annual1981

FOR ALL Sceuts

--_..:::;;:;~ ......:.:.~

IN SEARCH OF HOOVES WITH ANTLERS

SWIMMING SAFETY

THE GALACTIC DUSTBIN

annual1981edited by Peter Brooks and Bill Bruce

Geoff PlattJohn Deft

Peter WaldenDave Budgen

Bill Bruce

... AND OFF TO THE HILLS

John DeftDavid Easton

Alan Wrangles andBrian Robertshaw

lan Hughes SmithPeter Stuckey

Peter BrooksPeter WaldenDave Budgen

John DeftDavid Easton

Jack CoxJohn Deft

Dave Budgen

David EastonDavid Harwood

Bill BruceAlan Wrangles andBrian Robertshaw

Peter StuckeyJack Cox

Dave Budgen

~WORLDCopyright © MCMLXXX BY

World International Publishing Limited.All rights reserved throughout the world.

Published in Great Britain byWorld International Publishing Limited.

A Pentos Company,p.a. Box 111. 12 Lever Street. Manchester M60 lTS.

Printed in Italy.SBN 723565856.

36 Today's The Day!40 Ron Jeffries Shows You How To ...

Make a Ladder41 Water Power44 The Growth of Aviation - 1919 to 198048 Volcano!51 Crossword52 ... And Off To The Hills - Part Three54 Corn Dollies56 Even More Amusing Moments57 In Search of Hooves with Antlers60 Making Paper At Home61 ... And Off To The Hills - Part Four62 Ron Jeffries Shows You How To ...

Make a Charcoal Dustbin-Lid Fire

22 The Aviation Record Makers24 Owls27 ... And Off To The Hills - Part Two28 Swimming Safety30 I'd Love An Ice Cream32 Make Your Own Pottery33 More Amusing Moments34 Life Around the Oak Tree (2)

Page4 The Galactic Dustbin6 If You Want to Know the Time ...7 Crossword8 ... And Off To The Hills - Part One

10 At the Tips of Our Fingers12 Ron Jeffries Shows You How To

Make a Haybox13 Amusing Moments14 A Little Knowledge can be DANGEROUS!17 Rescue!20 Life Around the Oak Tree

Our Front Cover shows PhilipHill of the 25th Enfield ScoutTroop crossing a Monkey Bridgeover the 'Bomb Hole' at Dane­mead Scout Camp Site in Hert­fordshire. Photograph by, PeterBrooks.

Back Cover Abseilling - thesecond quickest way of gettingdown a rock face, as it is knownin rock climbing circles. Photo­graph by John Elliot. Top RightStuart Peyton and Maurice Juliancheck the route during theirAdvanced Scout Standard hikein Devon.

TheGtlltlctlcDustbinMan has always been fascinated by the sky above and has wonderedabout what lies beyond ...

Over one hundred miles above our heads, the atmosphere, whichhelps to support life on this planet, gives way to something that isquite different - space. There is no air to breathe and no protectionfrom the harmful effects of radiation or from a collision with a meteor.

Space exploration has occupied man's mind for many centuries, butit wasn't until the second half of this century that science and tech­nology enabled him to escape the earth's atmosphere and study the'vast blue yonder'.

On October 4th, 1957, the firstartificial satellite was launched fromRussia. Sputnik 1 was the first man­made object to orbit in space and itcarried instruments for sendingscientific information back to earth.Sputnik 1 (meaning 'Fellow Traveller1') orbited the earth for 92 daysbefore gravity drew it back towardsthe earth and the heat caused by itsre-entry into the atmospheredestroyed it.

Since that famous flight literallyhundreds of satellites and spacecraft,of different descriptions, have beensent into the heavens. Most of themhave been put there by theAmericans and Russians, althoughBritain, China, France, Italy andJapan have also launched a few.

The early satellites were used forscientific research but graduallyscientists planned to use them formore practical applications ...

The first communications satellitewas launched in 1960 by the U.S.A.and it was called Echo 1. This was analuminium covered balloon and itreflected radio signals that werebeamed to it from earth. In 1962,perhaps the most famous com­munications satellite was launched­Telstar. This received television pic­tures and relayed them across theAtlantic.

1. In telsatA communications satellite. A number ofthese provide radio, television andtelephone links around the world.

2. Weather SatelliteAn American device for giVinginformation about weather patterns. Ittransmits photographs of these patternsevery hour.

3. MeteorThe Russian weather satellite.

4. LandsatA satellite for surveying the earth andsending back information about its

Today the satellites can transmitradio, television and telephonesignals, forecast the weather, detectnuclear explosions, survey theearth's resources, detect pollution,act as a navigational aid for aircraft,study other planets and stars and ...keep a watchful eye on othercountries' satellites!

All these artificial 'moons' carrynames which, to a space scientist,indicate the satellite's purpose, but toyou and I may seem rather strange:Vanguard, Tiros, Midas, Syncom,Vela, Snapshot, Intelsat, Cosmos,Dodge, Zond, Molniya and Erts!

What happens to all these piecesof metal when they have finishedtheir jobs or when they break down?Surely there is a saying: 'What goesup must come down.'

Well, in space that isn't alwaystrue. Once a satellite is completelyclear of the influence of the earth'satmosphere it is possible for it toorbit the earth for hundreds orthousands of years. But thesophisticated electronics which con­trol these craft do not always workand sometimes the satellites andredundant spacecraft can break upand retu rn to earth.

Since Sputnik 1was launched, it isestimated that between five and sixthousand man-made objects

geological formations, ocean currents,health of crops and so on.

5. MolniyaThe Russian equivalent of Intelsatproviding a number of communicationslinks.

6. LunaA series of Russian satellites for investi­gating the moon.

7. ExplorerA scientific research satellite.

8. TirosAnother in the variety of weathersatellites but it is also used for militaryreconnaissance.

by Geoff Platt,illustrated by Bill Bruce

(including over 1,400 satellites,several rockets and pieces of debris)have drifted back towards the earth.Nearly all of them have burnt upduring their re-entry into the atmos­phere, but occasionally fragmentshave reached the earth's surface.The risk of being hit by one of theseis probably similar to that of being hitby a meteorite - not very high. In1978 and 1979 there were twonotable exceptions to this. TheRussian nuclear spy satellite Cosmos954 landed in a remote part ofCanada with its nuclear batteries stillfull at life. Eighteen months later theAmericans' massive Skylab spacestation also came back to earth,landing in hundreds of pieces in theAustralian outback.

The amount of hardware that is fly­ing about in space is quite stagger­ing. Something like 5,000 objectsspin round the earth at heights ofbetween 100 and 70,000 miles. Ofthese, about 1,000 are satellitesbelonging to the Americans and Rus­sians while the rest are what spaceengineers call 'Space Garbage'.

No one really knows how muchrubbish is up there but it must be thebiggest junkyard that anyone couldever come across! Our illustrationshows a few of the satellites thatorbit in man's Galactic Dustbin.

9. VelaA military nuclear warning satellite thatcan pick up nuclear activity.

10. Big BirdThe American's top secret spy satellitereputed to be able to photographindividuals on the ground.

11. A Russian equivalent of Big Birdused for photographing and electronicsnooping.12. A Ferret satellite that can eavesdropon radio and telephone conversations.

13. A Russian satellite that aidsnavigation for the Russian navy.

5

twenty-five minutes ahead ofBelfast time. (Not to mentionBritish Summer Time, which putseverything wrong by a wholehour!) In truth it is your sundialthat is right and the clock that iswrong, but when you are late forschool or miss a televisionprogramme, that's not muchconsolation I No - for accuratetimekeeping an ordinary watch ismuch more use, but a sundial iscertainly more fun!

inaccuracy, ql<Jite apart from thefact that it will not work unless thesun is shiningl In the first place,modern clocks show mean(average) time instead of real suntime: in summer the difference isonly about five minutes, but inwinter it can be as much as aquarter of an hour either side.Secondly, all clocks in Britainshow Greenwich time, which isalways about ten minutes aheadof true Manchester time, and

thus has to incorporate a com­pass. We have shown one of eachkind, but these cannot be adjustedfor latitude. So long as you staywithin about fifty miles north orsouth of home, this will not matter- after that the errors becomenoticeable.

Do remember, though, thathowever carefully you make asundial there will always be some

2'Sept..-nber

base is the same as yourlatitude. (Ask your Mathsteacher to help you work itout.) The compass is used topoint the sundial north­south (remember to allowfor magnetic variation) andthe shadow of the stringshows the time. (The hourlines fan out from the basehole. with 15° betweenthem.)

John Deft

sundial was a very complicatedaffair with eight or ten separateparts, each performing a particu­lar job.

It sounds almost like a joke, liketins of elbow-grease - but port­able sundials really do exist, andare not difficult to make. There aretwo main kinds: one kind meas­ures the altitude of the sun, and sohas to be adjusted according tothe time of year; the other kindmeasures the sun's direction, and

needed. it is turned so that the adjust­able hole (set to the right month) facesthe sun; and the time is then shown bythe spot of light on the inside surfaceopposite.

will be slightly different. Notice that allthe date markings are given as the 21stof the month - other dates come inbetween.

This is a form of pocketsundial. The two holes andthe length of string must beexactly right. so that whenopened out the anglebetween the string and the

The problem now is that thesundial will not work properly atany other latitude - a sundialthat you make at your home inBristol will be useless at yoursummer camp in the Lake District.Most of the time, of course, thisdoesn't matter, but sailors andother travellers used to find it veryinconvenient. They had to carryportable sundials, in which theangle could be adjusted to thelatitude, and Sir Francis Drake's

These are accurate markings for thesundial shown in the previous illustra­tion. they are correct for the latitude ofLondon. In other places the positions

This simple cylindrical sundial can becarried around in the pocket. When

... ask a policeman, as the songgoes. Or look at your electronicdigital wristwatch. Or dial 123and listen to the 'speaking clock'.Or, if you want a bit of fun, makeyourself a sundial.

Sundials were never the onlyway of telling the time - water­clocks and marked candles havebeen around for just as long ­but they were in regular use forabout two thousand years, untilgradually replaced by mechanicalclocks.

The great thing about a sundialis that it is so simple. Unlike aclock or watch, with lots of printedcircuits or moving wheels, anordinary sundial has just twoparts: a spike called the gnomonand a dial on which its shadowcan be seen. As the day passes,the sun appears to move throughthe sky in a predictable pattern,and the pusition of the shadowshows the time.

Actual designs are very varied.In ancient Rome there was a largeobelisk in the middle of theCampus Martius (rather likeNelson's Column in the middle ofTrafalgar Square) and the hourmarkings were on the groundaround it. The Anglo-Saxons usedto scratch vertical sundials on the.walls of churches, and several ofthese can still be seen. But thesewere not very accurate, becausethey did not allow for the differentpaths the sun takes in differentmonths.

It was the Arabs who overcamethis problem, by putting thegnomon at an angle instead ofupright. Not just any angle - foraccurate readings it has to makean angle with the horizontal thatis the same as tl ie latitude of theplace where it is used (about 51 0 inLondon, or 560 in Edinburgh ­you can find your latitude from aschool atlas). This makes thegnomon parallel to the earth's axisof rotation, and the shadowmoves at the same speed all theyear around.

If you want to know the time•••

6

"That was a really great hike we just djd." "Oh yes, and what did you enjoy about it somuch then?" "Oh the part where we left the fields behind and went over the openmoorland - you could see for miles, and with no one else around we really felt we weremiles from anywhere - it was great."..-

That sort of conversation happens all too rarely, but there is no reason why it shouldbe so rare. Everyone should have the chance to enjoy that sort of thing. Provided youtake care to prepare everything and practise the skills needed, there is no reason whyyou can't go with your Patrol or Troop on the sort of hikes that have, up to now, beenreserved almost exclusively for Venture Units.

On this and three other pages Dave Budgen takes you through the sort of preparationand skills you should make and be proficient in before setting out on a hike onto themoors or into the hills.

Part One - The KitLike many of the moreadventurous things in life,walking in the hills does need acertain amount of basic equip­ment to make sure that we cancope safely with the weather andwith the countryside itself. Butthis doesn't mean that everywalker needs to take around largeamounts of expensive and specialequipment. The things that youneed in order to protect yourselffrom the weather and the roughground are really quite ordinary,and can also be used around thehome or with your bicycle. Themain difference is that you needto be that bit better protected outin the hills, where any form of

8

shelter may be much furtheraway than normal. So, what dowe need to wear in order to meetthe tracks and the weather insafety?

Let's start with the feet,because on any walk these aregoing to have to do a lot of hardwork. Your feet need to beprotected from rough ground bya pair of strong boots. Shoes areall very well for roads and goodtracks, but they don't give anysupport to your ankles on roughground and they don't really pro­tect your toes very well either.New boots don't really have to bewaterproof (very few of theexpensive boots are) as lots of

dubbin, 'Wetpruf' or 'Hydrolan'will help to put that right; afterall, while wet feet may be un­comfortable they aren'tdangerous. The soles of yourboots should be thick and havegood deep treads cut into them.

So a pair of boots is really a'must' for safe hill-walking.Wellington boots, shoes,sandals, etc., are just not strongenough to protect your feetproperly - and you will need thatprotection!

Having said all that, it doesn'tmean having to spend a lot ofmoney on something that canonly be used when you gowalking. A pair of boots can be

very useful in camp, badweather, when working in thegarden or on some Troop projectand at lots of other times. Andyou don't need a very expensivepair when you start walkingeither - just make sure thatthose soles give a good gripthough.

After your feet, there is the restof you to look after. You willneed some sort of waterproofand windproof jacket or anorakto use in poor weather (most ofthe time, in other words). Astrong nylon jacket is best ­ideally something like a G & HCag-Jac - and it is obviouslyuseful at lots of other times too.Beware of light nylon jackets asmany soon wear through and letwater in at the seams. A front zipwill help you to avoid getting toohot and sweaty. If you don't havea very good jacket you can makequite a serviceable waterpoof andwindproof cover out of a strong

polythene bag by cutting holesfor your head and arms.

