W OPEN ON THE WORLD

l*i i¿'W»t

THE RUINS

NEMRUD

2,000 years agoEast met West

at the shrine

of Antiochus I

ANT EYE

ON THE COSMOS

This giant radio telescope in south-easternAustralia, in operation since last October, isthe world's most powerful and second insize only to Jodrell Bank near Manchester,England. It is capable of receiving signalsfrom distances in the universe which are

beyond the range of any instrument, radio oroptical, at present in existence. See page 26.

Australian News and Information Bureau

FEBRUARY 1962

15TH YEAR

Contents

No. 2

PUBLISHED IN

EIGHT EDITIONSPage

French

SpanishRussian

German

Arabic

American

Japanese

4 NEMRUD DAGH

Mountain-top sanctuary of gods & kingsBy Pauline Bentley

12 FREDERICK DOUGLASS, AMERICAN FIGHTERFOR FREEDOM

Human Rights for all regardless of colour or sexBy Benjamain Quarles

15 THE INCAS OF TODAY

Descendents of a glorious past on the high plateaux of the AndesBy Alfred Metraux

22 PING-PONG DOLLS GO TO SCHOOL

Lessons come alive with Lilliputian "teachers"

By M. M. Rabecq-Maillard

26 AUSTRALIA'S GIANT «EYE1 ON OUTER SPACE

A new radio-telescope scans the universe

By Selwyn Speight

COVER PHOTO

This giant stone head ofAntlochus 1, King of Com-magene, now lies among theruins of the mountain-topshrine he erected 2,000 yearsago at Nemrud Dagh, inpresent-day Turkey. Throughhis Greek mother, Antlochustraced his descent from Alex¬ander the Great and his fea¬

tures as depicted on thissculptured head strongly re¬semble those of his greatforebear. (See story page 4)

© Ara Guler, Istanbul

29 LITTLE-KNOWN MASTERPIECES OF BULGARIAN ART

Revealed by a new Unesco album of colour reproductions

By A. Vassilev

33 LETTERS TO THE EDITOR

34 FROM THE UNESCO NEWSROOM

(M. C. 62.1., 166 A)

Published monthly byThe United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural

OrganizationEditorial Offices

Unesco, Place de Fontenoy, Paris 7e, FranceEditor-in-Chief

Sandy KofflerAssistant Editor

René Caloz

Associate Editors

English Edition : Ronald FentonFrench Edition : Jane Albert HesseSpanish Edition : Arturo DespoueyRussian Edition : Veniamin Matchavariani (Moscow)German Edition : Hans Rieben (Berne)Arabic Edition : Amin Shaker (Cairo)Japanese Edition : Shin-lchi Hasegawa (Tokyo)»Layout & DesignRobert Jacquemin

THE UNESCO COURIER is published monthly, except in July end August whenit is bi-monthly ( I I issues a yeir), in English, French, Spanish, Russian, Ger¬man, Arabic and Japanese. Sales and distribution: UNESCO PublicationsCenter. U.S.A. 801 Third Avenue, New York 22, N.Y., Plaza 1-3860 (soledistributors of the American edition). Second-class mail privileges authorisedat New York, N.Y.

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NEMRUD DAGH

for 2,000 years the colossalstatues of an East-West

sanctuary have guarded the

secret of an Anatolian king

TWENTY CENTURIES AGO, Antiochus I,King of Commagene raised a mighty monumentto himself and his gods atop Nemrud Dagh (MountNimrod) in the Anti-Taurus Mountains of present-day Turkey. The colossal statues of Antiochusand the deities worshipped by his Greek andPersian ancestors still stand, but most have been

decapitated. Fallen heads of Herakles (on left)and Zeus (right) are twice the height of a man.

by Pauline Bentley

S(EVEN thousand feet high in the Anti-Taurusmountains of Turkey stands Nemrud Dagh, the

mount of Nimrod. On this parched and stony summitthere has lain for the past 2,000 years one of the greatmonuments of antiquity, a sanctuary which by its beautyoutstandingly exemplifies the amalgam of East and West,of Persian, Greek and Anatolian cultures. It was raisedin the first century of our era by Antiochus I, King ofCommagene, to be a "holy common room of all the Gods"and a palace of pilgrimage for his people.

Hewn from the mountain »rock, the sanctuary consistsof three terraces levelled on the summit and decorated

with mighty statues of the King and his Gods whichtower on their bases to the height of a five-storey building.Portrait reliefs of the "heroic company of the King'sancestors" grace the terrace walls; above these andthe statues too, Antiochus I caused the rock chippings tobe piled into a tumulus, a great man-made false peakrising in perfect symmetry for 150 feet on the mountaintop. Is this the King's burial chamber? Archaeologistsbelieve the rocky cairn to be his tomb, »but so far it hasdefied exploration.

Today Nemrud Dagh looks out over an arid land fromwhich the ferment of civilization has long since seepedaway, but 2,000 years ago the little Kingdom ofCommagene spread in a rich and fertile vista at the footof the Anti-Taurus mountain chain from Cilicia to the

Euphrates River. It was a tempting, miniature bufferstate between the great powers of its world. To theSouth and East lay the Parthian Empire, northwards theRoman Protectorates of Cappadocea and Armenia, and onthe Aegean seaboard sprawled the Roman Provinces.Well may both Rome and Persia have cast longing eyesupon this kingdom which the Roman Consul Strabo oncedescribed as "exceedingly fertile, though small."Relatively little is known of its history, but it is recordedthat Antiochus I made treaty with the Roman GeneralPompey in 64 B.C., preserving its frontiers until it wasfinally absorbed into the Roman Empire under Vespasianin 72 A.D.

Meanwhile, into Commagene poured the differingcultures of Persia and of Greece to mingle with therichness of Anatolian history. The capital city, Samsat,the Samosata of today, commanded one of the epiccrossing-points of the Euphrates; the whole kingdom layastride the ancient trade routes of the Orient and theWest, among lands bearing two of the world's sevenwonders. . .the Temple to Diana at Ephesus and the fort ofHelicarnassus built in memory of the Anatolian rulerMausolus whence comes the word mausoleum. In these

4 regions Xenophon led his 10,000 to their fatal meetingwith the Persians and the Apostle Paul trod his dusty wayfrom Tarsus. Around Edessa, some fifty miles from

CONT'D ON PAGE 6

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Ara GOler, Istanbul

THRONE ROOM OF THE GODS. Overlookingtwo vast terraces on "the topmost ridge of mykingdom" Antiochus I assembled these 29-feet highcolossi. These deities, whose multiple names reflect theGreek and Persian cultures from which they sprang, in¬clude a sun god (Apollo-Mithra-Helios-Hermes), theCommagene fertility goddess (Fortuna), the father ofthe gods (Zeus-Ahuramazda), thegod ofstrength(Hera-kles) and Antiochus. Only Fortuna has kept her head.

Ara Güler

Is Antiochus I buried here?

Nemrud Dagh, there may sometimes still be encountereda blonde and blue-eyed people, perhaps descended from theFrankish Knights of the first Crusade who later passedthis way.

The stir of history has all subsided and time and erosionhave done their work. The Turkish Government are

now launching a land-reclamation programme which isalready showing some results in their effort to restore theregion to its former fertility, but so remote and desolatedid it become across the centuries that it was not until

1882 and 1883 that Nemrud Dagh first fell to thearchaeologist.

Reports written then on the sanctuary by Turkish andGerman archaeologists in turn fired the enthusiasm of anAmerican woman geologist, Theresa Goell (1). After 14years of research work and two preliminary visits she ledher first expedition there in 1953.

Even now the way to the sanctuary is far from easy;then, it was accessible only by narrow winding donkeytracks. The old processional way of Antiochus I leads

(1) A personal account by Theresa Goell of her investigationsat Nemrud Dagh was published in "National Geographic."(Vol. 119, No. 3, March 1961.)

Ii -.»

BETWEEN TWO CONTINENTS. The small

though rich kingdom of Commagene lay astridetrade routes linking Orient to Occident. Gate¬way to the sacred monuments of Antiochus isthis well-preserved Roman bridge of SeptimusSeverus (left) on aformer royal processional route.

ROARING LION (right) carved from sandstoneguards a relief on the west terrace, depictingAntiochus I and the sun god (Apollo-Mithra).Lion looks down over barren slopes and valleysof once prosperous Commagene. Today, throughdrought and erosion, much of it is wasteland.

NEMRUD DAGH (Cont'd)

MAN-MADE MOUNTAIN PEAK.

Crowning Mount Nimrod (right) isa giant tumulus ISO feet high, raised,stone by stone, on the orders ofAntiochus I as the crowning monumentof his sanctuary. This may well hidethe tomb of the monarch, but allattempts to dig into the mound havebeen thwarted by avalanches of stones.

Photos © Ara Guler

^ammtff K f. » Un

from the remote village of Esikartha, reached by crossingthe river by the marvellously preserved Roman Bridge ofSeptimus Severus, itself a relic of great beauty (seeopposite page).

To the south, lies Karakus, the tomb of the Royal ladlesof the dynasty of Antiochus. Their tumulus is guardedby a limestone eagle, symbol of Zeus, standing on a neo-Doric column. The tomb appears to have been pillagedbut there are still traces of 18 columns, once with statueson them, of which only two now stand.

