledgeto its consumers following an outdatedmission encased within an unrestraineddefinition. Wilson (1992) states,"Reorganization is a favorite Washingtonactivity; not because it is a proven methodfor achieving certain policy goals, butbecause it is a strategy that can accommodate so many motives ... inevitably it's likepushing a wet string" (p. 31). Miles(1977) wrote, "Repetitive reorganizationwithout proper diagnosis is like repetitivesurgery without proper diagnosis; obviously an unsound and unhealthyapproach to the cure of the malaclY" (32).
The United States cannot fight thenon-traditional issues it currently faces inits foreign affairs with Cold War tactics.New mission statements need to be constructed to increase effectiveness and precision of duty within the intelligencecommunity Modified mission statementswill also cut down on the large amountsof overlap found within the intelligencecommunity Additional research into thetwo subgroups within the literature onintelligence reform is also necessary Acommon suggestion by policymakers andmembers of Congress is for intelligenceinvolving less secrecy and more cooperation. Suggestions also include an increasein the 'amount of information being disclosed to the American public, and agreater check and balance system for theintelligence community There is aninherent conflict between the secrecyinvolved in covert operations and demo-
cratic governance based on an informedpublic. During the Cold War, the needfor secrecy led to intelligence gatheringactivities which were conducted outsidedemocratic controls.
In the post-Cold War era, the chal-lenge of a uniting for theintelligence community that will best prepare and gird it against the unknown willbe a continuously evolving effort.
GVSU McNair ScholarsJournal VOLUME 2. 1997-1998 43
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