What about the rest of your kitthen? Well, most Scouts havefootball socks which will goinside walking boots equally well(but leave the football bootsbehind, please!). For yourtrousers, an old pair of wool orterylene school or Scout trouserswill do - or much better, trylooking out for a pair of old wooltrousers in a Jumble Sale and getyour mother to cut them downfor you. Wool is by far the bestthing for keeping you warm anddry. A big DON'T concernscotton jeans - when wet thesewill chill your legs and can bevery dangerous. You will alsoneed a warm shirt and two thinwoollen jumpers, one to wearand one to carry as a spare, and,of course, a woollen hat - it issurprising how cold your barehead soon gets on a windyhillside.

There are also a few things thatcan be shared between you. Inthe party you should have at leastone torch (plus spare batteriesand bulbs), a small first-aid kit,some emergency rations (for justthat - and no other time!) and astrong polythene bag to use as ashelter in an emergency - thisshould be big enough for every­one to sit in; if not, carry more.Make sure you know how to useyour first-aid kit and that youknow how to recognise and treatfor exposure - this is a big hilland mountain hazard to the un­prepared and ill-equipped - butthat won't be you, will it?

So now we are almost ready tostart, but wait, what else do weneed before donning those bootsthat are inviting us on? Turn nowto page 27 for Part Two of ...And Off To The Hills where Davecovers The Essentials.

9

CompositesWhorls

11

right but keep trying and you canbuild up your own fingerprint file.

If you can get some french chalkyou could also try to get prints fromitems that other people havehandled, in the same way that thepolice do . . . All you need is a verysoft brush, some french chalk andsome newspaper. Sprinkle the chalkfrom the brush onto the surfacewhere the prints are and try to catchthe excess with the newspaper (chalkthat doesn't stick can be used again).It will take time to get the techniqueright, but after a while you should beable to see the fingerprints quiteclearly. You can get french chalk inall sorts of colours so that you canfind prints on almost anything.

When you've put your fingerprintfiles together remember to classifythem as Arches, Loops, Whorls orComposites ... you'll soon see thatno one has the same prints.

LoopsArches

The four basic types of fingerprint classification.

main types: arches, loops, whorlsand composites. Arches have ridgesthat run from one side of the finger tothe other without turning back ortwisting. Loops turn back on them­selves and there are two types,those that curve towards the thumb,which are' called radial, and thosewhich curve away from the thumb,which are called ulnar. Whorls haveat least one ridge which makes acomplete circuit, and composites arepatterns which have at least two ofthe characteristics of the others.

Try taking your own fingerprintsand then those of your friends.All you need is some paper and aninked stamp pad (and some soap andwater to wash afterwards!). Roll theends of each finger, and your thumb,on the ink pad and then, before theink dries, roll it carefully onto thepaper. It will probably take you a fewattempts to get the rolling action

Until 1975 the searching of thefingerprint files had to be done byhand and with many hundreds ofthousands of prints in the collectionthis was a very time-consumingprocess. Since 1975 all the printshave been put onto a computer incoded form and the comparison ofprints can now be completed in avery short time.

Within the Fingerprint B~anch ofthe Metropolitan Police District inLondon, there is a 'field force' ofsixteen Technical Officers who,together with the 'Scene of theCrime' Officers, are responsible forexamining places where crimes havebeen committed on their 'patch'.

The Officers try to discover finger­prints that the criminal has leftbehind, and then try to make themvisible for photography. The print is athin layer of perspiration or greasedeposited in the pattern of thefriction ridges from the ends of thecriminal's fingers. Hard and glossymaterials such as glass or gloss paintsare the ideal surface for thedevelopment of prints and almostalways present a 'full set' of clearlydefined images. Dirty objects andmaterials with absorbent surfaces donot readily bear prints.

On smooth surfaces the print ismade visible by carefully applying afine powder, such as french chalk,with a brush. The powder sticks tothe small amount of fat present in theperspiration, or to the grease whichhas been left behind. The print isthen 'visible' and can be photo­graphed.

It is more difficult to obtain printsfrom paper, so chemicals are usedwhich react with the grease and then'develop' in a bright light just like aphotograph.

Fingerpri.nts are divided into four

finds any they will be processed andsent to the Fingerprint Branch wherethey will be checked against therecords of known criminals.

Photograph by courtesy of Commissioner of Police, New Scotland Yard.

A Fingerprint Officer from NewScotland Yard uses items from the'scene of the crime' box to examine astolen car for possible prints, If he

OPOL\TANOL\CE

The fact that the skin at the tips ofour fingers carries a uni~ue 'code'and that it never changes, was firstdiscovered in the 17th Century, butwasn't put to use until 1860. It tookanother forty years of researchbefore fingerprints were first used indetective work, and in July 1901 theFingerprint Branch of Scotland Yardwas opened.

The. Fingerprint Department wasfounded with just three people, buthas expanded over the years so thatnow it has a staff of over 350. Theimportance of having a NationalFingerprint Collection has beenrecognised by all the Police Forces inBritain and has played a veryimportant part in many major criminalinvestigations.

Each day the fingerprints of peoplewho have been sentenced to terms ofimprisonment and those who havebeen arrested and charged withanything other than minor offencesare sent to the Fingerprint Branch forprocessing. The fingerprints of thosewho are not later convicted are, ofcourse, destroyed,

One of the earliest cases involvingthe use of fingerprints as evidencewas in 1905 when a thumbprint lefton a cash box at the scene of amurder in Deptford resulted in theconviction and execution of themurderer, Since then fingerprintevidence has played a major part inthousands of criminal investigationsand hundreds of murder cases.

One of the main functions of theFingerprint Branch is to find outwhether the person has a previousrecord or not. First of all they checkthe name of the suspect against theirrecords, and if this brings no resultthen prints are coded and transmittedto the National Police Computer.

10

Bill BruceTake a look at the tips of yourfingers, they're covered in tinypatterns of ridges and furrowsand those patterns are unique!No one in the world has fingertippatterns exactly like anyoneelse's in every detail and even thefingerprints of identical twins arenot exactly the same ',' ,

At thetipsofourflNGERS

13

by David Easton

... IT'S A DETERRENT •..• IF ANYONE TRIES TO CREEP IN I JUST PULL THE STRING.........

liE

Your haybox is now ready foruse.

Let's assume that you aregoing to have porridge forbreakfast. Make the porridge inthe usual way, bringing it to theboil and using the cooking potfrom your haybox. While it is stillnice and hot, remove it from thefire, place it in the haybox andsecure the lid down firmly.

The porridge will continue tocook and remain warm for somehours, provided it was boilingwhen you put it into the haybox.That's the important point(although the insulation of yourhaybox has to be right, too, ofcourse!)

If you make the porridge theevening before your daylighthike, it will be ready for you ­warm and inviting - on yourreturn.

You can cook many otherfoods in this way, too. If you aregoing out on a day hike and wantsome potatoes ready for yourreturn (to eat with a salad,perhaps), bring them to the boilin your cooking pot, pop it intothe haybox and the potatoes willcontinue to cook throughout theday.

It's best to make the haybox athome and experiment with itbefore you go to camp (or are outon that sunrise daylight hike!. Inthis way you will be able to testthe insulation of your box andmake any refinements that arenecessary before going to camp.

111111

Illustrations by Doug Mountford

So why not make life a littleeasier for that rushed morningafter your Patrol has seen the sunrise by preparing yourbreakfast overnight so that it ispiping hot on your return?

A haybox is the answer andhere's how to make one.

You will need a wooden boxwhich is large enough to takeyour cooking pot with about 7cmto spare all round.

Line the box inside with severalthicknesses of brown paper orpolystyrene to make it as airtightas possible. Now pack hay to adepth of about 7cm at the bot­tom and place your empty cook­ing pot on this, packing more haytightly around it. Pack the hay invery well, for this will form yourinsulation.

The lid of your box should fitwell. Attach a pad of brownpaper and hay to it. Fasten the lidto the box with two leather strapsor something similar.

Ron Jeffries shows DU how to...

12

Let's imagine you are in camp.It's a cool, pleasant summerevening and someone suggeststhat it would be a good idea tohave an early night and set thealarm clock for four in the morn­ing so that you can climb thatnearby hill to see the sun risingon a new day.

Now that's the kind of thingthat makes a summer campmemorable - once you have gotover the initial shock of wakingup in the middle of the night, fin­ding your clothes and stumblingthrough the dark to the top ofthat nearby hilll

Seeing the sun rise is an ex­perience that every Scout shouldhave at his first summer camp ­but it can be spoiled if you arriveback in camp later than you haveexpected and have to dasharound getting breakfast readyand everything cleaned up in timefor inspection!

15

2. If necessary and possible eitherremove the cause of the accidentfrom the casualty or remove thecasualty from the cause of theaccident to reduce the danger of thecasualty becoming worse or lessenthe possibility of further accidents.If casualties are seriously injuredandlor they are unconscious, theyshould not usually be moved, as theymay have broken bones or internalinjuries. Until you are trained in firstaid, do what you can for the injuredwhere they are UNLESS the risks offire, fumes, rising water, etc. aresuch that they will be in greaterdanger if left where they are.If a casualty has to be moved, givehim as much support as possible,and carry him only as far as thenearest place of safety.

3. Find out what is the matter withthe casualty by:

looking at his injuriesasking him where he feels pain

Give the correct first aid treatment,but do no more than is necessary.

4. If the casualty's heart has stopped. . . a special method of treatmentcalled external cardiac compressionis used. This can be dangerous if notdone properly: it has to be taught bya medically qualified person.If the casualty's breathing hasstopped . . . artificial resuscitationmust be applied very quickly. Everysecond counts because when aperson is not breathing he is nottaking in air which contains oxygen.Without oxygen, the body's organscannot work and, if the brain isaffected, the person becomesunconscious. Unless the oxygensupply is restored very quickly, hisheart will also stop, and he will die.

5. Stop bleeding: if a main bloodvessel has been cut, bleeding will beparticularly heavy, and must bestopped at once. Sit or lie thecasualty down and, if there are nobroken bones, raise the woundedpart, making sure it is wellsupported. Place a clean, thick padof material or dressing directly overthe wound, and secure firmly with abandage, tie, stocking, etc. If bloodseeps through the bandage, placeanother pad over the top, and securewith another bandage.If a bandage is not immediatelyavailable, use your thumbs andfingers to press directly onto andaround the wound to hold the sidesof the wound together.

to take. If you're not a trained firstaider, no doubt you'll do your bestbut, despite your good intentions,your best might not be enough. Thisarticle is not so much an instant do­it-yourself first aid course, but more apersonal appeal to you to becometrained in first aid. Let's look at thefacts.

These four objectives are generalguidelines. So that you can get abetter idea of what first aid is allabout let's consider the basic princi­ples of first aid in a little more detail.

1. Go into action quickly, calmly andquietly. If someone IS already 'incharge', do as he or she asks ­speed, efficiency and teamwork arevitally important. If you are first onthe scene, take charge yourself.Make sure someone goes for help.Unless the casualty has only minorinjuries (e.g. a graze, small blister.or abruise) even a trained first aiderneeds to get expert help. So,wherever an accident happens andhowever an accident occurs, getqualified assistance as fast aspossible. Be prepared to make anemergency telephone call to one ofthe emergency services (fire, police,ambulance or coastguard).

Illustrated by Peter Harrison

~, ,

GEIIII!I

Every day of the year accidents claim the lives of many people. Thousandsare seriously hurt. A fair proportion of these casualties would not have died.or would have been less severely injured if they had been more careful and/orhad observed certain safety rules. Also. if more of those who did go to theassistance of the injured had known exactly what to do. more people wouldhave lived or be less severely handicapped. While everyone should do theirbest to prevent accidents. it's a fact of life that. however careful people are.accidents will always happen.

by David Harwood

First aid is essentially an appliedpractical skill. You need someknowledge and some practical in­struction under the guidance of anexpert to become proficient.

In an emergency you may have todo something. If you've been trainedin first aid, you'll know what action

Could you have learnt to swimwithout going in the water or to ridea bicycle without a machine? Ofcourse you couldn't! While anyonecan find out a lot about swimming orcycling from reading books, that'snot enough. Practical training andexperience are needed.

fi LITTLEK"OWLEDGE

cfirt BE

6. Guard against shock: manycasualties requiring first aid, particu­larly those who have been involvedin major accidents, will alsoexperience shock. Shock resultsfrom an insufficient blood supply tothe brain, caused by the loss of bloodand/or a nervous reaction to some­thing unpleasant.The signs of shock are: pale face;sweaty forehead; cold, clammyskin; a rapid pulse; fast, shallowbreathing. The casualty will feel faint,giddy or sick.An advanced state of shock is verydangerous and requires urgentmedical treatment.It is the first aider's task to PREVENTshock. He should:

a. Stop bleeding.b. Not move the casualty (see 2

above); keep crowds away; pro­tect him from the weather. Liehim down on his back on blan­kets, clothes or rugs.

c. Loosen any tight clothingaround the neck, chest andwaist. Turn his head to one sideand (providing there are no in­juries) raise his legs above thelevel of his head, supporting hisfeet and legs with cushions,folded clothing, boxes, etc.

d. Keep the' casualty warm bycovering him with a blanket,coat, etc. but avoid overheat­ing. A casualty should neverbe placed close to a fire or givena hot water bottle. .

e. Never give the casualty any­thing to drink.

f. Stay with the casualty to com-fort and reassure him.

7. Talk to the casualty to keep hismind off his injuries, and to let himknow that help is on the way.

A survivor is 'unloaded' from a Searchand Rescue helicopter to be taken tohospital (photograph taken in Cyprus)

A helicopter crewman carrying astretcher is winched onto a launch

An RAF Search and Rescue Whirlwindabout to rendezvous with a launch

One of the new Sea King helicoptersused for SAR work

Photograph courtesy WESTLANOHELICOPTERS L TO.

A Royal Navy Sea King helicopterused for anti-submarine work landson the deck of HMS Tiger

Photograph counesy WESTLANOHELICOPTERS L TO.

The Sea King's range is nearly 180miles greater than that of theWhirlwind or' Wessex and it canhover automatically over the sea atnight or in fog or low cloud. A com­puterised navigation system enablesextremely accurate searches to becarried out, and the aircraft can carrya much larger payload than any otherSearch and Rescue helicopter:twelve passengers and threestretchers as well as the crew of four.