Beyond, »lies the Anti-Taurus chain, dominated byNemrud Dagh, with its symmetrical, man-made peakrising sharp and clear against the sky, but to the travellerfrom Esikartha the sanctuary itself remains completelyhidden from view during his journey. He must tollupwards on an hours-long arduous climb from the ancientAnatolian village with no glimpse of his goal to spur himon until it suddenly bursts forth in complete andbreathtaking splendour high above him.

The havoc wrought by time, weathering and casualvandalism cannot mar the sudden revelation of the whitecone of stones »glittering in the still and »blazing light,silently guarded by the immense statues still sentinelin their mutilation and displacement.

The Goell expedition settled to the examination of thesanctuary on the rocky terrain which made encampmenta painful hazard and working conditions a matter forsheer ingenuity. In the rigorous hardship of a climate

swinging between a daytime 130° and an night-timefreezing point; without nearby water or shade; in dust,hall, freak torrential rainstorms and at the mercy of anoccasional marauding bear, they surveyed the shrine,clearing It with difficulty of debris. There was no roomon the summit to put this and it liad to be carriedpainstakingly down the mountain in wooden litters.

It soon became obvious that Nemrud Dagh warrantedmore than one season for its thorough exploration.Theresa Goell and her team spent five years' dedicatedwork there, helped by the sponsorship of the AmericanSchool for Oriental Research and with the aid of the

Bollinger Foundation and the American PhilosophicalSociety. Far from being the crude product of some seml-barbarian monarch as had been suggested, the beauty ofthe shrine established It as one of the glories of theHellenistic world.

Not only the sculptured figures of Antlochus and hLsGods with their attendant eagles and lions, but also theirsandstone relief portraits cut into the walLs running thelength of the East and West terraces show the purity ofform and line of the great classical tradition.

The ceremonial heart of the shrine Is the Persian fire

altar on the East Terrace. Earlier expeditions haddescribed a "mighty stairway" to It, but the Goell expedi¬tion revealed this to be a double podium cut Into the rockwith inscriptions indicating reliefs cut In its walls.Majestically facing the fire altar, with the tumulus of

CONT'D ON PAGE 10

lb-

NEMRUD DAGH (Cont'd;

Mountain-top terrace

of a king & his godsFALLEN HEADS OF DEITIES litter the west terrace of NemrudDagh (right) giving it the appearance of a huge open-air studio of somemonumental sculptor with, as a back-drop, the bleak eroded slopesof the Anti-Taurus mountains. Though now shattered by earthquakes,erosion and vandalism, the deities still seem marvels of engineeringskill. Upon their platform, they rose as high as a five-storey building.

FACE OF ZEUS pitted and scarred by weather and erosion (below)now stares sightlessly from the west terrace. Other decapitated headIn rear is that of Antiochus I who built and endowed the sanctuary.

Headdress worn by Antlochus shows his paternal links with Persia.

LION HOROSCOPE (be¬

low) was found on eastterrace. Though a similarone was discovered 70 yearsearlier, new information hasbeen drawn from stars and

other engravings. Thesemarkings on this relief ofa stylized lion give the dateof the horoscope as July 61or 62 B.C. possiblywhen the shrine was built.

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Photos O Arj CUler

TOMB OF THE ROYAL LADIES

of the dynasty of Antiochus Is atKarakus which lies to the south of

Nemrud Dagh. The burial tumulushere is guarded by a limestone eagle(right) symbol of Zeus, standing on aneo-Dorlc column. At Karakus there

are also traces of eighteen columnsthat were once crowned by statues.

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NEMRUD DAGH (Cont'd;

>2*T^Ara Güler

GUARDIANS OF THE SHRINE, these eagle and lion heads keep a faithfulvigil over the monuments and statues of Nemrud Dagh as they have donesince craftsmen hewed them from the] mountain rock twenty centuries ago.The eagle was a familiar motif in ancient Anatolian and Mesopotamian art.

Heritage of both Greece and Persia

10

rock chippings at their back, there still sit, though shakenand dismembered by earth tremors, an imposing array of25 to 29-foot high statues reflecting the hybrid culturefrom which they spring.

First comes the Sun God, Apollo-Mithra-Helios-Hermes ;then the Commagene Fertility Goddess Fortuna; next toher the Father of the Gods, the "Thunder Shaker," AhuraMazda-Zeus. Next to him sits Antiochus I himself,

flanked by the Hero God of strength, Herakles-Artagne-Ares. All the statues, except the Goddess Fortuna havelost their heads across the years, the mighty head ofApollo Mithra being discovered when the Goell expeditionwere clearing a trench on this terrace to copy inscriptionscut into bases of the statues.

These Inscriptions give a history of the sanctuary

"I, Antiochus," reads part of them, "have raised thisplace to my own glory and that of my Gods." They showhe endowed the shrine with Royal estates, staffed itwith priests and musicians and decreed "everlasting"monthly ceremonies there. The 10th day of each monthcommemorated his accession to the throne, and the 16th,his birthday.

An important discovery by the Goell team on the Eastterrace was a "lion horoscope" similar to the onediscovered on the West Terrace in 1882 which gained fameas the first known Greek horoscope. Professor OttoNeygebauer of Brown University, Boston has identified the19 stars scattered on and near its body and the conjunc¬tion of the three planets Jupiter, Mercury and Mars,giving the date of the horoscope as July 61 or 62 B.C.

© Ara GülerBEARDED HERAKLES (foreground) and handsome Apollo are two headsbroken off from the mighty statues at Nemrud Dagh, two members of a ruinedpantheon of the gods. Standing on the court of the west terrace, they look likegiants who have been buried to the neck in the rocky soil of the mountain sanctuary.

This may be taken as the possible date of the shrine'sfoundation and has been of very great value in the datingof other Hellenistic monuments.

Among other valuable discoveries was the sculpturedhead of Antiochus, some 16 feet (5 metres) high, lyingamidst the fallen heads of his gods and guardian animalson the West Terrace. It Is of calm and striking beauty,and bears a strong likeness to Alexander the Great, fromwhom Antiochus claimed descent on his mother's side.The head wears a Persian headdress to remind us that healso claimed descent from the Aechemenid dynasty ofPersia, through his father.

The relief portraits on this West Terrace show him,adorned with the lion emblem of royalty and guarded bya sandstone lion statue, facing Apollo-Mithra as an equal.

for Antlochus I claimed not only descent from the rulersof Greece and Persia, but considered himself Immortal.One of the inscriptions in the sanctuary reads "thetopmost ridge" of the kingdom "is the one in closestproximity to the heavenly throne of Zeus."

It was this Inscription and the discovery of a rock coreunder the east side of the tumulus which encouragedTheresa Goell's conviction that Antiochus I lies buried

under the tumulus he raised. Excavations were started

but they resulted only in avalanches of stone which madecontinuing impossible. Twenty centuries after its erectionthe shrine of Nemrud Dagh has been brought before usby description, photograph and film but its final enigmaremains unsolved: the great pile of rock upon its summitkeeps Its secret still.

11

FREDERICK DOUGLASS

STILL A YOUTH, Frederick Douglassbegan his campaign for the abolition ofslavery. He was himself an escaped slavefrom a plantation in the State of Maryland.

by Benjamin QuarlesAll photos Frederick Douglass

Historical Association

D uring the four years from 1961 to 1965,the United States is observing the one hun-

dreth anniversary of a hard-fought war between twosections of its country, the North and the South.According to the man who was President when the warbroke out, Abraham Lincoln, one of the great goals ofthe struggle was to give to America "a new birth offreedom." To no group in the United States did thesewords mean more than to its Negroes. And to no persondid these words mean more than to Frederick Douglass.

Frederick Douglass, the most prominent AmericanNegro of the nineteenth century, devoted his life toextending the boundaries of freedom for his fellow man.He believed that everyone was entitled to liberty: "Manwas born with it," said he. And so for half a century,from 1845 to 1895, he made himself a spokesman for theoppressed and downtrodden.

Douglass was devoted to the cause of freedom becausehe knew what it was not to be free. For he had been a

slave. In 1817, when he was born, slavery Was a well-established institution in the southern section of the

United States. Slavery had deep roots in America, goingback almost to the time when the British founded the

American colonies, beginning with Virginia in 1607.

When the United States became an independent nationin 1783, it seemed as though slavery was doomed to die anatural death. But ten years later, a machine wasinvented, the cotton gin, which made it possible toseparate the seeds from the fibre. In America and inEurope there was a great demand for cotton. To meetthis demand a labour supply was nec»sssary. Negroslavery was the answer to this need.

In being born a slave, Frederick Douglass was like12 hundreds of thousands of other Negroes In the United

States. But no other slave was destined to become so

well known. From such humble beginnings as his, very

few Americans ever went so far. The key to his successwas his striving for freedom, for himself and for others.

As a young slave on a plantation in Maryland, Douglasswas not satisfied with his lot. He held imaginary conver¬sations with himself, asking himself these questions:"Why I am a slave? Why are some people slaves, andothers masters? Was there ever a time when this was notso?"

To prepare himself for freedom, Douglass wanted tolearn the alphabet. His masters tried to prevent him fromlearning how to read and write, but Douglass was noteasily discouraged. His first »pennies were secretly spentin buying spelling books and in paying other boys to helphim to understand them.

In 1838, after twenty years in bondage, Douglass escapedfrom his master and settled in the North, where slaveryno longer existed. For three years at New Bedford,Massachusetts, he worked as an unskilled labourer, takingany job he could get sweeping chimneys, sawing wood,driving a coach or waiting on table He had a growingfamily to support, having married a few days after hisflight from his master.