With a range of over 600 miles, theSea King is ideal for use aroundBritain's North Sea oil fields, and isused as a freight carrier by many ofthe oil companies. A development ofthe Sea King is the WestlandCommando, which has beendesigned mainly for military use andwhich can carry up to 30 fully armedtroops. The Commando carriesmachine guns and rockets and iscurrently in use in the Middle Eastwith the Army in Egypt and Qatarand is also in service with the RoyalMarines.

The Sea King helicopter is veryversatile and ideal for use on Searchand Rescue missions as, in emergen­cies, it can land and take-off from thewater. With the ability to remain 'onstation' for over four hours in anyconditions and the capacity to carrymore survivors, the Sea King hasmade the RAF's Search and Rescueteams even more efficient.

We would like to thank the Ministry ofDefence (RAF) and Westland HelicoptersLtd. for their help with the production ofthis feature and for supplying the photo­graphs.

sea, using mainly RAF motorlaunches and flying boats.

Many of the rescues in the SecondWorld War were extremely danger­ous, with the rescue boats comingunder constant attack from enemyaircraft, and at one time the DoverSearch and Rescue station wasknown to RAF boat crews as 'Hell'sCorner'!

The Search and Rescue servicecontinued with its launches andflying boats after the war, butexperience in the later Korean Warshowed the potential of a machinethat would revolutionise Search andRescue - the helicopter.

ALWAYS ON CALL

The RAF maintains a Search andRescue (SAR) service 24 hours a day,every day of the year, and at eachairfield in Britain where an SAR flightis based a helicopter and crew isready to scramble within ten orfifteen minutes of a distress call beingreceived. SAR crews on standbyrarely take longer than three minutesto get airborne. .

For many years th':l RAF have usedthe familiar yellow Whirlwind heli­copter for SAR work, but it has alimited range and capacity andcannot fly in all weathers or hover atnight, so at some stations it has beenreplaced by the more versatileWessex.

The latest development in .Searchand Rescue is the addition of the newtwin-engined Sea King helicopter,which has been designed specificallyfor Search and Rescue and Anti­Submarine Warfare purposes.

A crewman and a survivor arewinched into an RAF Whirlwind

Most of the photographs onthesa pages were takenduring Search and Rescuetraining exercises as photo·graphers are not permitted totravel in helicopters duringreal missions. Photographskindly supplied by theMinistry of Defence (RAF).

A crewman from aSearch and RescueHelicopter carryinga stretcher

A crew member reachessurvivors in theirIiferaft prior towinching them aboardthe RAF Whirlwindhelicopter

An RAF Whirlwind helicopter rescues survivorsfrom the sea

MIKOYAN MIG25 (U.S.S.R.)

Altitude record 1977123,523 ft. (37,650 m)

MACCHI MC.72 (ITALY)

Speed record 1934440.681 m.p.h. (709.209 km/h)

BRISTOL 138A (U.K.J

Altitude record 193753,937 ft. (16,440 m)

Pilot fitted with a specialpressurised suit and helmet,

in order to save weight inpressurising the aircraft.

RECORDMAKERSResearched and illustrated by Peter Stuckey

When a new form of transport comes into being there arerecords being set and broken seemingly every day (although inreality it is only every month, which is itself fairly fast whenyou think about it!). Illustrated here are some of the distance,height and speed records which were set between the 1930sand the 1970s. This is not all of them - we could have filled thewhole book and still had some over, it is just a sample. You canfind out more about the history of aviation by turning to pages44 to 47.

LOCKHEED P71A (U.S.A.J

Speed record 19762193.167 m.p.h. (3,529.56 km/h)

THEAVIATIO

FAIREY Long range monoplane (U.K.)

Distance record 19335,309 miles (8,544 km)

BOEING B52 (U.S.A.J

Distance record 196212,532,274 miles (20,168,780 km)

STUe:taY

22 23

By Jack Cox

with photographs byEric Hosking FRPS

24

British owls make an absorbing in·terest for Scouts because we have fivedifferent species. four of which arewith us all the year round. Owls keepout of sight during the day whenScouts are at school. and hunt at duskand by night In two distinct periodswith a rest in between. Most of theirhunting takes place when they arereally hungry and that is around TroopMeeting time.A Cub Scout once told me that heliked owls because they had proparfaces. But those round. innocent,featherad. flattish 'faces' with tha big,big eyes. conceal a vicious hookedbeak which combines withtremendous talons to make a super

striking force. Owls are farmers' andgardeners' friends because they eatmice, rats. bank voles, stoats, weasels,rabbits and house sparrows. They alsoeat frogs, snails, fish and kittens.

Take the Tawny Owi, also known asthe Brown or Wood Owl. This largeowl, with the big head and blackeyes, is about fifteen inches long andglides silently among establishedtrees in quiet suburban roads;sodium street lamps often give you awonderful sight of them hunting.Like all owls, the wings are broad andround, like those of the lapwing.

The Tawny is a solitary bird except inthe breeding season, holding aterritory of between thirty and fortyacres. So jealous are Tawny Owls oftheir territory that when the youngones are shoved out to fend forthemselves they have the greatestdifficulty in finding an area of theirown. They tend to be harried every­where by adult owls and many die ofstarvation as a result. The toughestones survive ... Nature's way.The Tawny is our commonest owl. Ithunts by ear and can turn its headround almost in a full circle - a mostuseful asset. At my former home onthe borders of Middlesex and Hert­fordshire, a Tawny Owl perched forsome years on my wooden frontgatepost and was usually there inautumn and winter when I returnedhome at about 7.30 p.m. It would flyoff into a horse-chestnut tree on theverge as I approached. It nested in atree hollow in early spring, with nonesting material. Between two andfour young were produced each yearand they were shooed off at threemonths or so into a harsh world.

On a full moon night I would see aTawny perched on an ornamental bitof wrought-iron on the corner of thehouse beside my study window.Every now and then it glided in totake a house sparrow from a noisyroost under the eaves - easypickings! In North Wales, where Inow live, Tawny Owls glide in onmoonlit nights and take sparrowsroosting in winter in the desertednests of house martins.In daytime I know I can find owlsskulking in ivy climbing over old oakson stream edges, or perched lowagainst the trunks of chestnut trees,deep in green foliage. If owls ventureout, and they are tempted sometimeson dark, thundery days, they will bemobbed by flocks of small birds.

Barn Owl (Tyto alba)carrying a vole

Tawny Owl (Strix aluco) brings a watershrew to the nest

The Barn Owl is our only commonbig 'white' owl. Its colour really isgolden-buff mottled with grey, but itdoes look white and is the ghost ofmany, many ghost stories.

A family of them have lived for yearsin an old cottage of mine in the wildwestern expanse of Anglesey,ridding all surrounding fields of bankvoles and other farm pests. Some livein old trees in the grounds of a hos­pital in Middlesex, flying into the highreaches of spacious old wards onwarm summer nights. In spring theyare often seen in semi-daylight in thelate afternoons hunting mice andvoles. If disturbed at their nestingsites they may shock and surpriseyou by flying straight at your head ingetting away. They snore, hiss loudly,groan and utter terrifying screecheslike a vixen in search of a mate! Youcan't take Barn Owls for grar.ted,they will always delight and surpriseyou with the variety of their activities.

The Little Owl is the smallest of ourowls, little more than the size of athrush in fact. It was introduced herein the last century and is really aContinental species.

Uttle Owl (Athene noctua) with wormshowing eyes accommodated fortwilight vision

27

you. The reply that lets youknow this. is three long blastsof a whistle, or three long torchflashes. every minute.

So, you must have a whistlewith you - but don't go blowingit for 'fun' either - the MountainRescue Team might not see thejoke!

One last thing about theessentials. You should alwayscarry them handy and ready foruse. Fold your map open tothe part you need and then wrapit in a clear plastic bag. Make sureit stays in a handy pocket. Thebest place for your compass isaround your neck on a longbootlace - it is then alwaysavailable for a quick check. Yourwatch can go on your wrist asusual, of course, and the whistlecan go in a pocket - but as aprecaution tie it to your belt aswell. One last thing about thewhistle, if it is a metal one makesure that you keep it away fromthe compass (this applies to allmetal objects, in fact) as it takesvery little to affect a compassneedle that vital few degrees!

That's covered your kit and theessentials you will need to take.Part Three of this series coversPreparation and can be found onpages 52 and 53.

and for helping us to check justwhere we are (this happens to usall). Before setting out make sureyou know how to use both mapand compass, you can practise asa part of Troop evenings - youwill be needing them for real, notjust to pass a requirament in theScout Standard or the AdvancedScout Standard!

And what about the watch,then? Well, as we will see, onceour day has been planned weneed to check that we arekeeping to time. If we fall a lotbehind then we may need to cutour walk short - so we need thewatch to check on how we aregetting on.

In bad weather we may need towalk through mist by compassand if we know how fast we arewalking then our watch can helpus know how far we have gone.

And the whistle? Well,accidents do happen and whenthey do we need sOme way ofasking for help. You should learnthe Mountain Distress Signal andhow to use it. The Signal is asfollows:

Six short blasts on your whistle(or flashes on your torch), waita minute and repeat. Keep thisup until someone hears or sees

On pages 8 and 9 we talkedabout what we should wearand a few of the things weneed with us when goinginto the hills, but apart fromthese there are also fouressential things that wemust never leave behind orgo without. Safety shouldalways be the chief aim inall that we do, so. to ensurethat we can find our wayaround and cope with likelyproblems. we need fourthings: a map (preferably forthe area we will be walkingin); a compass; a watch anda whistle. But what do weneed them for?

Well, we need the map to navi­gate by. For most open country­side the Ordnance Survey's1:50,000 scale maps give plentyof detail, as do the older 1" to themile (1: 63,360 scale) maps. The1:25,000 scale maps (in the greenor blue covers) give a lot moredetail which can help withdifficult areas, but, to start with,the larger scale maps should bequite enough. The compass, ofcourse, goes with the map and isused both to help us walk acorrect course in poor visibility

Short-eared Owl

It is nearly as big as a Tawny, but itshabit of flying by daylight in openunmolested country marks it forrecognition. It breeds on moorlandand much depends on theabundance of field voles. Plagues ofvoles occur from time to time andShort-eared Owls may gather andbreed in a relatively small area. Theirear tufts really are short and rarelyerect. Migrant Short-ears arrive fromthe Continent in the winter so if youlive in the South or South East, youare more likely to see them.

The Short-eared Owl is not awoodland bird. It loves wide openspaces, moorlands, commons anddowns . _ . the places where itsfavourite food, bank and field volesabound. '

Look for it hovering for mothsinsects and beetles on roadsides. It~clear call kiew, kiew is oftenanswered by another owl. It has a'song' which is like the curlew'sbreeding call. Like the other owls itnests in holes in trees.

long-eared Owl (Asio otus)perched above nest

The Long-eared Owl is smaller andsli.mmer than a Tawny, with longerWings, yellow eyes and big ear tuftswhich rise at rest. Its hoot call islonger than a Tawny's effort. It is noteasy to track down at all, but if youfind a daytime roost in an old, leafytree there may well be several Long­ears there. It likes woods best butmay be found on tidal reaches andestuaries with Tawny Owls and BarnOwls in hard winters.

Swimming, although great fun, can be very dangerous if afew basic safety hints are ignored. Read these two pagesand try to remember them next time you go swimming.

/

• Use the Buddy System (See Policy,Organisation and Rules - Part 2, Rule 75xiv (d)) when you go swimming anywherebut a swimming pool.

REMEMBER:• Do not swim for at least an hour after ameal or when you are tired.

- -- -. ----::--_-1... _-------------

Obey warnings. If there is a red flag flyingDO NOT GO IN. If you see red and yellowflags you can swim safely between themas this area is patrolled by lifeguards.

If you are going to swim in the sea, checkthe state of the tide first. The current isstrongest for at least one hour either sideof low water.

Don't go swimming on your own, go withone or more other people - if someonegets into trouble the others can help him.

IN RIVER, LAKE OR SEA

Don't throw people in from the side of thepool. They, or you, can easily slip on thewet surface or they could land awkwardlyin the water.

,,~~ • Post two good swimmers as pickets,

ready to go in at a moment's noticey;/

Don't hold someone else under the water~- he might not be able to hold his breathas long as you, and could be in troublewithout you realising it.

Never run along the side of the pool, it isusually wet and can be very slippery andyou could easily fall and hurt yourself.ALWAYS WALK.

Illustrated by Peter Harrison

IN SWIMMING POOLS

Keep away from the diving area - unlessyou want to dive, that isl Don't swimunder the diving boards when they are inuse. People enter the water very fast froma dive and if they land on top of youyou will come off worst.

SWlmmlnli SAFETV

28 29

"'__"'1:111

A simplified diagram showing theproduction process.

Central Electronic Control System atWall's factory at Gloucester.

Samples are drawn off and sent to thelaboratories for testing.

switched to another tank. The tank­ful is then blended by at least aminute and a half's high speedagitation and then passed to thepasteurisers where the mixture iscompletely purified and the large fatglobules dispersed to give it that rich,creamy texture.

Before the mixture is pumped intothe freezers, air is whipped into it togive it that 'light' taste. When it ispartially frozen it is pumped on again,this time to be shaped and cut to theright size, and it then goes through ahardening tunnel and drops onto thepacking belt for automatic wrapping.Ice cream destined for tubs andcones etc., takes a slightly differentjourney after the air has beenwhipped in.

Walls maintain depots all over thecountry so that distribution to theshops, hospitals, restaurants andcinemas is quicker and easier. Theytake great care to produce the icecreams that you want and to makesure that they are available to youwhen you suddenly get the idea: "I'dlove an ice cream."

The production system is almostcompletely automated. This is the

The ingredients and mixture are testedrepeatedly during production.

The ingredients, on arrival at thefactory, are subject to stringentquality control tests before they arepumped into the storage tanks. Thetemperatures are also carefullycontrolled. Butter, for instance, isstored at 20°F (-7°C) until it isrequired, it is then melted into itsliquid form. Chocolate, however, iskept in liquid form all the time.