But his responsibilities as a husband and a father didnot prevent him from taking an interest in the activitiesof the abolitionists. These were a group of men andwomen who were dedicated to the overthrow of slavery,which they considered the greatest evil under the sun.They were opposed to slave-ry for two reasons: for whatit did to the slave, and for what it 'did to such civilliberties as freedom of speech and trial by jury. InMassachusetts these reformers were led »by two able men,William Lloyd Garrisson, editor of The Liberator, andWendell Phillips, one of the greatest orators of thenineteenth contury.

In August 1841 the Massachusetts abolitionists held ameeting at New Bedford, and, Douglass, to his surprise,was asked to say a few words. He was nervous, but hespoke with deep feeling, telling of his recollections ofslavery. His listeners were impressed by his story and hismanner of telling it, and they urged him to join theirranks as a lecturer and agent. The young Negro gave hisconsent, thus taking a step he never regretted.

SiChooled by the abolitionists, Douglass soonbecame one of their prize speakers. His

imposing physique, his finely formed head, his flashingeyes and the rolling thunder of his voice, all fitted himfor the public platform. "In listening to him," wrote acontemporary, "your whole soul is fired."

Slavery also felt the weight of the Douglass pen. Withinfour years after he had joined the abolitionists, he haddeveloped a forceful prose style, direct and vivid. His"Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass," which hepublished in 1845, became a best seller on two continents,being translated into French and German.

This book was a bitter condemnation of slavery, andit could not fail to stir up sympathy for those In bondage."I never saw my mother," ran one of the openingsentences, "to know her as such, more than four or fivetimes in my life; and each of these was very short induration, and at night."

Following the publication of his "Narrative," Douglasscrossed the Atlantic, going to the British Isles. There fornearly two years he denounced American slavery beforelarge and sympathetic audiences. His success abroad wasgreat; British admirers raised money to purchase hisfreedom from his former master, and to enable him tostart a weekly newspaper of his own.

In addition to speaking and writing, Douglass took partin another of the organized forms of action againstslavery the underground railroad. This was the name

A SLAVE WHO BECAME

FREEDOM'S TRUMPET

' r s

IN LATER LIFE, a renowned orator, writer and lecturer, Douglass sawhis own people freed ( I 863). In I 877 he became U.S. Ambassador to Haïti.

given to the practice of assisting runaway slaves byproviding them with food, shelter and money, as theymade their ' way to Canada. Himself an escaped slave,Douglass was strongly in sympathy with those who madethe dash for freedom. The fees from many of his lectureswent to aid fugitives. '

His home in Rochester, New York, was a headquartersfor runaways. When he went to his printing shop in triemornings, it was not unusual for him to find fugitivessitting on the steps, waiting for him. Such runawaystraveled at nightduring the daytime their abolitionistfriends hid them from prying eyes. Douglass knew whereto take them, to a sail loft, to an out-of-the-way barn,or to the quiet home of a trusted sympathizer. Whendarkness fell, Douglass sped them on their way towardthe Canadian border.

Douglass's Interest in freedom included woman's rights,a movement in which he was one of the pioneers. In the

America in which Douglass came to manhood, the womendid not stand equal to the men In the eyes of the law,being denied the right to make contracts, to testify incourt, and to vote. Douglass opposed these unfairrestrictions. His weekly newspaper, The North Star, Inits first issue on December 3, 1847, carried on its mastheadthe words, "Right Is of no sex."

Seven months later, at Seneca Falls, New York, thewoman's rights movement in America was formallylaunched. At this historic meeting, Douglass took aprominent part, being the only man to do so. Manyof the delegates to the convention were hesitant aboutasserting that women should have the right to vote, butin a stirring address that changed many minds, Douglasspointed out that political equality was vital to thewomen's cause.

With the coming of the war between the North andthe South in the spring of 1861, Douglass bent his efforts

13

CONT'D ON NEXT PAGE

Human rights for everyone

regardless of colour or sex

s»

to urging President Lincoln to liberate the slaves. ToDouglass the war was a crusade for freedom, and he triedto impress this point of view on Lincoln on his two visitsto the White House. The Negro leader was overjoyedwhen, on January 1, 1863, Lincoln issued the EmancipationProclamation, declaring free the slaves in the South. Itwas, said Douglass, "a day for poetry and song."

Too old to shoulder a gun himsef, Douglass »became arecruiting agent, traveling through the North urgingNegroes to join the army. The first two recruits hesigned up were his own sons, Lewis »and Charles. As arecruiter and as a lecturer supporting the Nothern cause,Douglass continued his labours until the South laid downits arms in April 1865.

After the war, Douglass was destined to hold threepublic offices: President Hayes appointed him as Marshalof the District of Columbia in 1877; President Garfieldappointed him as Recorder of Deeds for the District ofColumbia in 1881; and President Harrison appointed himas United States Minister to Haiti in 1889.

Between these last two appointments, Douglass spentone year traveling In Europe and the Near East. He tookin all the sights, making it a point while in Paris to seethe tomb of Lafayette, the general who had helpedAmerica win her independence. "This patriot has twocountries of his own," said Douglass, and therefore hisburial plot was "doubly sacred ground." Douglass was

especially glad to make the acquaintance of such achampion of human liberty as the eighty-one-year-oldmember of the French Senate, Victor Schoelcher, who in1848 had framed the decree that freed the slaves in theFrench colonies.

But whether abroad or at home, whether in office orout of it, Douglass never lost his deep concern for humanfreedom. He never stopped speaking and writing onbehalf of the underdog. Those who were discriminatedagainst at the polls or in the job market could depend onhim to cry out for them. He viewed the lot of the Negronot as a race struggle, »but as a human struggle. He hopedthat the day would come when everyone in America wouldhave equal opportunity, regardless of differences inancestry, sex, religious beliefs, or skin color.

Douglass did not live to see that day; he died in 1895.But to the making of a free America he gave his best andhis all. Such devotion to liberty left its mark on hisgeneration, and it has its lessons for our own troubledtimes.

BENJAMIN QUARLES, professor of history- at Morgan StateCollege, Baltimore, Md., U.S.A., is the editor of the autobiographyof Frederick Douglass {Belknap/Harvard University Press, 1960),and the author of "The Negro in the Civil War".

DRIVE TO PRESERVE

DOUGLASS' HOME

AS SHRINE

14

In this white brick house at Cedar Hill in Anacos-

tia, a section of Washington D.C., Frederick Doug¬lass spent his last years. Here, surrounded byhis papers and books and copies of his abolitionistnewspaper, The North Star, he died on February 20,1895. By 1961, this once beautiful home was run¬down with unkempt grounds and in dire need ofrepair. The National Association of ColouredWomen's Clubs (N.A.C.W.C.) launched a nation¬wide campaign in February 1961 for 850,000 to restoreDouglass' home to its original state and preserveit as a national historic shrine. In response tothis appeal, the President of the United Stateswrote the President of the N.A.C.W.C, Mrs. RosaL. Cragg : " Frederick Douglass is a part of thelegend of America. As a successful fighter forfreedom a century ago, he can give inspiration-topeople all around the world who are still strugglingto secure their full human rights... " The NationalAssociation of Coloured Women's Clubs numbers

100,000 women in 1,500 clubs in 40 states. It wasorganized in 1896, just one year after Douglassdied. Through its national headquarters in Wash¬ington D.C., the Association is a national clear¬ing house for nonpartisan information and worksfor better race relations and international under¬

standing. N.A.C.W.C. state federations either ownor have helped start facilities for under-privileged,handicapped or delinquent youth in most of theSouthern states. Proceeds from an N.A.C.W.C,drive for Unesco Courier subscriptions are to beused to restore Douglass' home to its former state.

THE INCAS OF TODAYby Alfred Métraux

No civilization ever dies completely. Even If itscreators disappear, they hand on to their suc¬

cessors some part of their own experience. Thus, as longas there are people who identify themselves with theoriginal culture, no external pressure has the power toerase it. The Indians of the Andes, whose ancestors weresubjects of the Incas, offer us the most striking exampleof this fact.

Four hundred years have passed since the day Novem¬ber 16, 1532that Pizarro and his hundred and fifty com¬panions, treacherously seizing the Inca monarch Ata-hualpa at Cajamarca, destroyed the greatest Empire olthe New World.

During these four centuries, life has been hard for thePeruvian Indians and they have experienced manychanges of fortune. Their economy has been uprooted,their social order transformed and their religion reducedto the status of dubious and unpalatable beliefs. Despitethese ruthless changes and the desperate poverty Intowhich they fell, the people have preserved part of their

cultural heritage almost Intact. The old Inca civilizationis not dead. Its roots are still healthy, and It may wellone day produce new shoots. Under a European veneer,there still survive Institutions, patterns of behaviour andbeliefs which the white man has been unable to tamperwith and spoil.

The outward signs of the highly developed civilizationso admired by the Conquistadors when they penetratedinto the Andes disappeared a few years after the collapseof the Inca Empire. The highways, bordered by low wallsand shaded by trees, were abandoned or broken up. Sus¬pension bridges were neglected, the palaces and even thetowns were destroyed. The marvellous organization ofthis State, which has been called a "socialist" one, suf¬

fered the same fate. The State granaries were pillaged,the relay system of communications was Interrupted, andthe inhabitants were obliged to settle afresh in townsand villages of European type.

Thirty years after the conquest, the population of theEmpire was reduced by half, If not by two thirds. Yet

15

CONT'D ON PAGE 17

INCAS OF TODAY (Cont'd)

MARKET DAY in a tiny village on the high Andean plateau of Peru brings together Quechua Indians withtheir livestock and vegetables from the surrounding countryside. In the mountains of Peru and Bolivia, the

16 Indians have retained much of their ancient systems of social organization, including the ayllu in which smallgroups of families united by a common origin, soil and creed, joined forces to work the. land. Today, how¬ever, these descendants of the Inca Empire are modernizing and developing their farming methods.

Paul Almasy, Paris

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Photos © Pierre Verger RELIC OF THE PAST Is this taclla, a metal-pointed staff used for breaking the soil. Indians who live on themountain slopes still use this method but those deep In the valleys use ploughs drawn by oxen, the womenfollowing to break up the earth clods. Left, Indian boy, carrying his baby brother, rests against a village wall.

these misfortunes did not break the Indian spirit. Whilstit seemed probable in the eighteenth century that theAndean Indians would, in their turn, disappear very soon,the Century which followed has produced an expansionof such magnitude that today there Is a population oíalmost six million within the borders of the ancient

Empire, from southern Colombia to central Chile. In thisexpanding Indian population, the precursory signs of agreat renaissance are perceptible. The time is thereforeripe to see what they have retained of the glorious civili¬zation of their ancestors.

Let us first consider language, which is an instrumentof culture. The language of the Incas, called Quechua,is still spoken by nearly five million people, althoughsome Indian groups have adopted Spanish. Yet somemestizos (men and women of mixed blood) and even whitemen have made Quechua their native tongue. Today,Quechua is more widely spoken in South America thanit was when the Inca Empire was at the height of itsglory. It was imposed by the Spanish missionaries ontribes which, though formerly under Inca domination,had maintained their own national tongues. These samemissionaries spread it to the tribes of the Amazon regionand thus the language of the Incas conquered territorieswhich had never seen the armies of the Empire.

Along with the language went a whole folklore of awealth which Is only just beginning to come to light.Many an old myth, thought forgotten forever, has sur¬vived in the memory of the country people. Patientresearch may enable us to discover the vestiges of legend¬ary cosmogonies and cycles assumed to have been lostbeyond recall.

In the mountains of Peru and Bolivia, the Indians haveremained faithful to their ancient social structures. The

ayllu, or small groups of families united by a commonorigin, soil and creed, which formed the multiple cellsof the Empire of the Incas, have resisted all efforts todisperse them. They became the nuclei of the "commu-nldades," which succeeded in regaining a legal statusand around which the life of the Indians was reorganized.

Although, today, the "communities" no longer carryout an annual distribution of collectively-owned lands,they continue to exploit common land and refuse to sur¬render any property belonging to the community. Mutualassistance between families is still a strict obligation;each must help in tasks performed for the common goodand must take part In religious rites honouring the pro¬tective Saints who replaced the pagan gods. They defendthe frontiers of their community as fiercely as they didin the old days, when the Incas had not yet incorporated

DANCING MASKS are frequently ceremonial trappingswhich long ante-date the Indians conversion to Christianity. 17The many festivals of the Catholic liturgy have served asa pretext for rich and varied forms of religious expression.

CONT'D ON NEXT PAGE

INCAS OF TODAY (Cont'd)

18

Europeanized clothing& centuries-old fabrics

them in a single state. Village patriotism is still ardent.As in the past, it finds expression In a rivalry whichshould be turned to good account.

Some of the "communldades" have taken the initiativeof modernizing themselves, but without renouncing theirold system of organization. Many of them have foundedextremely prosperous agricultural co-operatives and largeamounts of communal money are deposited in banks.This is a very modern aspect of the old community spiritof the ayllu of four centuries ago.

On the other hand, economic life has greatly changedsince the Conquest. To the flocks of llamas and alpacaswhich the Indians put to graze on the puna, or high pla¬teaux, sheep have been added and most families own abull or a cow, and often mules or donkeys.

Nowadays cheese has become a basic food item whereasformerly the Indians knew nothing of milk products.Maize and potatoes are still staple. foods, but barley, cornand beans are now grown wherever the climate allows.

On the mountain slopes, as in the days of theIncas, the Indians are still to be seen breaking

up the soil with the taclla, a metal-pointed staff. Deepin the valleys, however, the old Roman swing-plough,drawn by oxen is followed by women whose task is tobreak up the clods of earth with stone mallets. Althoughthe plough may be Spanish, the festival atmosphere atseed-time with the songs and dances of the labourers, isessentially Indian.

Travellers tend to imagine that the Indians of today, intheir picturesque costumes, outwardly resemble theirancestors. In fact, this is not true at all. The nativecostume has changed considerably since the Sixteenthcentury. In appearance, a present-day Indian womanwould only be distinguishable from a Spanish peasant bythe wide, brightly-coloured belt round her waist and theshawl covering her shoulders, held in place by a silver pinon the breast.

As for the men's costume, it is entirely Europeanized:trousers, waistcoat, jacket and felt hat. The woollenbonnet and the poncho, which are generally consideredto be Indian survivals, were unknown before the Colonialperiod. However, as in the days of the Incas, the women,whether seated or walking, never stop their spinning.Their spindle has not changed: it is a wooden stick,weighted by an earthenware spindle whorl. The loomhas not altered, either, with the passing of time ; It alwaysconsists of two wooden bars, one of which is attached tothe weaver's waist, and the threads of the warp arestretched between them.

The designs of the woven fabrics of today recall thoseembellishing the materials found in tombs. When Iwas in the Indian village of Chlpay, the Indians wereastonished that I was collecting old and very dirtyfabrics, not realizing that the specimens they were exa¬mining, and which they thought I had bought from oneof them, had actually come from prehistoric tombs.Nevertheless, even in a sphere where traditions die hard,Spain has left Its mark. One of the favourite designswith which the Indians decorate their tissues is none

other than a stylized version of the two-headed eagle ofthe Hapsburgs.

Despite the merciless suppression of idols and Idolatersby the Spanish missionaries, the Indians, outwardly goodCatholics, have by no means abandoned their prayersand sacrifices to the ancient Andean deities. These are

still worshipped on the mountain peaks, where strangestructures suggest equally strange rites. On the hill¬tops, the motorist passes cairns, each surmounted by across, to which the Indians, seeking an escape fromweariness and a means of placating the local spirits, make

CONT'D ON PAGE 21

,,

- me.--

. *-y* . ... - _

^ - ' - .-;^r' .BLEAK ROAD TO TOWN.- Against a pano>anta of eroded

pinnacles at rbck^these -Indian women lead their mules and-TU '" sheep to"a mar^el^towiVhigh/jn the Bolivian plateau La Paz.r^ mUTi i *^» *~ ». i - T^ - w :»WM - * ii" . Vai

**.-« . **~!" -A

19

« " .

20

Photos © Pierre Verger

MIGHTY RAMPARTS of fortress

near Cuzco in the Peruvian Andes

(above left) proclaim architecturaland building skill of the ancient Incas.Using manpower on a vast scale, theIncas raised their walls and buildings

with stones of prodigious size weighingmany tons. No mortar or other bind¬ing material was used and such wasthe Incas' skill in cutting and fitting

the blocks together that even todaya knife blade will not slide between

the joints. (Above right), mountain-girt ruins of another Inca city, MacchuPicchu, which remained unknown to

the outside world until 1911. Since

then, rich archaeological discoveries

have produced a revealing picture ofthe remarkable civilization whose

empire spread over much of westernSouth America. Many present-dayIndians in Bolivia, Ecuador and Peru

(like those on left, wearing diversi¬

fied headgear and ponchos) are des¬cended from the Incas. In moving

photo (right) a Peruvian Indian fathergreets his daughter. Woollen garmentsare woven in ancient Inca designs,

but man's hat is of Spanish origin.

INCAS OF TODAY (Cont'd)

ktgßf"

i«3flttia1>»«-.-

On the high plateauxof the Cordillera

ritual offerings of stones or quids of coca. Among thedeities of the Inca Panthéon, only the Earth-Mother, thePacha-Mama, and the Llghtnlng-God have kept all theirprestige. The Indian cherished the Pacha-Mama aboveall supernatural beings, and In the prayers which headdresses to her, he Identifies her with the Virgin, callingher "Santa Maria Pacha-Mama."

There Is no church or chapel so poor as to lack astatuette of Santiago (Saint James), the warrior saint,patron of Spain and the Conquistadors. Portrayed as aseventeenth-century knight, In cape and feathered hat,he brandishes his sword and crushes the devil under his

horse's hooves. For the Indians, Santiago Is the lord oflightning Apu-illiampu. It Is In his honour that llamasare sacrificed at places struck by lightning. Humanbeings who arc struck by lightning and survive are,moreover, called "sons of Saint James," and are Investedwith mystical powers which turn them Into magicians andsorcerers.

In addition to these great deities, the Indianscontinue to worship countless spirits, dwelling

In the mountains, rivers, pools and lakes. Houses areplaced under the protection of a spirit which takes theform of a wild cat or a hawk, and receives blood sacrifices.

The religion of the Incas does not hide Its face Inshame In remote valleys or the hamlets of the high plat¬eaux. It stalks boldly abroad In the large towns of theInterior. Thus, one sees blackish stains on the wallsof modern houses In the capital of Bolivia: traces ofblood-oiferlngs made to the local god and to the Pacha-Mama. Similarly, at the entrance to the towns, quids ofcoca are stuck to the walls of the outlying houses; these

are propitiatory offerings made by the Indians to the godsworshipped by ancestors before they came to live amongthe white men.