Automation plays a very large partin all the stages of production of icecream. The correct amounts of theraw materials are automaticallydrawn from store and effortlesslyorganised for blending, pasteurisingand homogenising into the 70 plusrecipes.

So the fourteen ingredients aredrawn from store and fed, through adouble-check system to ensure theamounts are absolutely accurate,into a blending tank. Once one tankis full the supply is automatically

Pasteurising (the killing of germs andmicrobes by high temperature) isaccomplished by heating the mixtureto 175°F.

ensure that the ingredients are nottouched by even the cleanest ofhuman hands. Hygiene control isabsolutely paramount.

One of the largest ice creammanufacturers in this country is T.Wall & Sons (Ice Cream) Ltd., whosefactory at Gloucester produces over70 varieties of ice cream. The mainingredients they use come from allover the world: sugar from the WestIndies and Mauritius; milk from theUn,ited Kingdom and New Zealand;butter from the United Kingdom,New Zealand, Denmark and Canada,and vegetable fats from West Africa,India and Sri Lanka. The flavourings,too, come from every corner of theglobe.

cities. But it was not until 1899 thatthe first regulations governing themaking of ice cream were introducedby the London County Council. Theywere safety regulations concerningthe quality of goods used and theconditions under which the ice creamwas made.

Today the safety regulations areeven more stringent. The ingredientsare carefully tested at all stages byteams of food technologists,chemists and bacteriologists toensure that everything used is ab­solutely pure. Hygiene standards inthe factories are equally strict: every­thing is kept spotlessly clean, allpersonnel wear overalls and hats,and the strictest care is taken to

It all started over 3,000 years agowhen the Chinese used snow tomake refreshing sweets flavouredwith the juice of oranges, lemons orpomegranates. But it was 1,700 yearsbefore the recipe found its way toEurope, when it was brought toVenice by Marco Polo. A further 250years passed before it reachedFrance and, ultimately, England. ByttJe end of the 18th century ice creamhad become an established dish atthe English dinner table and standardrecipes included cream or butter.

It was during the reign of QueenVictoria that many of the nowfamous Italian ice cream manufac­turers came to England and set uptheir businesses in some of the larger

The next time it is a nice, hot sunny day and you think: "I'dlove an ice cream" just stop for a moment and reflect on howice creams came into being and how they manage to produceall those different shapes, flavours, textures and varieties.

30 31

33'-~.", ~ ~..-- ..-

ON'T WANT TO THROW AWAY MY CHEWING GUM...... IT.S NOT THAT I OON'T WANT TO KISS YOU .... IT'S JUST THAT 10

The pot almost finishedIt only remains tosmooth over the insideand, if desired, theoutside.

The pot almost finishedIt only remains tosmooth over the insideand. if desired, theoutside,

A coil pot with a coilbase.

Starting a coil potworking on a slab base.

A pot made by foldingand overlapping a singlepiece of rolled clay.Note: The finished potwould have the insidesmoothed out.

A pot made from sevenseparate circles of clay,pinched together at the edgesand then smoothed.

It won't be Wedgwood, of course. It won't even be as good as yourMum's second-best kitchen plates - but it'll be a lot more funI Youcan make your own pottery at home or even in camp, and while theresults may not be very elegant they should be q'Jite serviceable.

The one thing that we cannot do The next type of pot is made bywithout is clay Real enthusiasts the slab method. For this you willsometimes dig their own. but there need to borrow an old rolling pinare problems. Just any lump of earth Roll out the clay until it is a uniformis not good enough - you have to thickness - a bit thicker than pastry,know exactly what to look for - and but not too much. Two strips ofunless you are determined to expert wood. one either side. will help youment it is much safer to buy some to get this uniformity. The pot canclay from a local pottery supplier then be made by cutting and foldingThere are many kinds available. with overlaps. or alternatively byincluding vanous brands of self cutting out separate pieces and thenhardening clay: rather expensive. but either pinching them together orneeding no firing at all. On the other sticking them with liquid clay. calledhand. ,f you are not too fussy about 'slip'.the end result. any ordinary coarse Once shaped, and with any patternclay should give a reasonable chance you want scratched on. the potof success. Keep it well wrapped up should be left to dry for several days,In polythene until you are ready to away from direct sunlight butuse It obviously away from damp as well.

If you buy your clay It will need Don't try to hurry it by putting it invery little preparation. but If you have the oven! With a self-hardening claydecided to dig your own then you this will be enough, but other claysmust go through it very carefully. will need firing, and you will need totaking out even he smallest stones make a kiln.to prevent explosions while finng This is not so frightening as It mayThen knead the clay thoroughly, sound - an old metal dustbin or oil­squeezing out any air as you go. until drum will do the job. Punch three orIt IS soft and easy to work four holes around the bottom. and the

The tools you assemble will same at the top, and stand it on fourdepend on the type of pot you want bricks. Put several inches of sawdustto make. We assume you do not in the bottom. then a layer of pots,have a wheel nor any moulds. then more sawdust, and so on until

One of the easiest to make is the the bin is full. Press the sawdustcoil pot, for which you need a flat down gently but firmly. On top. lightsurface on which to work. Take a a small fire of paper and wood - nosmall lump of clay and roll it out into paraffin! - and put the lid on thea long thin 'sausage'. which can then bin. The fire wJII burn slowly downbe rolled in spiral fashion to build up through the sawdust. and willthe pot. The base can be made this probably take twenty-four hours orway too. or can be a rolled-out slab. so to go right through. Make sure it isWhen the spirals reach the right quite cold before trying to take outheight. smooth out the inside of the the pots.pot with a blunt knife. taking care to Without glaze your pots will still befill any gaps. porous. but who cares? The fun is in

making your own pottery. isn't it?

~ake'\loaRI IOWO(JPOLlJ~~

John Deft

35

When a parasitic or­ganism attacks aplant from within andcauses an abnormalswelling or growth toappear, such agrowth is called a'gall'.Oak trees may haveseveral kinds of galls,for example the oakapple gall which iscaused by the gallwasp.Other insects such asgall flies, some beet­les and caterpillars,as well es somefungi, eel worms andmites are responsiblefor galls.

31 Spllngle GIIII

32 Artichoke GIIII

33 Ma,ble GIIII

34 Oak Apple GIIII3& The Vapoure, Moth can be found inits caterpillar stage on the oak and othertrees between April and June. The mothsappear between July and September.38 The Pu,pIe HairstfNk butterfly can beseen in English and Welsh oak woods,but they tend to fly mainly among the tree­tops.:n The Brown HeirstfNk is a late summerbutterfly which can be seen in August orSeptember, but only in Southern England.38 The Long Ellrtld Blit is quite widelyspread across Britain, and their distinctivediving flight can often be seen aroundlowland woods.39 The Stllg BHtle (Male). At 2% inchesor more these are the longest beetles inBritain and are found mostly in the SouthEast. They possess fierce looking antJer­like jaws but they. cannot bite as theirmuscles are too weak.40 The StlIg BHtIe (Female). Even rottingwood has its uses in tha forest and thefemale stag beetle burrows into it to layher eggs. After hatching, the white grubstake up to three years to mature.-----

16 The RtHI Squi"B1 has now becomevery rare, but it feeds on acorns and triesto avoid owls and other predators.17 The Grtly Squirrel builds its nest (ordrey) in the crown of the oak. It eatsacorns during the autumn and winter andraids birds' nests in the spring andsummer.18 The Common Shrtlw lives amongdecaying litter, eats insects and is ofteneaten by owls, foxes and other enemies.19 Lichen (encrusting). Lichens are oftenseen on the small stunted oaks in theSouthWest.20 Lichen (hair-likel. It thrives where theair is very clean.21 Algae forms a grHn film on bark. It isthickest on the north side of the tree.22 Moss is a small plant that lives onwood and in masses on the ground and inbogs.23 Fungus (Blllck Bulgll,J grows in thelutumn.24 Fungus (MortllJ is often found aroundoak trees during Spring.2& Fungus (BfllcketJ gradually destroysthe tree's heartwood.Note: Always ...uma thIIt fungus ispoisonous unl... the pillnt Is wellknown not to be.28 Ivy grows readily on tha oak, andinsects live in the leaves and so attractbirds..%1 The BluebBII is a very well knownSpring flower.28 Rllmsons flourish in the shade of theoak.29 Mistletoe seeds are spread by birdswhich wipe their beaks on the bark. Thepllnt takes nourishment from the tree andthe Ancient Druids thought that an oaktree was sacred if mistletoe was growingon it.30 Tha Acom WHvil. The female laysonly one egg in an acorn and the grubthen eats its 'nest' when it hatches.

Key to Illustration on Pages 20 and 21.

1 The leaves, flowers and acorns of theSessile Oek.2 The leaves, flowers and acorns of theTurkey Oek, which can be found in manyparks and in some woodlands.3 The leaves, flowers and acorns of theHolm Oek, which is an evergreen tree andwhich has very hard wood.4 The leaves, flowers and acorns of theRtHI 0Bk, which is a dacorative tree thatis often found in parks and gardens.6 The leaves, flowers and acorns of theCommon, Pedunculata or English OBk.8 The Little Owl which was introducedinto England during the lata 19th Century.It often nests in holes in oak trees.7 The Tllwny Owl which often nests inoak trees.8 The Mistle Thrush often nests in thetopmost branches of an oak tree early inFebruary.9 Tha GfNt SpotttHI Woodpllcke, feedson insects that live in the tree.10 The Green Woodpllcke, often visitsoak trees. It gives a loud, laughing calland can be very destructive.11 The JllY takes acorns from the oakand 'plants' them singly. They eat themas they sprout but many grow to becomemature trees. This is just one way inwhich the oak spreads.12 The Nuthatch nests in hollows anduses mud to make the entrance to thenest smaller.13 The Treecf88fJllf feeds on insects thatit finds among cracks in the berk.14 The Fox finds shalter among the rootsof the oak.1& The WOOdmouSB eats acorns and isoften attacked and eaten by owls andother predators.

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• \' ;. ~ ,. Houn ds had gr it In tac ~;..?JA(. i'flj' : ~ her trie~ . oems into '1\ have ~t~;. ,,' :'t il~ and recltlO\gd p·jUSt as we _ the ~1t~

• iJ' :.O' ~ .. cou 'ndow ...•~ O'. iV~' 'i they t ot the WI on the ~1t~it M ~ shouted ou 5 In a cottagewayl ~

:if/:' .~; ~ • recipient wa ~e'" yards a .....-~~:. • ~ ...' • . st a , .. ~-':4I:"'e::.-'~ ~..:i''J'~ '.I!": ~ .. estate, jU ~••!:--:-fi••~..~ .•',J" "'~ ;. .f ••••••••,!. ;;; .;...~.0 ~ I '" .'!I~ ~ :::.••!: ~••~••.•.••..~.. ~ ~,. ..t- .. ~•••••••.:.... ~ (I//' :..,,: ~. ~••~...,. •~ ,. .\ j' .;--.- ~."•.,,; \ ) i,.~..~ ./ ~~

::i.- ~ /U ~ -~...e: ~~••:!:'':s: :e;••••••r ~ (';4" ••,~4~;."••_ =_ == _~, ..- 7 :."~ ~ -.-;.;oe; M ••'u:••••, a; u~••~••~..'?..:;:..?.••?...o;:••~.~••~••~••~.. ~·It; St ro :0. "'U" 4 h M ~....'" reb, "",. < t .rch 1849 David Rice a M

!'ef;/'eOt 8e"··,,, 181 l'~ Atchison took the helm of the - ...'-8 ~Ht",'t I;t. r,l/

oc" (' 1 rhe . * ~ United States for a whole day. -'> ~ jc~IfDu el]t

y· fo ne 77S/~hthous 'rltlnd. kl Eu~ President Polk's term of office _~._ ~!

ill;Ye. Odee• .., 0,1/ - °Ot e~~•."'.' '" ~ had expi,ed but his successor, , ,.• ~ Qrs t "ad es ~/"C /0.... • • Z h T I ~

Mt Its 0 b." t."e e.'t e_ ifI? III ac aoy ay or, ,efused to be ."'§~ ~ cOns 'd a I] 0 of ~ of ~ • • S d A P . ~ ~~~.~S 9Bc! (, t,.c,· od e. 'e, (, 'IN ~ sworn on on a un ay. 5 ,es,· ~ 1111~-~'~••. ro

m4b IOn had ery StOI] our 4i' ~ ;, dent of the Senate, Mr Atchison _ _ ; '$

~-"'''!'~...,:o.th b,. beeo ~ e '" ~,; !"i automatically became President ~•••••.'S "ie,'.... T 0" ~rag Wi" • ~. h . . ~....••••••'aJi..~~.~••••• 'le hor. 'B1-'¥ ~ '$ In t e Intenm, He confessed ~••~.......,\,'i ~~... Se..· • ,; f ~ t."