The many festivals of the Catholic liturgy have .servedas a pretext for rich and varied forms of religious express¬ion. The date of the popular festivals which corres¬pond to those of the great ceremonies of the Inca Empirehave given secondary festivals primary Importance. Inthis way, Corpus Christi has replaced the inti-raymi, thegreat festival of the Sun-God. The Feast of the Inventionof the Holy Cross (May 3), which coincides with the agri¬cultural celebrations once held at the beginning of theharvest, is a pretext for dancing and rejoicings which thenature of the feast Itself docs not Justify. The costumesof the religious brotherhoods for the cult of the saintsare often simply survivals of the trappings worn by thedancers of the pagan age.

The Indians have not forgotten their ancient sovereigns.They speak of a mysterious personage called Inca-ri, whofounded Cuzco and was murdered by a rival. "Ills head,"they say, "was burled at Lima. For some years past, ithas been growing a new body, and soon Inca-ri will comeback and bring good fortune to the Indians." It is inthis naive and mythological way that the Indians expresstheir obscure hope of seeing better days.

Whilst everywhere else In South America the Indiantribes are doomed to extinction or will merge with theremainder of the population, there is still, in what wasonce the Empire of the Incas, In Ecuador, Peru and Boli¬via, a vital element which must be reckoned with. Insome of these countries it represents over half thepopulation. These people, as they become more educated,look to their glorious past and discover in it grounds fortheir confidence in the future.

ALFRED METRAUX, noted anlhropologiil, is in charge of"Human Rights" in the Department of Social Sciences ofUnesco. His newest book, Les Incas (Editions du Seuil, Paris)will he published this spring. He is a frequent contributor toThe Unesco »»Courier.

21

Modern scientific discoveries, the appearanceof new nations on the world political stage

and the internationalizing of economic or social problemsall these have made a radical impact on school curricula

which are becoming progressively more cumbersome andindigestible.

Faced with the painful necessity of cramming more and

more knowledge into young heads, educators have beenresorting to new pedagogical methods. Some of these"new" techniques, many people will be surprised to learn,were actually used centuries ago the homework of thechildren of the French royal family was printed longbefore the virtues of a school printing press were recog¬nized. Others, however, are quite original and one ofthese is the »method used »by a French educator, Mrs. P.Poinsart-Chasson, to teach her pupils a wide range ofsubjects.

Mrs. Poinsart-Chasson, who studied under Jiri Trnkaand Hermlna Tyrlova (two famed Czech puppet masters)is now an official of the French Ministry of Public Health.But she has always been an artist and an educator byvocation and she became a convinced believer of "active"

methods of teaching long ago. Determined to makelessons attractive, she had the idea that dolls, so belovedby little girls the world over, might serve as friendly linksbetween children and school subjects like history, geo¬graphy, hygiene, civics and others.

One fine morning (mornings are always fine in fairytales and this story has some overtones of fairy enchant¬ment about it) she arrived at St. Anne's school in Mar¬

seilles, to try out her idea, with the approval of theschool's headmistress.

She took a ping-pong ball from her bag and, with afew strokes of a brush, transformed it into a little round

92 face similar to those of Trnka's marionettes. Then,continuing her demonstration, she showed wide-eyedlittle girls that this face could wear a number of exprès-

PING-PON

GO TO SC

sions. In turn, the ping-pong ball became gay, sad,amazed, frightened and hilarious. /

A few fragments of rabbit skin glued in the right placeslent red hair or black mustaches to these faces. A sponge,

nipped in by a stout thread in its middle, produced areasonable image of a slim-waisted young lady. The samesponge, pinched slightly in the back was then transformedinto a portly gentleman. After that, wire could be usedto connect heads to bodies. Soon, under the guidance ofMrs. Poinsart-Chasson, pupils became skillful enough tocreate expressions themselves and to concoct dolls thatwere gay or melancholic.

Then Mrs. Poinsart-Chasson reached the second stage

of her experiment. She read to her pupils a Chinese story,"The Wise Man's Sigh" and suggested that they mightillustrate it by building scenery and reproducing itscharacters. The girls enthusiastically began to work.But soon they realized that they had to know how theChinese dressed, what food they ate, where this foodcame from, what sort of houses they lived in, how theydecorated these houses, how they lived and so forth.

Soon, an intensive hunt for books, magazines andnewspaper articles about China had begun. Pupilsbrought Mrs. Poinsart-Chasson a tremendous variety ofdocuments and materials for making costumes and

scenery. Some girls became so enthusiastic about theirresearch that they used .spending money to buy art booksinstead of sweets.

Then, in October 19, 1958, their work was done and thedolls made their bow at the Regional Educational Docu¬mentation Centre in Marseilles. This exhibition was so

successful that the French television network made a

documentary film about it (the film was half-animated)which was shown on TV screens in France. It is easy

to imagine the pride of its authors, and also the enthu¬

siasm with which twenty-one little French girls betweentwelve and fourteen started to work on a second film, this

one aimed at fighting alcoholism and entitled "Dolls Goto School in Good Health."

A new teaching method was born. Like many others,its first aim is to arouse the interest of pupils, but whatreally distinguishes it is the immediate appeal it makesto the ever-awake imagination of children. Of course,many educators in France and elsewhere had alreadyaccepted the smiling presence of dolls on hitherto darkand unattractive classroom d»esks. Implicitly, then, theyhave given official recognition to dreams, accepting theexistence of that irrational and marvellous world which

awakens a child's creative powers to a point few adultssuspect.

G DOLLS

HOOL

by

Marie M. Rabecq-MaillardCurator, Museum of the History of Education

National Institute of Pedagogy, Paris

At the National Pedagogical Institute In Paris, forexample, exhibitions had already been held on the themeof Christmas, in which kindergarten children gave freerein to their imagination. One exhibit in which theyreconstructed the picturesque Rue Mouffetard, a busyshopping centre on the Left Bank in Paris, with Its oldhouses and shops and its bustling crowds, revealed remark¬able artistic talents which amazed grown-ups and wonthe admiration of leading French poets.

Both in Paris and in Marseilles, children had createddolls and exhibited marionettes. But, behind the remark¬able work of the little kindergarten youngsters, theshadowy impression of the baton and the inspiration ofan orchestra leader could still be felt. The children had

remained in their own little universea delightful one too.

Mrs. Poinsart-Chasson, however, had gone further byenabling children to participate In an adult world and byraising them to a higher level while still allowing themto express themselves freely.

Nor had anyone else in France thought of using manualwork to approach each subject on the curriculum. Civicsand dry and theoretical ethics became alive. Mrs. Poln-

sart-Chasson's pupils produced a short film on antl-alcohollsm and succeeded in making adults thinkandperhaps in convincing themby such hard-hitting slogans

CONT'D ON NEXT PACE

DRESSMAKERS AT WORK: Four young girls put the finishing touches on the clothes designed for a collectionof their colourful dolls which help to illustrate lessons in history and geography in a way not found In textbooks.

PING-PONG DOLLS (Cont'd)

Lessons come alive

with Lilliputian 'teachers'

as: "Little glasses of wine grow up Into big glasses oftears."

You really have to know your history and geography ifyou want to ¡dress Chinese characters, and illustrate theirhomes, their ways of life and their customs. Sewing,drawing, modelling, embroidery and sculpture oftentedious for children who feel no aptitude for thembecame fascinating because they were part of the filmproduction.

Besides, those few hours devoted each week to manualwork gave a child a chance to express a hidden persona¬lity, rich in all kinds of possibilities but often suffocatedby timidity or environment. The character chosen by achild is already quite revealing. The face a child givesto a doll often resembles its own face. In Mrs Poinsart-

Chasson's method, there are opportunities for self-expression which have enabled real talents to berecognized.

Thanks to this method, too, a child comes into contactwith such techniques as sound-recording or stage directionwhich may not be "in the school programme", but whichcertainly awaken Interest because they are very muchin the news. This means that education can shed itsabstract and bookish nature. The child plunges Into areal world apparently reserved to adults and, therefore,all the more attractive to a young mind.

At the same time, working as a team develops a senseof community living. Hunting for materials and evaluat¬ing them »sharpen a taste for research and a critical sense:here, the search is for precise, accurate information.Then, too, there Is that development of taste, ingenuityand inventlvemess which are the obvious offshoots of the

method used by Mrs. Poinsart-Chasson. No doubt othersbefore her have proved the value of focussing children'sinterest. Ever »since St. Jerome, educators have said thatteaching should be attractive. While she deserves creditfor bringing dolls into schools and, with the dolls, a greatpart of the realm of childhood with its marvels and itscolourful and charming visions, she struck out in a newdirection by enabling her pupils to participate in the veryconception of demonstrations which, up until now, haveoften been too abstract.

When will we have an international exhibition to bring

together all the world's dolls in a children's dance offriendship?

FULL RANGE OF FACIAL EXPRESSIONS

on plngpong dolls was captured by a young girlof twelve who painted this set shown below.

Cal

24

Amused Stern Angry Hurt

>

A PING PONG BALL attached to a wire (above) becomes the head of doll with a little paint and rabbitfur (right). Above left, the indispensable materialswire , pliers, scissors, glueand the dolls them¬selves in various stages of development. Left, a young boy concentrates attentively on creating a doll.

_____! «

V Wl*\m\.

T^kmmmnm « ^mmmm^km^M. MM\

'¡WESSEN%ÏW

A -jJjJùm

A CHINESE FAIRY TALE will incorporate these two dolls, above left. To faithfully copy costumes, hairdos andfacial expressions, the children had to read and study and think about Chinese customs, costumes, and life. The.finished product shows their research time was well-spent. At right, dolls help to teach a history lesson. Thisscene from ancient Gaul shows a sod hut and a Gaul verifying the vertical lines of the home he has built.

All photos courtes/ P. Poinsart-Chasson

Contemptuous Disgusted Afraid Admiring Doubtful

25

AUSTRALIA'S

GIANT EYE ON

OUTER SPACEby Selwyn SpeightAll photographs AustralianNews and Information Bureau

TINIEST CREVICES in the dish structure

of Australia's giant radio telescope weresprayed with aluminium paint to stop rustforming which interferes with reception.

HIGHASAN 18-STOREY

BUILDING and 210 feet

across its parabolic dish, thetelescope here swung into ahorizontal position makes aspace-age umbrella for agrazier and his flock of sheep.

Apowerful radio "eye" designed to look tentimes as far into the universe as has ever

been possible before, has now come into operation ' insouth-eastern Australia thus opening a new chapter inthe exploration of outer space. A' huge radio-telescope,of the steerable "dish" type, it is the most efficient andversatile instrument of its kind in existence, able to scanvast expanses of the cosmos.

The instrument, a glittering giant, stands on the plainnear the town of Parkes, about 200 miles west of Sydney.The structure overall is as high as an 18-storey building,and its movable saucer-shaped aerial system which formsits effective "eye" measures 210 feet across.

The new telescope has »been built for the AustralianCommonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research

Organisation (C.S.I.R.O.)' at a cost of about £800,000 (halfof which has been provided by the Rockefeller Foundation,the Carnegie Foundation and private donors in Australia) .

There is only one other comparable instrument inexistence: the big radio telescope at the Jodrell BankExperimental Station of Manchester University, inEngland. The English instrument is slightly larger 250feet across the -dish but the Australian one, according toits design specifications, will be more precise and powerful.Although its position on the earth's surface enables it toexamine part of the northern sky, its main task will beto search the southern heavens. Together, the two greatradio-telescopes open up a new era of scientific investi-

gation and research into the structure of the universe.

In the exploration now going on within the solar system,the new Australian radio-telescope can play a significantpart (as the English one already has). If an "instrumentprobe" is sent to land on the moon, and if the devicereports back by radio, the Parkes Instrument almostcertainly will be better, able than any other to pick upthese weak signals. If, during the next few years, similarprobes are sent to Venus or Mars, or to any other planet,the best information may well come through Parkes.However, this is not the principal task for which theC.S.I.R.O. instrument was conceived and designed. Itsmain purpose is simply to look further and more clearlyinto the universe than has ever before been possible.

The essential role of a radio telescope is to detect thestrength and source of radio waves which reach the earthfrom outer space. Some idea of the scale over which theinstrument has to work the distances and times can begrasped from the following information given by Dr. E.G.Bowen, chief of the Radio-Physics Division of C.S.I.R.O.,and one of the world authorities in his field: he was amember of the British team which developed radar inWorld War II.

A radio wave, Dr. Bowen explained, goes round theworld seven times in a second. It would take eightminutes to reach the sun; 100,000 years to go across ourlocal galactic system; and more than a million years toreach the nearest external galaxy. It would take up to

5,000 million years to reach some of the distant radio starswe are watching.

To call the telescope a radio eye is not straining ametaphor. The Instrument "secs" a band of waves in theelectro-magnetic spectrum.

To be efficient, to "see" the picture clearly and In sharpfocus, the radio eyes must not only be very precise, butalso very big, the bigger the better, within practical limits,and the Australian Instrument is getting near the limitwith existing structural materials and techniques. Theinstruments are most useful when they can look in anydesired direction, just as human eyes do.

The design of the C.S.I.R.O. giant has thus been a majorengineering problem. The great steerable "dish" whichforms the effective eye must be able to watch and keepwatching automatically whatever is under observationa galaxy, the sun, the planets, the moon, or a man Inspace. To do this, It must move very smoothly andexactly, compensating automatically for the spinning ofthe earth on its own axis and for the earth's orbit round

the sun, and compensating also for the movements of theobject being watched. It must also be able to scancontinuously a given portion of the sky, noting anythingof interest.

The big dish must be strong enough to withstand thefiercest gales, and stiff enough to keep an almost perfectparabolic shape. It must shed rain without trouble andwithstand the corrosive effects of the weather.

27

CONT'DON NEXTPAGE

GIANT EYE (Cont'd)

Probing the secrets

of the universe

Another problem faced by the engineers andmanufacturers a London firm and a German factory inAugsburgwas to control the direction Of the big dish veryprecisely. The solution adopted was to place a smallmaster control device at the centre of motion of the wholetelescope. The small master can be "aimed" at any one"part of the sky or made to track any celestial object witha high order of accuracy; and the big dish is a "slave"ingeniously linked to it and controlled by it.

The radio signals collected by the dish are reflected onto one point, a small receiving aerial, at the focus of thedish, and then amplified by electronic means so that theymay be examined. To avoid losses in transmitting thesefaint signals, a special preliminary amplifier has beenplaced at the focus in a cabin supported high above thedish by three tubular steel legs.

This posed a physical problem for the designers: howto give easy access to the aerial cabin from the ground.The answer was not only ladders, but a lift big enough forone man; it will work inside one of the tripod legs. Butthe lift itself posed problems: most lifts have simply torun up and down; this one has to run in almost anyposition.

The telescope, which stands in central New South Wales,on a bare and level plain in the Goobang Valley, about15 miles from Parkes, is to be only one component in thewhole complex of radio astronomical devices planned forthe area. The C.S.I.R.O. has chosen a site which it hopeswill become, for several decades, the chief centre for thiskind of work in the southern hemisphere.

The area near Parkes had some obvious advantages. Itwas comparatively free from radio interference (as

hampering to radio astronomers as a city's bright lightsare to optical astronomers) and it had few weatherextremes (severe weather variations can also have seriouseffects).

Here, eventually, will be a big range of radio-physicalinstruments intended for the study of the heavens, withancillary equipment, and installations of many kindsworkshops, living quarters for the permanent staff, asmall airfield (a landing strip is already in operation).A second and smaller radio telescope (60 feet across thedish), which can move over miles of rail track, will workwith the big one.

The fact that Britain and Australia have taken thelead in radio-astronomy is, in Dr. Bowen's opinion, theresult of radar experience and training during the war."The Russians and the American," he said, "have put agreat deal of effort into nuclear research, into researchinto rockets and putting vehicles into space." Neither ofthese two countries possesses the most efficient equipmentfor picking up signals for the rockets they are using inspace probes. Thus the collaboration of all concerned,thanks to achievements which complement each other, willremain an essential element for progress in the explora¬tion of space.

Australia's radio-telescope is the only one working inthe Southern Hemisphere. In the Northern Hemisphere,other radio-telescopes are due to come into operation,like the one at Nançay in France whose first stage ofconstruction has now been completed. These new instru¬ments are being designed to carry out specialized tasks.

Questioned about the problems which the new radio-telescope may help to solve, Dr. Bowen had this to say:"We don't know whether the universe is bounded orwhether It reaches to infinity in every direction; whetherit has a beginning and will have an end, or whether it hasa perpetual existence; whether there are intelligent beingson other planets... There are any number of theories andhypotheses about these things but very little evidence ofa factual kind. These are the ultimate problems we aretrying to solve... We hope that with the giant radio-telescopes ours and otherswe'll get some way towardsthe answer."

HUGE DISH of radio-telescope Is three-quarters of an acre in size and able to receive radio waves from the outer¬most fringes of the universe, 5,000 million light years away. The "dish" rests on a rotating turret supported bya massive concrete tower and can be pointed at any area of sky. Diagram, right, shows parts of the telescope.

28

Inner part of dish, 54 ft.in diameter used for

very short wave lengths

Height, 186 ft. 6 in.above ground level

Elevation Rack

moves telescopevertically.

LITTLE-KNOWN MASTERPIECES

OF BULGARIAN MEDIAEVAL ART

by

Assené Vassilev

The religious frescoes executedin Bulgaria from the 12th to the15th Centuries to decorate small

chapels or country monasterieshave survived although secularpainting from the same period,whose existence is mentioned bycontemporary chroniclers, hasunfortunately vanished withtime. Today, a " Unesco ArtAlbum " has given us an oppor¬tunity to judge these rare marvelsand to appreciate the evolution,in all its subtle turnings, ofan art form strongly marked byByzantine influences but stillexpressing its own originality.

Striking mosaic figure of St. Theo¬dor now in the Preslav Museum.

Official Bulgarian photo

T;owARD the end of the 7th century, the Proto-Bulgarians, coming from the East, entered the

Balkan peninsula and founded their nation between theDanube and the Balkan mountains. The first Bulgarianempire encompassed all the Slavic tribes living in theregion. From then on, a new culture was superimposedupon old traditions inherited from the Thracians, theGreeks and the Romans. The Proto-Bulgarians wereremarkable goldsmiths and skilled sculptors. As for thelocal Slavs, their mastery of decorative themes textiles,embroideries or wood-carvings was to exert a deter¬mining influence upon Bulgarian art itself.

The first Bulgarian kingdom preceded the Carollnglandynasty whose empire later spread to the frontiers ofBulgaria.