."-'~~Q"" ''ol .: a terwards that he had slept all .' .~"~':S:":S:":s:":s:":s:'r.i ~4-r!:":r;.r. ~ day - his entire term of office I ~U~~ .~••o;oo••~ ~..~..~••~ ~. .. . ; ::

;0""''' I· h' .·w··..~··w..· ~-·•••d~ r- ~••w 'r ~~~"tr..; :: 20 h F b y 1917 The Eng IS - ~...... ,.'_ _ ~•••~ ,p,..~ t e ruar • .....?.w.;.;ee.~ .....o;:..?..,. -~..?M:;OM~ O;:..?? ? 8~:t...:t. _lj' .....~~ ~ man with the longest surname ~ • ••••••••••••::;..::;..~ .*..'9...~..~.. '... . . h·· ,. =~t.~t'.•.'" .. 'd"; ;, died of pneumonia In t e tren· ~;i ::;..:s:..~.~;!.;..~..;;..~........... rowly aVOI _ •~~ ches duoing Wo,ld War 1. His full JIl .............l'1.~.::*.~;:••,.._.....~. I~ accident was na' hanged fo' U

~~ narne was Majo, Leone Sextus ill iJr"';·;;.;ch 1738 An un od his colleague w:':nd thinking 'i ~~~ Denys Oswolf Fraudati Tolle· "~1tS 25t hen Will summersha~gman was drun Iy 'with much S~~~ h d 0 ellana P.I 0; \0 .: ed w . The a h d was on ,::. .: mache-Tollemac e er:. ~ ~t~ se-breaklOg. b despatc e, h parson \ ..~~ Plantagen.et Tollemach~ ~°S'.I~~ ~ ~IS ~~~re were thre~ tO

dt~om stringing up .t •~ :s: .t:""(:.'1i:~••~

~ mache, HIS men called hIm Ir... ~ ~ .. It' restralne ~ .t:..:t;.~* ~ .~ ~•., :s:••:s:.':s:..:s:••:s:••:s:..:r;..!,.~ ~11~ dlftlCU Y 'Wo .t: 8.~..6.:=rr ~ S"..e9...9.••."I;? ;:••7.••~••~••;: ?.••~..~..~..~..~.......... iti.w:~••;t; ;tj''''!' ,»~..9. .

r~~~rl~~~ .••.•~:s:.~.--~w.a......s:o.;".""!:.....~~"f; ~ :re =5!0 ?:..v.t?"~" .. a"&••"~'"~~ .. .. . .1'~'~V,.~'~'~ 5".......... ~ C~

~;, - ~~ ......:.l~ ; = :.'~ ~••~ .~ ~ ~n~ .it; '~••~.:~..~••.•.•OO" .... ~"'8 "'__.~§".'~Ci ~U~ .-IA": th 4,. ~ "_...._.~'~••~••." " •• Of ~'II '845'"~s ......~ r~ IJ e.'.':;;;:09too_. 90;~;-:'7'e~D:~~:~~...~. • • :''' I]e.. lIed 1,0......·', L ••••••: :: ~.:: :<! : verb a "'ll]g. u"e ~ ~~3 i;";: ..' re' eel] reco Plg

e_...":

; ~f'" .~ $ leased reliabl rd th 0ns ~~~: • ! I !to Of We f'om a Yb'oke .t h•• Jtt;!Ill ~~ .itf the c,st 4f,;c•. ~h;o off,t It "'a. f,I., • ~~ ~~ cO.e'ed

o", fI;e. .f 't "••e/~ cO••t

ftN~ ~ ~C~:.!I~": :.robably sOme s,~ 'rltould ~d as /Jl!lIl ~I : eSe't .Od detoo,ed V mile. b ••e .11;, ~ ~ 'mile.. rh '0 fie", .'0.0 .';t.i'~ ;i ~ . from I. e bird I]earer d the ~ $~~ ~n dead'10me' 'rltas " to 7 0'0() ••~•lo i l" • fro 11] L. ound' ,~ $fI! ,. me. oOdo .0,) ,":. ;i ~u~ ~~.~...... Xllaust' n -... Ie .~ ~!lI5 ,ubbe' so that ! / ..- ....~~,_ 'OO! 'to

oeJI7t.

• • ',.,.. ' ••' ..'!:ii g;_.. '" .._me: while bathing! ~u~ ••••••~,..~•••~.... !'i/r'f.J ::w. .....~~......Jtt; .~ :, ••••••'!:ii~: ..~ • •• •• - - _ 'l:\"!!i''i!I''i!:''S!! , _••6~ ••••--.-s.!-- -ti""-:...;:.ir _ _--~ """ ~.i!r'!!:.~~'f.nAJiol~ _ _ _~~ ~ tll ""'tt..-_ ~ - ""w ....,.,,"'" M.~._ ...•.••.••••;:;...;!.;••:;.u~..·•·•• er III '. :.r..,,.,..~.~ o;:,,:;O..r • •• ~•.•.••:s....~ ;:;_~.t.•.• '"\rst ev ~~:: v lo .:....... - ..". -.~••• , The \ ~ • ~n~ er d l""

~ .:;...~........ 1780 m Downs, ~ ~ i: ; 21st June 1890 Unlucky mata or:. .::. ~ May t Epso 12th ~ '01.. (7" H. the" ..:' 1~ 4th s run a b the ~ i lO ~ Luis Freg was born, IS was lo ,:~ 1. De,bY W~naugurated J., Cha,le

s ~ !ir§ dubious honou, of being gmed ~~ su"eyi Derby and was sorne f : er mo'e times than any othe, bull. ~ ~\a Earl 0 ry, there what the.,a~~~ ., fighte,. He got the point fifty- ~ ~~ ~ Bu

nbu

ernent

over It was Ima 5 ~ - seven tirnes and was g,ven the fa<~ dlSagr~ be called. wo founder :. Last Rites five tirnes. but always ia;·~t~ sho

uld when th

edt

the Earl not ~ came back for more, Eventually ~.;~ t·. esolve

. Ha horse '. h . 9 _ and ~. ~~ \ ' d a com

. d farnous lied ~ he 'eti'ed from t e "n ~~~1~ tos

se

this worl

h ve been ca did ~ 6 drowned two years later. ~..~'. " won, Id now a. Charles "11~ ~~~\0 = wo

uSIr . n ~: ...iIIl race Bunbu'y'· consolatlO t iIIl 1 ~~

~. 'The. SOrne won the 1"5 ~A U , j~.;. re

ceoVehis horse , ~ ~Il~1.~ h Ugh , as ::;.~ ; :

l",..~ to •••••;:;:.••,:. ;;;..~M.~ ~......... ••••••••- ..". • lon.:~A rac~:".........l'iI:'*~'E."."." ~ / ~~I'f"k ..".~.....~, ..~~:;..e9........ lo = ~U~ll·......... ~Jc.. ~..~i,. :;: :.t:"~".:!:, ••••,......,.... ~.=. ~..~,!t •...M .........~~.~ ,.. l R> 'alal.·25h ...••.•.••.•~..__ lo':

f'2 f May 1935 R ...---.. < , ~S black athlete Jessec~rd w'ecking ~ilf1ll ...~

!lIS the wooid 'eCOr e weos b'oke Et! ~ ~ 11~f~ yards 220 ds for the 100; t F =. ~n~~ .: h ' yards 220 .'f•.' ~ ~.....: ~ urdles and th I' . yards low ~i ~. i'I ~..~l' .: . e ong)U ..... ,.. ... ...~ ~ In fortY-five rninute I rnp - all ~~~ ~..~ ~n~;~ !\...... . s . .•••~ GiU. • ••~ ~ ~••;t;4.;,,;,••••,.... " P I I'"... I:::> ~ .~·..·•·..~..~t.:;:..~...~••~••l!:..~••~......... •~Jt ~ ~ e..

' ·..··ai.v:::,.~ ..~. ~••~... .. u :. .:•·wo.·.r.·wor.a.. Er .~..~~ oo ~ ~ ~~- - .....~.......... :' ... I"\) • ~1,"""-' '1974 A foiendly turtle ~ ~ ~!

\ 4th June I'f of Mrs Candela"a ~ < 'I~

tl saved the ,e ship she was; , ! /~ Villanueva w~en thed sank, The ~ f ~J ~.. ht tire an . :. ~ri.e~ on caug orted her m 'l',J lo .:

Po.., turtle supp ~ ~I'~ g,a

ntsea ,thirty-six hours ; ~ ~ste: the water tor ove d Through. ~ •

i ~ until she was rescsuhee

.was kept ~Wout her ordea~er turtle _ a tiny ,I 'I awake by anot d her back and li ::

rmbe up l" ,0; one who. c, d h ear every time ~ :

~ 5 gently n1ppe ,er ~ ~_! she felt drowsy. • :s:,.:s:..~""§1~~.:a:••;,;••z";,:··:t:··:.t......:s:..:!: ~.=..ti!i:••~••!i!•••

~, ,..•..,I'!. i:. i!!t:.~•..,

AfI ·~'~f.~.!ti.~.~••..

!t····~.s ~"!Ci...

# .: 78th 0 ·•....~f..~f.~·~.~..:..: ':' ~ Ctob ..... 'f~ ~"!Ci••.•

1. t IV, ent on sh er 7967 ~~~

;.."~' elilt YOrk °lilt in an 4 Pictur .rtlj

••':' crOliltd and' eXhibit., , e ~~':'

f..! PeOpl s, But no It attracted IOn 'n .~ ;

.~ le lilth ne Ofs. lIaSt .'11~:

I'!. f neXt f. 0 lOok t'le 776 1. ~

.f t had b ortY-Six da ed at it i ,000 A."~

it. ",';..., een hUn YS nOtice n the :.'1/;':'

.........~ ~"!!t...... • 9 uPside_,.. d that it .il-.':'

-- ~~...... vow" I # 0:

•""'~..., 'I,

~t~• .~•.:;Jl ~-..:<"':< '. i. ,;'

--....~~~..~~....~'-~••~••~••~••~.~..ir:••::;:..::;:••::;:••ir: t: ~.'ir:-:!:~

'; :r..:;:..:;:..:;:..:;:« ;.

~I~ 16th November 1841 An appli- ~ ~

::Jr~ cation was subrnitted for a U,S, ~

~ ~ EJr~ patent for the first cork-filled life- ~

~\ EJr~ jacket, Though widely used it ~r1

~S~ E2r~ didn't gain Federal approval for ~I~

~S 5. thirtY-six years until, with the ~rl

-=--. -

urdered by ~ 's;nk;ng of the SS San Franc,sco, l'al

:: ---,- - --Claudius was mf poisoned ::SI.=. this ignored invention proved its U

=- or d' h 0k •

_

.054 The Em

perf d him a IS he was drun :' I ~ Worth by saving 287 lives, W

• • ber A 't she e thought t the: .::. .:

'11' 13th Octo . . a F"s . ervants . then go . '11 _ ••~,

~ ~, ife AgrlPPInII · sed but hIS s . ed Agdpplna h r d;pped ,n ~ .......!l!.6~ ...~

'" hIS W , • he co ap d Determrn 'th a feat e d him .",• ~

j=.t~ mushroomdsh'im off to be k' of his throat w'd they smothere ~sti /1 'I; ~

• • d arte he bac . the en"Ii tJ

;,p

nl a~ys~cian to tkkl~ttworkeitherso ,n •~_..._ '" ,'1Ad

·t; P, This dldn• ,_~",..... _

"

... , ,son. I- -

'ill'

l"'I~ P~th a cush;on. '••"",-1ti.''';S'''' _

~ ~

• .p w .~.,..""~~;:.,,,,..._ . _

,\IIj

~' ......""~ "'.."'....-,

...,

~_"" M...'I

""'

- ~ ~~ 15th November 1699 The

I.W

lll< 'English Samson', William Joyce,if'

ill

~a appeared befo," Kin~ William Ill.1I Ij

~

~ri' As a demonstration of hisI :,'1

~~;:::

~Ie~ strength he lifted a solid piece of~' \

St lead, weighing Over a ton; then,,

W

I .~

• 4 raped to 'an extraordinary strong

....

lIti horse' he kept it at a standstill,

!IrI

2Ie even When it was whipped. The( sb~¥;:;'''i,~ .....H''ON 'r " ~

~ ~ day before, however, he had sur-Ill" "~Ir

ll

.

1

.',It.sPllNTER~~~~sH~~gI~~ .!!~:lii.~~II:~"~rl passe~ even these feats by

~~ .,:-:::

JJf~ uprooting a tree at Hampstead,) 1

!le Its trunk was 1l> y"ds round!I1

rJ

~ ~ I11 '" U: ...,-ot;..;a. ~..~..~..~••~..~~..~..~... • •..:e;.._~••~••~ _-r,,_~_ ..•.

~------------_ - ...........-....-

---.._._._-_. "--III - '" ... ""l<;' __ .. _ ,.

~ ..~..lj ~ ~Jt~ 28 h' . . ?_? ..?...:;:., ~. ..

.··~··~·~..~..··~A.' ~..:: t December 1869 CheWing ~

.....···A ~.. •.••. . ~. :,IA~ gurn w:' •

•

.••.••••~. f#•••~...... uenrv ~~ ~.....,: as patented by an Arnerl'_ "It~~

.••.• .... -.... 70 n :'I'~' ~... can d '...

········~··~··~..~..···ber '\6, at the ~ l" ~ entlst. He saw it as an ex- &~

~f# rn hire '.1' cell t• ~

"....,.. De

ce

. Yorks IS. >1e ~. ~ . en way to exercise the jaws, ,~ ....,.~

, ~ 8th kins died ,nI 169 yea, could ~ ~ st'rnulate the gUms and SCOur the i1~ ., .....,

'$, Jen d age 0 write b,u f the ~;": teeth. Farnous for its stl'ck' 1 ~ .~r! ; ~••.~..~••~••.•,()1

• ~ pu

te

d or taIls 0 :- ~ I" ,Ing 'It.'1. t I ne '~';'i..§ ,.,.,

! ~ re Id not rea, ing de 5J years qua /tIes. It Was used to help the : t~lr~' b Se cUri ,~ ~"."."

lo ~ eO

U

nVlne, Id 1 he:' d' ,. ·bl D

~J6~#.t een ous h •.•o.:••••§ ~.........

' ~ aunt ca den FIe uring t '. "'g, e"·34 across the Atfan Iic ''1(';'Per . reprod appeni_-.ll,

M r:~ttle of ~'~so 01 lil\~e,e we~~ r t';;'hen a leak Was diSCovered i~ t'dLt/"''':ion

o,"~ert "'th 7%S have 1

lIP, ,lier an rY VIU.. s in ' I eWater Jacket of One of the ~.~ 1'0", , ro", th'. 1;. 4Ji

e

e "nd ~~

~ ~:ign of >1encentena"anremember 1eng'nes and no glue Or PUNy on N 8eadt s rh. D.err PUbJ7" Co. ,'It!

~ live other could n

o

\ t 'a verY board could stop it, CheWing gUm "'l'iIi-",..,.:, ,PNced £:"y,r b" J Cat'on ~

\.~ 'I\ag

e

who h'lng else u Was handed round to the crew :'It~' o.:••••~••~••~..~ 4.95, e

rerny

.W.,:,

••••• VI ytIS' ch d '

, • • . .....s s;, ~. • .'

;:. h',m as an~---, eWe raPOdly and shaved in the fIi .•.........,...{f.",....~ &"

'i4t· • --;,1'- i£ hOle It k• ..

'••f.';'i § .•;,..... • .'