Monuments of the culture created between 681 and 1081

(the date of the Byzantine conquest of Bulgaria) weredestroyed during subsequent centuries, particularly duringthe period of Turkish domination. Nevertheless, a largenumber of objects, unearthed during the past 100 years,point to the great achievements of the Bulgarians,

wnether in architecture or ceramics. In addition, des¬criptions by contemporary writers give us an idea of theBulgarian capital and Its cultural apogee during theUpper Middle Ages.

From documents, we learn that, as early as the 9thcentury, the palace at Pliska, the first Bulgarian capital,was decorated with frescoes. Later, the capital wasmoved to Preslay and, according to contemporary ac¬counts, the splendour of this city, which existed untilthe end of the 10th century, dazzled all foreigners. Build¬ings were decorated with carved stone and painted wood¬work. Palaces with their varl-coloured marble were

Incomparably beautiful.

Virtually nothing remains of the works of art of thisera palaces, churches, frescoes and wooden iconsbecause Preslav was destroyed and burned in 967. At thePatellna monastery, painted enamelled tiles dating backto the 10th century have been found with the image of St.Theodor. A large number of kilns and fragments of 29ornamental tiles bearing traces of human faces lead usto believe that Bulgarian painting was already highly

CONT'D ON PAGE 31

THE NATIVITY OF THE VIRGIN. A I Sth century frieze from the Monastery of Krem i kovts. As acomposition it is typical of the Bulgarian 14th century tradition; it reveals a more realistic, popular style:the earrings and hair styles are those worn by the women of I 5th century Bulgaria and the distaff withwhich the little girl is spinning is exactly the same as that used until recently by Bulgarian peasant women.

30

THE ARCHANGEL GABRIEL (left) detail froma mural at Boyana entitled "The Annunciation".

DETAIL FROM JUDAS' BETRAYAL, from themonastery of Zemen ( I 3 50). This work shows a strongfolklore influence, contrasting strongly with earlier works.

The frescoes of Boyana, executed in I 259 in Bulgaria, occupy a special place In I 3th century European paintingas examples of developed art of portrait painting. Above, Princess Dessislava, who, with her husband, Prince Sabas-tokrator Kaloyan, founded the Boyana church. Below, the emaciated face of Saint Ephraim, monk and ascetic.

Second only

to Byzantium

developed. However, it is impossible to retrace its variousstages during the period of the first empire.

At the beginning of the 11th century, Bulgaria cameunder Byzantine domination. She recovered her indé¬pendance only in 1187. Though the influence of Byzantineart was felt more strongly, Bulgarian artists continuedto follow their 10th century traditions. Later the casting-off of a foreign yoke gave national Bulgarian art a strongstimulus. Tirnovo, the capital of the second empire,became the second-ranking cultural centre of the Balkansbehind Constantinople. Its art schools contributed to thedevelopment of the nation's art. Thanks to Bulgarianpainting of this period, we have a more precise grasp ofreligious painting in Byzantium. Frescoes from the 13thand 14th centuries surpass the general level of Byzantineart. It must also be noted that they offer some purelynational traits.

Despite barbaric devastation during the Ottomanconquest, some paintings escaped destruction. Amongthem were the justly celebrated frescoes of the church atBoyana; and frescoes from the chapel at Berende, therock chapels of Ivanovo and the church at Zemen. Alldating from the second Bulgarian empire (1187-1396),

31

CONT'D ON NEXT PAGEAll photos C Un-esco, Album : Bulgaria, Mediaeval Wall Paintings

BULGARIAN ART (Cont'd)

Avant-garde painters

of the 13th century

they are among the masterpieces of medieval art in theBalkans.

The Boyana frescoes are remarkable because of theinnovations which a Bulgarian artist brought here toByzantine art. Their style enables us to state that theypreceded the new concepts of the first period of theItalian Renaissance. The master artist of Boyana,working in the 13th century, broke away from the tradi¬tions of painting in his time to create remarkable workswhose execution was technically perfect. Various imagesof Christ, the angel In the "Annunciation," the "Descentinto Hell," the "Last Supper," the "Crucifixion," "ChristAmong the Doctors," the "Ascension" and several othercompositions, including images of St. Euples, St. Eustrate,St. Damlen, St. Ephraim and various saintly warriors anddeacons are painted so realistically and so sensitively thatthey cannot be compared to anything executed duringthis era. National elements, borrowed from dailyBulgarian life, were used to bring out religious subjects.Here are also found four portraits: Kaloyan, the localfeudal lord; Dessislava, his wife; King Constantine andQueen Irene. The anonymous artist, trained in somestudio at Tirnovo, succeeded remarkably in expressingthe individual characteristics, physical as well as spiritual,of his subjects. These portraits stand as true master¬pieces not only of art in the Balkans but of Europeanart in the 13th century.

F1 OLLOwiNG the Boyana frescoes (1259) , Bulga¬rian painting continued to develop for 150

years until the conquest of Bulgaria by the Turks in 1396.Some very interesting frescoes from the 13th and 14thcenturies have »been preserved in several rock chapels nearIvanovo on the banks of the Russenski-Lom, one of thebranches of the Danube in eastern Bulgaria. The compo¬sition of these scenes is remarkable and their colours, inwhich gilded ochre predominates, have a charm of theirown. Though the artist followed Byzantine style, hisoriginal talent and his new conception of painting arerevealed in his treatment of forms and in his achievement

of a third dimension through gradual shading of colours,as well as in his expression of subtle psychological mean¬ings. Among various compositions whose subjects weretaken from the life of Christ, we should mention "JudasThrowing the Thirty Pieces of Silver," "Players MockingChrist" (a very rare subject in religious iconography), the"Kiss of Judas," and "Christ Before Ann and Caiaphas."Also worth noting are two scenes from the life of St. Johnthe Baptist the judgement and the beheading.

Frescoes in the Zemen monastery in the valley of theStruma also date back to this same period, the 14thcentury. Here, all the walls of the church were decoratedby frescoes. The forms of bodies and faces were broughtout by outlines and the artist did not attempt to stressa third dimension. Light, pleasant colours and well-executed details make this style particularly attractive.Certain scenes are unknown in iconography for example,the forging of the nails used in the Crucifixion. Grippingportraits are to be found of the donors; Deyan, a locallord, and his wife Doya. They have not been stylized inthe same manner as the religious compositions anddarker colours were used.

With the Renaissance, the decline of the mystical andreligious ideals of the Middle Ages became marked, butnothing was to alter the basic characteristics of Bulgarianpainting although architecture evolved considerablyduring the period of Turkish domination. Up to the 18thcentury, that strange balance between skilled compositionand realistic detail achieved by painters during thesecond empire continued to guide Bulgarian artists.

© Unesco, Album : Bulgaria Mediaeval Wall Paintings.

The deacon Lawrence. One of a row of saints

painted at the foot of the walls of the BoyanaChurch, set beneath scenes of the Life of Christ.

32 UNESCO WORLD ART SERIES ALBUM, " BULGARIA : MEDIAEVAL WALL PAINTINGS ", (NEW YORK

GRAPHIC SOCIETY, 95 EAST PUTNAM AVENUE, GREENWICH, CONN., U.S.A.) PRICE $18.00.

Letters to the EditorWHAT ABOUT THE WHALE?

Sir,

In The Unesco Courier I read how

many valuable and interesting sp»eciesof birds and other forms of wild life

have become extinct through the faultof man, and that measures have nowbeen undertaken to protect wild lifeon a world scale. I should like to

know how at a time when Norway,a country poor in natural resources, isgreatly reducing her whaling industry,other countries that are rich in natural

resources are engaged in whaling on atremendous scale which may lead tothe extinction of some varieties of

these mammals since they do not breedvery rapidly and are already greatlyreduced in number. What has world

scientific thought to say about whaling?Trokhim Korzun

Guiva, Zhitomir RegionUkrainian S.S.R.

THE H. G. WELLS SOCIETY

Sir,.

An H. G. Wells Society has recentlybeen .founded, composed of personsinterested in the life and work of this

distinguished author, who are anxiousto encourage a wider understanding ofhis writings and ideas. The Societypublish»es a bi-monthly journal, "TheWellsian", has local branches in Lon¬don and Manchester, and intends tocarry out an ambitious programme ofstudy, research and dissemination ofthe works of one who made such an

outstanding contribution to modernthought. I would be most grateful ifany of your readers who may be inter¬ested in the Society would kindlycontact the undersigned, from whomfurther details can be obtained.

J. R. Hammond

39, Rugby Road, West BridgfordNottingham, England

CIVILIZATION REDUCED TO SIZE

Sir,

Professor Nougier's "yardstick""Homo Sapiens is Ten Minutes Old"(The Unesco Courier, March 1961), isinteresting. Of more immediate con¬cernió those with Unesco's ideals at

heart is the application of this same"gimmick" to "Homo Sapiens' " ownhistory.

James Harvey Robinson, in his "TheMind in the Making" (Travellers Li¬brary), compresses the history of civi¬lization into fifty years. ' Again thereis the long induction period 49 yearswhen man was merely a wanderinghunter. Robinson's summary of the»last six months concludes: "Within

the last few hours they would havelearned to sail in the air and beneath

the waters and have forthwith applied

their newest discoveries to the prose¬cution of a magnificent war on thescale befitting their high ideals andnew resources".

He was, of course, referring to thefirst world war!

A graph showing the history ofcivilization compressed in this waywould doubtless interest and, perhaps,terrify your readers!

D. A. SpencerLoudwatcr, England

ESPERANTISTS HELP UNESCO

Sir,

The Esperanto movement is todaycontributing greatly to Unesco'sMajor Project for the development ofmutual appreciation of cultural valuesbetween Orient and Occident. The

Universal Esperanto Association sendsspeakers to talk about their countriesand cultures in other countries of both

the Orient and Occident. A programmecomprising Esperanto translations of25 literary works »five each fromEurope, Asia, Afri-ca, North Americaand South America is under way,and a work by Tagorc has alreadyappeared. Local groups of Esperantistshave organized evening meetingsdealing with different countries ' ofOcxident and Orient (In the' Frenchtown of Angers, last winter's pro¬gramme covered 10 countries of theOrient). The 1961 Universal EsperantoCongress held in London included aspecial international cultural week onthe theme "Orient-Occident". Finally,long-established contacts by corres¬pondence between the two worldareas been intensified.

G. Perra

Lyons, France

The number of letters received by TheUnesco Courier each day (photo showsonly one of four daily mail deliveries)makes it increasingly difficult to reply toall of our correspondents. Please keepwriting to us but do try to be brief !

PLASTIC SURGERY AIDS

VICTIMS OF LEPROSY

Sir,

I was very interested to read yourarticle on "World Leprosy Day" by

Raoul FoIIereau (January 1961). Imyself am interested in the surgicalrehabilitation of leprosy patients andI should like to point out the fallacyof an unfortunate remark made in the

last paragraph of the article. It saysthat "The crippled and maimed. 'Iliosewhose faces, for example, will pcr-manantly bear the mark of the dise.i.sc,need special homes set up in theform of small village where they willlive together, with »every measure beingtaken to case their lot and help themforget the past. Though the damagedone to them can never Ik repaired,they remain none the less humanbeings; and society which came toolate to their aid, owes them ¡us respectand a friendly helping hand".

I should like to point out thatDr. Paul Hrand, of Vcllore, has been

reconstructing the deformed hand inleprosy for over fifteen years and thatI have been doing icconMruction i/fthe face in leprosy for over threeyears. It is almost always possible tocompletely reconstruct the facehowever badly deformed the patientmay be.

N. II. A nlla

Itombay, India

A TRIPLE REQUEST

Sir,

As a teacher, I want three thingsfrom Tin; Uni.sco Courier more

statistics covering world facts, c. g.percentage increase in production,population and books 1959-61; issuesdevoted entirely to one topic, e.g.Archaeology, the Far North; andbetter writers, or an instruction to thecontributors not to pad their articleswith verbiage.

John C. dc V. Roberts

London, England

WORLD'S BEST HOPE

Sir,

I have found Tur. Unesco Courier

absorbing and informative but mostlyI have found it cncx>uraging. Beingunable to believe or trust most of the

international news I have seen, heardand read, I have read your magazineeagerly and hungrily. Every issue,whatever subject it covers, has givenme hope that through scientists, men ofletters and people of good will, thiscrazy, mixed-up world may yet growtogether in peace and understanding.

I pass my copies on to my brothers.I would like to think a copy or twowas being sent to every secondaryschool and university in every land.Informed, educated people seem to beour best hope for a good world.

Olive M. Cobban

Ontario, Canada

33

From the Unesco New

EXTRA TIME TO SAVE ABU SIMBEL

THE agreement on operations to lift the temples of Abu Simbel in Egyptian Nubiaout of reach of the waters of the Nile once its level has been raised by thecompletion of the new Aswan High Dam need not be concluded until November 1,

1962, instead of January 1 of this year as previously stated. This means thatUnesco has nine more months in which to guarantee to the United Arab Republicinternational participation in the cost of the project. However, certain preliminarystudies of the Abu Simbel project must be made before that date.

This decision was announced by Unesco's Executive Board during its 60th session inParis last December. It was also stated that, in response to Unesco's appeal askinggovernments to contribute sums on the scale of their participation in Unesco's ordinarybudget, 18 countries have indicated their willingness to contribute in some formor other. They are: Cyprus, Ecuador, France, Greece, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Lebanon,Libya, Luxembourg, Monaco, The Netherlands, The Philippines, Poland, Saudi Arabia,Tunisia, Venezuela, and Yugoslavia. In addition, Qatar and the Holy See, which arenot members of Unesco, have offered financial assistance.

During the Executive Board session, pledges given by Morocco and Italy were alsoannounced. The Italian Government has promised a contribution much larger thanthe $1,450,000 which Unesco had proposed as its share. Further, the United Stateshave indicated that, aside from the sum of $4,000,000 already voted, a proposal toappropriate $6,000,000 to ensure the safety of the temples on Philae will de discussedby Congress, when work round the island begins.

Individual contributions to save the monuments of Nubia may be sent to Unesco,Place Fontenoy, Paris-7e, or to a bank in your own country, the name of which canbe supplied by your National Commission. Cheques should be made payable toUnesco (Nubia Account). Donations may be made in any currency.

Burmese bookworms areGIRLS: In Burma, girls are keener readersthan boys according to survey on readinginterests carried out recently. Nearlytwice as many girls as boys read a dailynewspaper regularly, it was found, andgirls do more general reading too. TheBurma Translation Society made thesurvey in connexion with Unesco's pro¬gramme for the production of readingmaterials in Burma, Ceylon India, Pakis¬tan and Iran.

TELEPHONING VIA OUTERSPACE: Telephone calls and telegraphmessages relayed from a satellite morethan 22,000 miles above the earth areplanned by US. scientists carrying outspace flight research. A 50-1b experi¬mental space craft is to be launchedthis year in an orbit synchronized withthe rotation of the earth, that is, itwill circle the earth every 24 hours.The satellite will carry equipment tore-broadcast the messages it receivesinstead of bouncing them back as inpast experiments.

ft INTERNATIONAL PLAYWRIGHTSCONTEST: A contest for playwrights,organized by the International Theatre

34 Institute (set up under Unesco's auspicesin 1948) is now under way on a grandscale in Latin America. Firstly, national

competitions will select one play in eachof nine participating countries: Argentine,Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Cuba, Mexico,Peru, Uruguay and Venezuela. An inter¬national jury will then select the bestamong the nine finalists later this year.Mexico is offering a prize of 10,000 pesos($800). The top prizewinner will havehis work translated into several languagesand it will be offered for production totheatres throughout the world.

PEACE TREATY 4,500 YEARSOLD: The world's oldest known

peace treaty, a chunk of baked clayshaped like a rugby ball and coveredwith tiny cuneiform signs was recentlyon display at an exhibition of YaleUniversity's Babylonian Collection inNew Haven, US.A. The treaty ended500 years of border warfare betweenthe Sumerian states of Lagash andUmma.

S-» TAPLE FOOD WITH A HISTORY:

A museum which traces the history ofman's staple food, bread, from the earliestcivilizations to the present day has beenset up at Ulm, Germany. Its collectionincludes books and documents on the

history of bread-making and equipmentused in its preparation. It also displaysworks of art in which bread is the centraltheme.

UNESCO SCIENCE BESTSELLER:Two new editions, in Singhalese andTamil, have recently been issued ofUn»esco Source Book for Science

Teaching which, since it was firstpublished in 1956, has become one ofUnesco's best sellers. The handbook

aims to help science teachers in allparts of the world by showing themhow to improvise scientific apparatusfrom simple everyday objects. It hasalready appeared in eight languages andis due to be published in 15 more.

Ii IGHTNING CALCULATIONS :Two impressive performances have justbeen chalked up by Euratom electroniccomputers. Scientists fed the text of theLord's Prayer in 150 languages to amachine which, within a few minutes,classified the versions according tolinguistic and geographical categories.Philologists had taken several years tomake the same classification. Another

machine rapidly described how trade wasconducted in 1900 B.C. in Cappadocia(today a province of Turkey).

NEW YORK'S DRIVERLESSTRAIN: The first completely automaticpassenger train in the United Statesis to run under the streets of NewYork on the city's subway. Carrying150 people it will shuttle between GrandCentral Station and Times Square. Itstarts and stops and doors open andclose without any driver or conductoroperating the controls. The trainreceives orders through electric impulsestransmitted through the rails.

ft HE BIGGEST 'MILK ROUND':As a practical way of celebrating Inter¬national Milk Day, sponsored by theUnited Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF)milkmen working for dairies all over theUnited Kingdom raised money by makinga house-to-house collection on their rounds.

This will be spent on dried milk powder tobe sent to undernourished children in

many countries. A similar campaign wasorganized by the milkmen of Ireland.

LEARNING FROM TOYS &GAMES: A fascinating exhibitionwhich highlights the educational role oftoys and games down the ages is onview (until March 10) at the NationalPedagogical Institute in Paris. Entitled"Toys and Games of Other Days", ithas been organized by the curator ofthe Museum of the History of Education,Madame M.M. Rabecq-Maillard (au¬thor of the article on page 22). Amongthe many antique objects and curiositiesloaned by museums in Germany, Hol¬land, England and France are chesspieces that belonged to Charlemagne,Louis XV's toy elephant, and someplaying cards used by Louis XVI.

Just published : 1962 Edition

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DESCENDANTS OF THE INCASCenturies have passed since the mighty Inca Em¬pire has vanished, but Indians of the high plateauxof the Andes (like these two Bolivian women) stillpreserve the physical features, the language, cus¬toms and beliefs of their ancestors. They provethat no civilization really dies If there are peoplewho maintain the original traditions, (see page IS)

© Paul Almaay

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