10; Id man ' ~ - ..~ ~ . Wor ed and the R-34 ~,,~ •.••••.•••';'i ~..~,.':'

:'.n; 0 •••••~ f#..o;o..... Ii • cornpl t d ':'''~

....._.s .~

~ '.- -.. • liIIoi e e "s iourney safely '.'. '....

~~..~..."' ~ . -._--....' -. " . ~

~".:;o...~~ •

...._" __...

......_'"

41

sioned in 1948, it produces muchneeded power for industrial Clyde­side.

By the early fifties the Board wasreally in gear, hiring thousands ofworkers and spending millions ofpounds on the design and 'construc­tion of dams that would store enoughwater to generate all the electricitythat was required. Year after year,power stations of all sizes werecoming off the drawing boards andbeing translated into stone. Andeverywhere the Board took greatcare to ensure that the constructionsblended as harmoniously as possiblewith the surrounding countryside.

Design, siting and materials allplayed their part, and although thiswas long before the days of activeconservation the Board knew thatwhat it was doing could have anilJ1pact on .the countryside. It wantedto build a heritage it could be proudof - and it has.

represents about 30% of the totalrequirements and the Board now hasto import power from the South.

But water continues to play animportant part in providing essentialelectric power for homes, farms andfactories and that is a tribute to theenergy and resourcefulness of theengineers who designed traditionalhydro stations.

The hydro stations are dividedinto four main groups running nineschemes. Among the smallest sta­tions and one of the first to be builtby the Board, is the picturesque 750kilowatt Morar on the western sea­board. Morar was brought intooperation in 1948 with a benedictionfrom a local crofter meaning: 'let lightand power flow to al/ the glens'.

At the other end of the scale is thelargest conventional hyrdo station inBritain, Sloy, with an installedcapacity of 130 megawatts. Builtbeside Loch Lomond and commis-

All over the Highlands of Scotland,wherever there are mountains andrivers, dams and power stationsharness water power to produceelectricity.

The North of Scotland Hydro­Electric Board works hard to squeezeevery unit of electricity out of thewater as it flows down through morethan fifty main power stations in anarea covering over a quarter ofBritain.

This contribution to people'sneeds for electric light and power isvital, but the days when cheap, non­polluting water power could meeteveryone's requirements have gone.Demand has grown enormously overthe years since the Board was formedin 1943. The total power stationcapacity then was 313 megawatts.

The total capacity now stands at1,051 megawatts for conventionalhydro stations but this only

PASS THISENt> 'mROU/i1tceNTRE AN~

TURX THf':WHOLE COILlNGlt>c our

OVERHANDO~ 1l-IUMBKNoTS fOfWI,A5 SfjOl.o)!i oli~1C;HT,Wt1EN

We: COIl-IS,HRowN

~

TO COIL. 1rlE::!\OPE AS ABove1WIST E'ACH COILAWA'Y FROM YouIN A sERIES OF){Al-F HI"CH~AS If you W~REpP.EPARJI'lCi ACLOVE: HITCI1 TODROP ON A PosT

,/

/A SHEER LASHINGJOINS 11-IE TWO

POLES,/

/

Ron Jeffries s

When Scouts are pioneering,particularly when making bridgesbetween trees, a simple ladderwould make life so much easier.Otherwise you can spend half theday scrambling up (and slitheringdown) the trees.

Here are three easily made lad­ders, requiring little equipment.

The knotted single rope ladderrequires a length of rope that iscoiled in a series of half-hitches;the end of the rppe is passedthrough the centre, as in theillustration (except that the coilsare held close together as for acoiled rope when it is to bethrown).

The coil of half-hitches withthe end passed through the cen­tre is turned inside out and thesucceeding coils are pulled overeach other. The coil is not thrownand, as it pays out, a series ofoverhand knots are made at fairlyequal intervals.

5QlJAR~ LASHINGS TOSECURE THE RUNCiS

r. I Y I

A single rope ladder withchocks of hardwood of about15cm diameter and 5cm deep isfun to climb! The chocks needto be bored to take the diameterof the rope you are using.

Splice an eye at the top end.To secure the chocks, put twostrands of seizing between thestrands of the rope and then usea wall knot. As an alternative, in­sert small pegs between the ropestrands and bind below the pegs.

The rotor insidethe generator isturned by a shaftfrom the turbine.

On top of the turbine,the generator makeselectricity

The electricity from thegenerator goes out alongwires which are carried onpylons across the hills.

When the wires reach townsthey go underground tobring lights and heatto houses and factories.

Rain falls In the Highlands and keepsthe reservoirs full

II

l ~__

I

Adorn holdsthe water back.

A tunnel takes the waterfrom the reservoir anddown to the Power /Station.

MakingElectricityfromWater

The water pushes theblades of the turbineround.

west, the Board selected a site atCraigroyston which would use LochLomond, the country's largest loch,as the lower reservoir. This site iseasily the finest available-: It is closeto industrial Clydeside where demandfor power is greatest, and it has apotential of 3,000 megawatts, equalto well over twice the Board'sexisting conventional hydro capacity.

But this new site faces strongopposition from environmentalistswho are concerned about the pos­sible impact on this world famousbeauty spot. The Board are hopingthat their proposal for this newscheme will soon be accepted andmany investigations are taking placeto examine all the different aspects ofthe problem.

The Scottish electricity boardsneed a further pumped storagescheme in the next ten years toimprove the flexibility of the system.

In the meantime, the Boardconstantly up-dates its appraisals ofpossible conventional hydro sites.But the potential is limited to a fewhundred megawatts and even withtoday's escalating energy costs, theywould just not be economicallyviable.

Pumped storage, on the otherhand, can in a world reeling under anenergy crisis, use electricity generatedfrom any source - coal, oil, nuclear,gas, wind, wayes or sun - and storeit as potential energy. The principlesare very straightforward.

High up in the mountains, tuckeddiscreetly away so as not to affectthe view, a small reservoir storeswater which can be let down at amoment's notice during peakdemand periods to operate theturbines in the underground station.At night or at weekends, surpluscheap electricity produced by largebase load stations pumps water backup from the large reservoir. And soan endless cycle is created that savesthe country millions of pounds thatwould otherwise be used to buildconventional stations. Pumpedstorage systems help to keep elec­tricity prices down and their impacton the scenery is minimal, especiallyif you compare it with that of a largecoal, oil or nuclear station. The newCraigroyston station would be in thefine tradition of Hydro Boardschemes developed with the twinaims of benefitting the people ofScotland and taking care of the land­scape - the heritage of everyonewho ever spends an hour of a lifetimethere.

The Pitlochry dam with the fisn passin the foreground.

The 66 megawatt Fasnakyle powerstation in Strathglass, the mainstation in the Affric scheme., is beau­tifully faced with golden yellow sand­stone, and Luichart, built at thejunction of the Rivers Meig andConon, is made of local stone, whilepicturesque Kilmelfort is tucked awayamong trees.

Loch Gair, in a bay of Loch Fyne,w9n a Civic Trust Award forarchitectural merit, and stones froman uncompleted medieval church arebuilt into the station wall.

There are many other examplesand now the installations have takenon the role of major tourist attrac­tions. Pitlochry, on the A9, is by farthe most popular, drawing hundredsof thousands across its now famousdam each year.

Away over to the west, some 14miles from Oban, is another touristattraction, the underground pumpedstorage scheme at Cruachan on thebanks of Loch Awe. An average of60,000 people pour into the visitors'centre each year and are taken nearlya mile down a tunnel into the heart ofthe mountain to see the vast generat­ing hall with its four one hundredmegawatt reversible pump turbines.The Board has now opened a secondpumped storage scheme at Foyers onthe banks of Loch Ness, with acapacity of 300 megawatts.

Because of the value of pumpedstorage schemes, the Board hassearched the Highlands looking forpossible sites for a third scheme.Finally, after years of examiningmaps and walking over mountainousterrain all over the west and north

Two of the 7.5 megawatt generators inthe machine hall at Pitlochry PowerStation.

The underground machine hall in theCruachan 400 megawatt pumpedstorage Power Station.

The Control room in the undergroundPower Station at Cruachan.

/,/

,/

,/

PAM AMERICAN 'China Clipper' 163 m.p.h.1935

45

by P. J. StuckeyOn pages 46 and 47 is a featuredescribing the growth of aviationin words but the illustrationbelow shows the pioneeringflights of aviation's history, thefirst commercial routes that wereoperated and some of theaeroplanes that were involved.

Fokker F.Vllb-3m 111 m.p.h.1928

\~

~~~cJ1 NEW ZEALAND

DH16 121 m.p.h.1919

BACIAerospatiale Concorde 1,350 ·m.p.h.1976

PIONEERING FLIGHTS

- FIRST COMMERCIAL ROUTES

LONDON - ANTWERP - MALMO1931

1919to1980

LONDON ­BERLIN

1923

South Atlantic

BIl'riot XI 36 m.p.h.1909

R34

R34 Airship 30 m.p.h.1919

Pacific Ocean

Douglas DC-2 170 m.p.h.1934

The GroUTth of Aviation

Curtiss NC-4 91 m.p.h.1919

44

H.S.125

Short-haul and executive jet aircraft 19808 - 10 passengers at 500 m.p.h.

H.S.748

Medium-haul aircraft 198050 passengers at 300 m.p.h.

BOEING 747

Long-haul aircraft 1980300 passengers at 500 m.p.h.

Some typical passengeraircraft of the

1930s and the 1980s

SHORT 'C' Class flying-boat

Long-haul aircraft 193724 passengers at 164 m.p.h.

SHORT 'SCION'

Short-haul and feeder aircraft 1938Five passengers at 102 m.p.h.

JUNKERS JU 52/3m

Medium-haul aircraft 193215 - 17 passengers at 152 m.p.h.

faster land planes with greaterrange and larger payloads.

The Second World Warbrought about vast leaps in theevolution of the aircraft. Ofnecessity they became verymuch faster and exceptionallymanoeuvrable. Mass-productionreplaced hand building and wasstill hard pushed to keep up withthe demand. It is reckoned thatGermany alone lost 1,733 aircraftduring one 15-week period.

Perhaps the best rememberedBritish wartime planes are theSpitfires and Hurricanes, with theWellington bomber coming aclose third. On the German sidethere were Fokkers, Heinkels andMesserschmidts.

The jet engine proved to beanother major step. Invented in1941, it revolutionised air travel.Speeds became considerablyfaster and nowadays com­paratively few piston enginedaeroplanes remain in commercialuse. The first pure jet transatlan­tic airliner was the De Havilland'Comet': this heralded the age ofthe long distance passenger jet.Instrumentation and controlshave kept pace with theaeroplane's progress: automaticpilots, inboard computers, ex­tremely complicated hydraulicsystems, radio signals, radar,direction beacons and the likehave all combined to improve thesafety and comfort of bothaviators and passengers. Theworld's airliners now operatemedium and long-haul routes atspeeds and with payloadsunheard of thirty years ago.

Thus in the space of sixty yearspassenger air transport hasdeveloped from a frail bi-plane,carrying four passengers at 100mph to the mighty Boeing 747'Jumbo', carrying 300 people atover 500 mph. While the 'Con­corde' can transport 100 peopleover 3,000 miles in two and a halfhours!

by fire in 1937, coupled with therapid advances in the faster wing­ed aircraft brought to an end theera of the long distance dirigible.

The first commercial heavier­than-air machines were con­verted war-time bombers, suchas the Vickers 'Vimy' , theHandley Page 0/400 and the DeHavilland DH4s and DH9s. Allaeroplanes at this time left thepilot exposed to the weather inan open cockpit but when theclosed cockpit began to make anappearance many pilots resistedits introduction, claiming thatthey would lose the 'feel' of theplane, and to a point they wereprobably correct. Rapid advancesin the sophistication and reliabili­ty of instruments soon won themover and piloting an aeroplanebecame a little more comfortable.1919 was a big year for the trailblazers of the world's air routes,as can be seen from the illustra­tion on the previous pages.

The world's first scheduledinternational' airline service wasinaugurated by Britain's AircraftTransport and Travel Ltd. bet­ween London and Paris inAugust 1919.

Throughout the 1920s develop­ment of aircraft and aero-enginesproceeded rapidly and by the endof that decade passengers wereflying in comparative luxury overlong distances to reliableschedules. Many of the airlinersthey flew in - such as thefamous Handley Page HP42, theGerman JU52m and the DouglasDC3 - have gone down asclassics of their type.

The 19305 saw the great era ofthe long distance flying boat.This was developed for use in theMiddle and Far East where therewere harbours and large riversbut very little in the way ofprepared airfields. Travel in thebig flying boats was leisurely,luxurious and adequate - untilwar came to demand larger,

Illustrated and written by Peter J. Stuckey

The origins of aviation do notdisappear back into the mists oftime. They are, on the contrary,quite clear and distinct. 'Foralthough men had been ex­perimenting with balloons forsome time, the history of aviationreally only dates back to roughlythe turn of the century.

The first aircraft capable ofsustained and controlled flightover relatively long distanceswere the dirigibles - lighter­than-air navigable airships. Muchof the early pioneering work ondirigibles was done by Count Fer­dinand von Zeppelin, after whomthe famous German dirigibles'Zeppelins' were named (thesecruised regularly over the NortnSea to bomb England during theFirst World War, causing muchdamage). Airships were,however, very slow andvulnerable in bad weather andthere was always the risk of firefrom the hydrogen gas withwhich they were filled.

Nevertheless, it was a Britishdirigible, the R34, which madethe first double crossing of theAtlantic, from East Fortune inScotland to New York and backin July 1919.

Heavier-than-air machineshad, by this time, been aroundfor a number of years - Bleriothad flown across the EnglishChannel in 1909 - and were justbeginning to start the rapid pro­gress that was to continue for thenext sixty years. The dirigibles,however, managed to stayaround for almost another twentyyears before giving way to theinevitable onrush of the fasteraeroplanes. In 1929, for instance,the 'Graf Zeppelin' was the firstaircraft to fly right round theworld and the German airship'Hindenburg' maintained aregular passenger service bet­ween Germany and New Yorkduring the 1930s. However, thedestruction of the 'Hindenburg'

The Growth of Aviation1919to1980

46 47

VOLCANIC HISTORY

"

.....

:.,'

".. '

'.', ,

by Peter Brooks

volcanic activity is a very longone. Evidence has been foundwhich has been dated, throughvery accurate scientificprocesses, to many thousands ofmillions of years. It has not, too,been limited to specific areas for,as the earth's crust plates movearound (see 'The Pacific Ocean isgetting smaller! in last year'sScout Annual) and the shape ofthe continents changes, sodifferent areas come to be sitedabove a 'hot spot' and gothrough a volcanic period beforethe relentless movement shiftsthem away to a quieter place.Indeed, Scotland has beenthrough several such phases andabout 325 million years ago (andthat is comparatively recent!) avolcano was active on the sitewhere Edinburgh now stands ...and this was just one of thehUl')dreds of volcanoes thatexisted in Scotland at that time.

It

.......

Volcanoes are not a recent'invention', the earth's history of

'o' ,'J 0( 0".,. ...

The day was a hot one, as itusually was during August besidethe Bay of Naples in the Mediter­ranean. People were going abouttheir normal business with nothought for the sleeping volcano,just a mile behind the town,which had shown no signs of lifeduring the town's six hundredyear existence. Life was pleasant.The year, so far, had been a goodone - in fact, everything wasnormal.

Suddenly, around noon, thepeace of that morning, August24th in the year 79 A.D., wasrudely shattered. MountVesuvius had decided it was timeto erupt!

A vast dense black column offumes and ash shot into the airand spread outwards into a hugecloud. It quickly covered the milebetween the mountain and thetown and hot cinders and ashbegan raining down on the pros­perous Roman town of Pompeii.This rain pf debris was tocontinue for three days withoutpause and by the time it hadfinished Pompeii was buriedunder a blanket of volcanic ashand cinders that was aboutsixteen feet thick. (That's aboutfive feet per day or two and a halfinches per hour!) The coastline,too, had altered greatly and thesea was now a mile and a halffrom the town's waterfronts andquays.

Most of the populationescaped, but many who tried toleave by boat found that theirboats quickly filled with ash andcinders and sank beneath them.About 2,000 of the population of20,000 are thought to haveperished.

,.11J.: ......

INTOVOLCANOES FALLTHREE CATEGORIES:They are said to be extinct whenthey have shown no sign ofactivity within historical time ­this varies around the world foralthough the Mediterraneanregion, for instance, has a historyof about 4,000 years, knownhistory in the Antarctic only datesback to the turn of the lastcentury. So the term 'historicaltime' is pretty flexible.

They are said to be dormantwhen there is no major volcanicactivity, although the vent (whichis what the actual opening iscalled) may give off fumes fromtime to time and they maybecome active at any time.

Or they are said to be activewhich, as it implies, means thatthey have a record of eruptingwithin historical time.

A 'NEW' VOLCANOA volcano is 'born' when lava(hot liquid rock) breaks throughthe earth's surface at a newlocation. The lava has travelledfrom below the crust via what isknown as the volcanic conduit.This has forced its way throughthe layers of rock forming theearth's crust by breaking throughthe weakest points, so it will notnecessarily have followed astraight line. Having brokenthrough the crust the lava willflow out in all directions and cool.More, still very hot, lava will forceits way through this cooling lavaand, in its turn, flow out andcool. This continues and first asmall hill and then a smallmountain will form as the layersof lava build up.

THE ERUPTIONSome volcanoes have just onevent which they use wheneverthey choose to erupt. Most,however, have many vents andthey tend to open a new vent foreach new eruption, so the olderthe volcano the more vents it islikely to have. This is oftencaused by the last of the lavafrom one eruption 'solidifying inthe vent as it cools. Then, when

50

it decides to erupt again, thefresh lava finds that it cannot getout as the vent is blocked by aplug of solid lava so it follows theline of least resistance (which isseldom through the lava above itland pushes its way out throughthe sides of the cone - a newvent is born.

As the lava is making its waydown the side of the cone,clouds of gas, vapour and steam

rise through the atmosphere,carrying with them ash andcinders. This dense black columnhas been known to risethousands of feet into the air.The gas, steam and vapour risequickly and, through the pull ofgravity, the heavier pieces of ashand cinder drop back to earth. Asthe temperature of theatmosphere cools the steam itcondenses and starts to fall as

rain. While this has beenhappening the dust and ash havebeen settling around the cone,forming a thick carpet. When therain hits this dust deposit itimmediately turns to mud,which, when the weight of rainand dust has built up to the rightlevel, will shoot off downhill atvery high speed - speeds of upto 90kph have been recorded.These mud-flows are highly

dangerous because of theirspeed. They are, in fact, far moredangerous and have caused farmore destruction and death thanlava has. It is a popular miscon­ception that it is the lava which isdangerous - admittedly the lavais exceedingly hot but it moves soslowly that people and animalsare able to get out of its wayeasily. The real menace is themud-flow.

The lava, usually travelling veryslowly, has been known to flowas far as fifty miles from the vent,and it is still so hot that itimmediately incinerates, or boils,everything in its path. So it isonly the immovable, like villages,that get caught by lava, peopleare relatively safe. The lava willretain its heat for many months,sometimes years, as it cools offonly very, very slowly.

= 2Y2 hours

looking at the map while doing itwill make the actual walkingmuch easier since you will bemore familiar with what to expectfrom the countryside around you,and you may even have foundsome interesting-looking spotswhich are worth a visit.

Duly kitted out, and with all thepreparations made, it just leavesthe actual setting out and whereyou are going and these subjectsare covered in the fourth and finalPart of this series. Part Four ­Setting Off and Where To Go?can be found on page 61.

First, measure the distance to be walked.

Use of this is really quite simple.Here's how to do it:

END

Second, add the total height climbed, by counting howmany contours you cross going uphill.

Then divide the total distance (each way) by yourspeed, to get the number of hours needed for walkinglevel.

Knowing the contour spacing gives the total heightto climb. Allow an hour for every 500 metres.

Add the two times + 1 hour for lunch = total timeneeded.

road or stream. Use Naismith'sRule again to tell you how longeach stage should take and writeit down in a list, together with thestart and finish points for eachstage (and their grid references).You should make at least twocopies of this list. Also notedown on the list something ofwhat you plan to do if anemergency or bad weather stopsyou doing the whole walk.

All this sounds a bit difficult atfirst but it needs to be done forany walk in 'wild' countryside,and it is really much easier thanyou may at first think. Also,

START

NAISMITH'S RULE

After a while you may find thatyou actually walk or climb a littlefaster or slower than this and canallow for that, but it is still a veryuseful way of estimating whetheryou are taking on too much orplanning something that will beover in a few hours when youreally want a whole day out!

Next, plan out the route inmore detail (assuming that youhave now found one that suitsyou), breaking it down intoshorter 'stages' between thelandmarks along your way ­such things as a fork in the pathor where you cross a moorland

You can do this either with a ruler, or by marking the'legs' on a piece of paper, along the edge, and thenmeasuring that with a ruler.

::::::=-~~~...~--:_...._--- FOO1krn- .... +- ...- - .... .... ...- \- - ·....lA~ '-- ....~~ /- ....., ,-.,.. ....

\ J ........ _ "" - .....&,\ 'llo

..... ""

You can then estimate howlong you will need for the walk byusing a 'rule of thumb' known as'Naismith's Rule' which goes asfollows:

Allow one hour for every fourkilometres (two and a halfmiles) walked and one hour forevery five hundred metres(fifteen hundred feet) that youclimb. Add one hour for lunch.This will be approximately thetotal time needed for yourwalk.

This is quite simple to use. ..Suppose that your route plantakes you over two hills, climbingfour hundred metres up the firstand another six hundred metresup the second. In addition, themeasured distance is ten kilo­metres. Naismith's Rule thengives us:

For distance walkedjQ4

For height climbed400 + 600

500 = 2 hours

Plus lunch time = 1 hourTotal. . . . . .. = 5Y2 hours

road you should have worked outcarefully just where you are goingthat day, how long it should takeyou, and what you will do if badweather, or any other problem,stops you being able to completethe whole walk. It isn't anythinglike as awful as it may sound.Planning is part of the fun ofwalking and it should involve allwho will be going on the walk(for safety, you should have atleast four in the party, and notmore than seven or eight or youwill go too slowly). If everyoneknows where they are going andwhat to expect you are all thatmuch better prepared to meetany problems.

There are lots of skills in routeplanning, but the basics are veryeasy to learn and to use. First,choose your route from the mapusing footpaths and other 'rightsof way' to be sure you will be ableto go where you want. Then sitdown and measure the followingfrom your map:

*How long your route is;*How much you will climb(count the contours crossedgoing up - we are notinterested in those crossedgoing down).

In the two previous parts 0

this eries we have d alwith the it you will neeand the essentials that mun ver be forgotten. Wcontinue, then, with th

If you read any books aboutexplorers and mountaineers, onething that you will notice is thatthey are nearly always preparedfor most of the problems thatthey meet. Yes, they sometimesmeet with something that stopsthem, but they have only got thatfar because they have made thenecessary preparations to enst1rethat they are not held up by therelatively small problems whichalways occur. It's not much goodsetting off on an expedition tothe Himalayas if you begin byleaving the food behind!

None of us can prepare forabsolutely everything that mighthappen, but at least we can beready to deal with the more likelyproblems (and bad weather iscertainly always likely). Part ofthe fun of walking is looking for­ward to it before you go and theplanning and preparation are aportion of that.

Before you ever set foot off the

52 53

Take a weaver straw, beginning atone end, and lay it diagonally acrossthe cross; then bend it behind one ofthe arms.

4

2

2

Take the second of these two and layit in turn over two straws.

THE FIVE-STRAW PLAIT

THE BRIDGET CROSS

Take five (or more) straws, tie themfirmly with cotton about an inch fromone end, and bend them out at rightangles.

Continue doing this until the weavingreaches the ends of the four arms.The loose end can be tucked or stuckinconspicuously into the weave.

Begin with four strong straws, stillwith their ears, and lay them out tomake a cross with four equal arms.(A piece of cotton holding the centretogether makes later work easier).

3

3

1

1

Bring the weaver diagonally acrossagain, and bend it back behind thenext arm.

horseshoe (with or withoutwhips), the Pickering chalice, theNorthamptonshire horn, theCambridgeshire.bell, the TopshamCross from Devon, the Essexterret, and the Durhamchandelier. Other designs do notbelong to any particular area:Mother Earth is common, and sois the cornucopia or 'horn ofplenty'; you may also findcrossed keys, sea horses, orsimply abstract designsrepresenting nothing inparticular.

It will take you less than fiveminutes to learn to plait, and thenyou can have literally hours offun. A packet of straws costsabout 20p for a hundred, and willmake a fair sized dolly. Have ago. Have fun.

Cornucopiaof Fruit

54

John Deft

If you have ever studied the decorations in your parishchurch at Harvest Festival time, you may have seenvarious models made from intricately woven straw. Thesehave various names depending on where you live, butmostly they are called corn dollies. Nowadays they areused simply as decorations, but at one time they weremuch more: a thanks-offering to the gods of the harvest,and a propitiation to ensure a good crop next year.

Some of the designs are very elaborate, taking hourseven for an expert to make, but others are quite simple.The best way to learn, of course, is to be taught bysomeone who knows the skill already, but if you cannotfind such a person then our descriptions should help.

Obviously you will need to get can obviously be made to anysome straw. If you know a size you want. If you use paperfriendly farmer, ask him to give straws, there will be no ears, ofyou (or sell you) some stalks of course: woollen tassels are awheat a couple of weeks before poor substitute, but better thanthey are ready for harvesting. A nothing. When you get to thefew you will want with the ears end of the weaver straw, it isintact, but most you will use only simple enough to slide anotherfor weaving. 'Townies' will have inside - at least half an inchto make do with ordinary drinking otherwise it will probably comestraws (the paper sort, not out again and carry onplastic) or art straws (good but weaving.expensive). You will also want For the traditional 'Nek' dolly,some cotton, a pair of scissors, and many of the other designs, aand maybe some ribbon for different plaiting technique isdecoration. Paper straws can be used. This is commonly doneused straight from the packet, with five straws, but can be asbut real straw must be worked few as four or as many as eight ordamp - soak it for about half an nine - the method is exactly thehour and leave it wrapped in a same. Practise the basic plaitdamp towel until needed. before starting on anything more

Probably the simplest dolly to complicated.make is the Bridget Cross, an Once you have learned,Irish design. The diagrams here though, there is no limit to theshow you how this is woven - it possibilities. The Nek we have

already mentioned it isbasically a long cylinder ofweaving, with ears at one endand a curved handle at the other.The Drop dolly is similar, but iswider in the middle and hollowinstead of solid. There are manytraditional local designs too: theNorfolk lantern, the Suffolk

ClRNIJ'llllS

Our largest wild animals in Britain are the deer, with their charac­teristic combination of hooves and antlers. It can be great fun lookingfor deer, on hikes or on days out from camp, and it is always worthmaking detailed notes of any sightings or experiences.

with photographs by Eric Hosking FRPS

I first watched Red Deer, our largestland mammals, while camping atGreat Tower in the Lake District. Itwas late spring or early summer, sothe stags were silent and mostly ontheir own in small herds and in verywell-defined territory. The hinds,who had also been in their own herdsuntil May-June, had separated tocalve in secluded spots in the highbracken. Most would have one calfbut some would manage two.

So long as the wind did not carryany trace of Man's scent to them, thestags drowsed away in the warmsun, well hidden. Clouds of flies,always a problem around the Lakes inthe summer, indicated where a stag

might be lying. Sometimes the smellof excreta was not very pleasant onthe breeze. We didn't disturb thedeer and made our way back tocamp.

Up in the wilds of Scotland and inthe Isles I have had the same sort ofexperience ... stags lying unseen,with great clouds of flies and a richsmell on the air in the summer sun.

The October rut is a wonderfultime for watching Red Deer. Thestags, silent and moody during theannual growth of antlers, leave their

Red Deer (Cervus elaphusl

bachelor herds and start fightingamong themselVes. They go offthen and wallow about in theswampiest, muddy pools they canfind and cover themselves in thesmelly stuff. Best of all, if they canfind them, are peaty bogs with lesswater but lots of mud that cakes off.Great roaring starts, or belling as it iscalled, which happens as early asthree years of age.

The stags round up their harems ofhinds throughout October, and thestag' in charge of each group pads

57

Fallow Deer (Dama dama)

Fallow Deer (Dama dama)

Fallow Deer (Dama dama)

exceeds four feet in length. The doeis smaller still, weighing about 46pounds at maturity. The tail is veryshort but the ears are large with longhairs and white insides. The antlersare only eight or nine inches long,almost straight and usually three­tined at most.

The Fallow Deer are well-known inBritain as parkland deer. No onereally knows when they first came tous but many do escape from time totime and you are likely to comeacross them almost anywhere. AFallow buck is about three feet at theshoulders, the hind is shorter. Thereare two kinds or forms. The spottedone loses its spots in winter and has agrey coat but the darker form is- verydark-brown in winter.

Like all deer, Fallows have aprominent amount of white on therump, which serves as a recognitionsignal when alarmed, so that the herddashes off closely. following thewhite patch in front.

The fawns, one or two, are usuallyborn in late spring while the bucksare shedding their antlers - newones will grow by the end of thesummer. Fallow Deer antlers arepalmate, the main part forming aplate like the palm of a hand, with thepoints, or snags as they are called,sticking out like fingers. Fallow Deer,including many ferals or escapeesfrom parkland, are found all overSouthern England. They. are rare inWales and in the Highlands.

The rut goes on in October as withRed Deer, with much staking of terri­tory claims by scent and snorting.Fights may be quite savage but Fallowhinds never co-operate, and tend towander about different territories, somating is a bit of a muddle. In the endit all seems to work out well.

Red Deer (Cervus elaphus)

Only the Red Deer and Roe Deerare true natives of Britain. The RoeDeer is rarely seen in its nativeScotland and the wilder north ofEngland, but there are plenty aboutin many other secluded estates andparkland places, introduced by Man.

Roe Deer are active by night andmove swiftly and skilfully in densecover. A Roe is small compared tothe Red Deer. The mature roebuck istwo-and-a-half feet at the shoulder,weighs about 70 pounds and rarely

Red Deer (Cervus elaphus) - stagwith newly growing antlers

Red Deer calves stand withinminutes of birth, start running a fewhours later and remain with theirmothers for up to ten months, whenthey start browsing and grazing ontheir own.

A Red Deer stag is up to eight feetlong in head and body and may be upto four-and-a-half feet high at theshoulder, the hind being appreciablysmaller. In October, the mainbreeding season or 'rut', the maturestags are a magnificent sight withtheir manes and a 43-inch spread ofantlers. The antlers start when thestag is between one and two yearsold and he is called a knobber. In hissecond year he grows a pair of spikesand becomes a pricket. Year by yearhe adds mor~ points or tines, as theyare called, until he reaches maturitywith no less than twelve great points.This is called a royal, the wholebusiness from knobbier to royaltaking six years. Actually, a stag canoften be active and mature at fouryears of age but the older stags keepthem well in order.

round it unceasingly, roaring andbellowing great defiance at any otherstag who dares to approach. A lot ofskirmishing and antler-fighting goeson at this time. It is quite funny towatch a much younger stag with nohopes of a harem, nip in smartlywhen one of these contests is goingon and mate with the nearest hind.As soon as the great stag sees him heforgets his battle and chases theyoung rival over the horizon. Greatstuff for wildlife watchers!

Antlers are solid bone. Stags castthem between February and April,new ones soon growing and beingcomplete, according to the age of thestag, by September. During growth,when the stag is 'in velvet', theantlers are covered with· a velvetyskin which is cast in the rut. The stagrubs his antlers on trees andbranches until the new antlers areshiny and very hard. The 'velvet'hangs down in long strips, dies anddrops off. It is a fascinating aspect ofanimal behaviour and well worthstudying in more detail.

beginner. There is plenty ofscope for adventure in the moor­lands of Dartmoor and Exmoor,the Pennines and the North York­shire Moors. Mid-Wales has a lotof good walking, too.

Don't expect to climb everymountain that you see - andalways ask advice from otherswhen you can. Remember thatpreparation matters, and whenthings get tough don't hesitate toturn back or take an easier orshorter way down. There is noloss of face in turning backbecause of bad weather or otherproblems, however disappointedyou may be. The hills and moorswill still be there another day.

you must do is let this personknow - especially if you havehad to cut your walk short andhave come out at a differentplace to the intended one. Un­fortunately, every year someparties fail to do this andsearches are made for peoplethat may well be sleeping snuglyin some barn or back in their ownbeds. Don't let your party be oneof them, please!

Where To GoThis depends on where you

can get to, of course. There isopen countryside around muchof England and Wales, Scotlandabounds with it, although muchof Scotland is not for the

In this, the final part, of thisseries Dave Budgen looks atactually setting off andwhere you might go to findthe sort of country suitablefor those first few walks.

The earlier parts, covering: TheKit, Essentials and Preparationcan be found on pages 8, 27 and52, respectively.

Well, having talked about allthe work to be done beforehand,what about the fun of walkingitself? Having done all theplanning, assembled all our kitand put on our boots - howabout some walking then?

So, here we are at the start ofthe track that will lead us up ontothe moors. But wait, there's onelast thing to be done. Rememberthat we needed at least twocopies of the route plan? Youshould have at least one copy inthe party, but another copyshould be left behind with some­one who also knows what timeyou set out. Then, if you fail toreturn within a reasonable time ofyour expected arrival time theycan organise a party to come outand look for you - and becauseof that planning they will knowwhere you should be, too.

So, of course, as soon as youget back down, the first thing

Rem able'Deckl.'

---,---'WireMesh

Put a piece of telt on the table,andturn the mould upside down on tothis. Press it down - this willtransfer the pulp to the felt. Removethe mould, put another piece of felton top, and repeat the whole thing,keeping the vat well stirred andadding extra pulp as necessary.

When the felt-and-pulp sandwichis as thick as you want, put woodenboards at the top and bottom andsqueeze out as much wate'r aspossible, either in a press or bystanding on it and carefully treadingup and down. Then very carefullyremove the sheets of pulp and laythem out separately to dry. (Beforethey get quite dry, pile them upbetween the boards and press themunder a weight overnight - this willkeep them flat).

This process will give you a roughpaper rather like blotting paper intexture. The simplest way to get anice finish is to get a spray can of thestuff that makes shirts feel like new,and to spray and iron the paper.Experiment with different rawmaterials, different colours, and soon. Make your own writing paper, orprint your Patrol Newsletter on paperthat you have made yourselves. It'sall good fun!

Now strain the mixture through asieve, and grind down any really largelumps that remain. Put the sieve andits contents carefully into a bowl ofwarm water, and stir the wateraround gently. For coloured paper,now is the time to add any colouring,otherwise it will keep its naturalcolour - usually a dirty grey! Whenyou have treated all the pulp in thisway, put it into a convenientcontainer.

Fill the vat close to the top with

warm water and add several cupfulsof pulp. Dip in your mould (withdecklel two or three inches below thesurface, keeping it horizontal. Shakeit gently from side to side, and fromfront to back, and then lift it out. Tipit gently to one corner to pour off anyexcess water, and take off thedeckle.

John Deft

Paper of the sort we knowtoday was first made by theChinese in about 100 AD, and forthe first 1500 years was madeentirely by hand. Althoughnowadays almost all paper ismade mechanically, it is stillpossible to produce home-madepaper with patience and a verysmall amount of equipment.

The one thing you will need tomake is a mould. This is an oblongwooden frame, with a piece of wiremesh fastened to the top. A wooden'deckle' - another "loose framefitting around it - will help give yourpaper reasonably clear edges. (If youwant your paper to contain a water­mark, then just fasten an extra pieceof wire of the right shape on top ofthe wire mesh.l

You will also need a vat - a squareplastic washing-up bowl is ideal, solong as there is enough room in it forthe mould to lie flat; several pieces offelt (or old blankets cut into squares);two wooden boards such as bread­boards; a large old saucepan; a sieve,and one or two containers of varioussizes.

Paper is made from vegetablefibres. Most modern paper is madefrom wood, but for home-madepaper it is best to stick to leaves,grasses (especially coarse plants likecow parsley) and so on. Old cottonand linen rags make very good paperbut need a lot of work. Of course, ifyou prefer you can 'cheat' by re­cycling used paper - a very usefulthing to do in any case.

The process is the same in eithercase. Cut or tear th.e material intosmall pieces - if Mother will let youborrow the blender attachment onher kitchen mixer it will save time,but not for rags - and put it into alarge saucepan. When the saucepanis more or less full, cover the rawmaterial with water, and add atablespoon of caustic soda for everytwo pints of water. (It is best to wearrubber gloves for this, as causticsoda burns the skin unless washedoff immediately). Bring the pan to theboil and simmer until the mixtureloses all shape - probably three orfour hours, so make sure it does notboil dry.

"Running an Inter-Patrol BarbecueCompetition? Invite the Cub ScoutLeader to bring the Sixers along toact as the 'judges'. They would enjoytaking part in an activity with yourTroop. Go on - ask them!

meal and lay It out flat. Place the slic­ed onion nngs as a 'bed' for the restof the food. If anything is going to beburned, let it be the onion rings,which are there mainly to give flavourto the meal Place your sausage ontop of the onion rings and then in­clude the vegetables.

Bnng the two sides of foil overyour meal and fold them togetherthree times, making sure that there isan air space above the food. Twistthe open ends of the cylinder youhave formed so that it looks ratherlike a Christmas cracker. It is impor­tant to leave an air space above thefood, for you have now madeyourself a sort of primitive pressurecooker.

Place the foil container on theembers of charcoal and cook.

foil. When they are cooked, splitthem open and insert a knob of butter, salt and pepper to taste.

Cook apples in the same way, butbefore you wrap each apple in foilcore it and stuff the inside with cur­rants. a little sugar and a pat ofbutter. They are great!

Next cook a complete meal Inaluminium foil. Slice some onionrings and dice whatever vegetablesyou are able to use - potatoes. car­rots and so on When dicing thevegetables remember that carrotstake about three times as long tocook as potatoes so the carrot piecesshould be one third the thickness ofthe potatoes. Prick sausages if youare going to use these, too.

Take a piece of foil that is largeenough to parcel up your complete

Scout Headquarters or in someone'sback garden."Inviting the nearest Girl Guide Patrolto join your Patrol for an eveningbarbecue - on your local camp site,perhaps?

Spit roasting over charcoal re­quires little equipment. Make yourspit-roaster using two forked sticksas supports, with a greenstick laidacross the top. Make sure the twoforked sticks are firmly pushed intothe ground and are steady.

Chicken legs can be speared ontothe greenstick. Baste with warm fatand turn the stick every no\.'\( andthen to ensure that the legs are cooked evenly though. Take care whenbasting - if too much hot fat dripsonto the charcoal this may flare upand burn the meat.

How about ..."Holding a Patrol Barbecue, whenyou invite your Scout Leader and hiswife to an evening meal? You will notneed much space and could run thison a patch of ground near your

Now try some al4minium foil cook­ing. Do make sure that you havecharcoal embers and not flame forfoil cooking; flame makes the foilgranulatf> and produces a hole in thefoil which defeats the object of thismethod of cooking, which is basedon the principle of the pressurecooker, as you will see.

Try cooking potatoes In theirJa<..kets. Wrap the potatoes in­dividually in two layers of cooking

the end of the greenstick it will stay Inplace.

Turn the stick slowly to allow thetwist to cook evenly.

When the twist is nice and crusty.serve it on a plate. Slit it open and eatwith butter or Jam spread Inside.

Twists are delicious when pipinghot!

After about five minutes you canhelp the charcoal to burn more quickIy by lightly pumping air through it.But take care; you are trying tospread the flames and not blow themout with a hurricane. Pump slowlyand gently.

As you add more charcoal, theburning will spread, until the base ufthe dustbin-lid IS filled with burningcharcoal. It takes about an hour toproduce sufficient coals for a Patrolof six Scouts to be able to start cook­ing around the same dustbin-lid.

While the fire is building up, youcan start preparing the food youwant to cook. Sausages ongreensticks are good to experimentwith.

Cut greensticks for each memberof the Patrol - with permission.Sticks cut from many garden shrubsare ideal, provided the owner of thegarden is prepared to have hiS shrubspruned in this way!

Peel the greenstick and hold it overthe hot charcoal to bake it dry,twisting it round as you do so. Thiswill dry out the sap. With the stickwarm, this will help to cook anythingyou wrap around it.

When the charcoal turns white,spear a sausage onto the end of yourgreenstick and hold it over the char­coal until it is cooked. Keep turningthe stick so lhat each part of thesausage is cooked evenly.

Now try some twists. Make a mix­ture of self-raising flour and water,with a pinch of salt to taste. Do notmake your mixture too wet, nor toodry, for that matter. It should bepliable so that when you curl it round

garden, you will not be very popular.Raising the lid helps to bring it to alevel where you can be comfortablewhen you are cooking and about afoot off the ground is usually theright height.

If you are cooking in the garden oron grass it is best tb be doubly sureby putting down a layer of sand orearth underneath the dustbin-lid.

To light your fire you Will need asupply of charcoal, a few firelightersand an air pump of some sort theair bed variety with a flexible tubeworks quite well.

Place a firelighter at the base of thedustbin-lid and surround this withsmall pieces of charcoal. Graduallyadd more (and larger) pieces of charcoal and allow these to catch light,too.

Ron Jeffriesshows you how to...

Charcoal is readily available fromcamping shops and is an idealmethod of cooking on a hike, onTroop Night or in your back garden.

A metal dustbin-lid makes a goodcontainer for the fire - but do makesure you use a metal dustbin-lid andnot a plastic one - for obviousreasons!

You will also need some bricksto raise the upturned dustbin-lid offthe ground. This will balance the lidand stop it from rocking about. If thelid is placed directly on the groundthe heat generated will scorch thesurface underneath, and if this hap­pens to be the lawn in your back

Ma eaCharcoalOustbin­lid fire

62 Illustrations by Doug Mountford

c4ti1e ~ammUtlannual 1981

SBN 723565856