The Social Context View of Sociology

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The Social Context View of Sociology

Marty ZusmanProfessor of Sociology

Indiana University Northwest

David KnoxProfessor of Sociology

East Carolina University

Tracie GardnerLecturer

California State University, Northridge

Carolina Academic PressDurham, North Carolina

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Copyright © 2009Marty Zusman

David KnoxTracie Gardner

All Rights Reserved

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Zusman, Marty E.The social context view of sociology / by Marty Zusman, David Knox, Tracie

Gardner.p. cm.

Includes bibliographical references and index.ISBN 978-1-59460-572-7 (alk. paper)

1. Sociology. I. Knox, David, 1943- II. Gardner, Tracie. III. Title.

HM585.Z87 2009301--dc22

2008019581Carolina Academic Press

700 Kent StreetDurham, North Carolina 27701

Telephone (919) 489-7486Fax (919) 493-5668www.cap-press.com

Printed in the United States of America

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This book is dedicated to the thousands of university students who havebeen exposed to the social context approach. Over the years they have praisedthe approach as giving them immediate insight into what sociology is as a dis-cipline, what meaning the context approach has in their lives and how theyhave applied it to their lives. Their encouragement has resulted in bringing thesocial context approach into mainstream sociology.

Marty Zusman—“I dedicate this book to my wife, Jane. Without her insis-tence and encouragement this book would not have seen daylight. I also thankmy family; Rochelle, Amie, Steven, Andrew, Jackie, Julie, John and Jennifer.I would also like to thank Kristie Gilmore who typed the early chapters of themanuscript. Finally, on a personal note, I was a student of Marvin Olsen whoonce told me, ‘If you want to learn what sociology is all about, think of thelevels of social organization.’ Thanks, Marv, as a teacher and scholar, your ideaslive on.”

David Knox — “To Cameron Emmott who is taking her first steps into theworld of social context.”

Tracie Gardner—“To my daughter, Ellen Rose, who continually inspires mewith her innocent wisdom.”

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Contents in Brief

Part I. The Sociological Approach

Chapter 1 • The Social Context Perspective 3

Part II. The Basis of Social Context

Chapter 2 • Culture 25

Chapter 3 • Socialization 49

Chapter 4 • Social Order and Deviance 71

Part III. Less Organized Contexts

Chapter 5 • Population and Human Ecology 99

Chapter 6 • Collective Behavior and Social Movements 127

Part IV. More Organized Contexts

Chapter 7 • Groups 153

Chapter 8 • Social Class, Race, and Ethnicity 177

Chapter 9 • Gender and Age 203

Chapter 10 • Families and Communities 225

Chapter 11 • Education and Religion 249

Chapter 12 • Politics and Economics 275

Chapter 13 • Networks and Societies 295

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Contents

Part IThe Sociological Approach

Chapter 1 • The Social Context Perspective 3Social Context: An Aid to Understanding 3Sociological Theories 5

Functionalism 6Conflict Perspective 6Symbolic Interactionism 7

Social Organization Terms 7Position 7Status 8Role 8Norm 8

Social Organization Framework 9Structure 9Process 10

Types of Social Organization 11Populations 11Collective Behavior/Social Movements 12Social Class 13Groups 14Families 14Communities 15Associations 15Networks 16Societies 16Confederated Systems 18

Organization of the Book 18Pervasive Social Organization/Social Context Theme 18

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Outcome Predictions 20Popular Beliefs and Scientific Data 21

References 21

Part IIThe Basis of Social Context

Chapter 2 • Culture 25Aspects of Culture 26

Material vs. Non-Material Culture 26Symbols 26Values 27Norms 28Sanctions 29

Cultural Constraints 30Language 30Biology 32Environment 32

Cultural Diversity 33Subcultures 33Countercultures 34Cross-Cultures 35Culture Shock 35Ethnocentrism 36Cultural Relativism 36

Cultural Change 37Structural Changes 37Inventions 38Discoveries 38Diffusion 38

Culture and Social Organization 39Populations 39Collective Behavior/Social Movements 39Social Classes 40Groups 40Families 42Associations 42Communities 44Networks 45Societies 45

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Popular Beliefs and Scientific Data:Love Is Immune to Social Control 45

References 47

Chapter 3 • Socialization 49Socialization in Perspective 50

Sociology 50Socialization: Eight Sociological Facts 50Biology 53Psychology 54

Structure and Socialization 55Position 56Status 56Role 56Norm 57

Process and Socialization 57Primary Socialization 58Anticipatory Socialization 58Resocialization 58Reverse Socialization 59

Socialization and Social Organization 60Populations 60Collective Behavior/Social Movements 61Social Classes 61Groups 62Families 63Associations 64Communities 65Networks 65Societies 65

Popular Beliefs and Scientific Data:You Can’t Be Brainwashed 66

References 67

Chapter 4 • Social Order and Deviance 71Social Organizations versus the Individual 71

Social Organizations Precede the Individual 72Social Organizations Demand Conformity to Their Expectations 72Social Organizations Endure 73

CONTENTS xi

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Getting Individuals to Fit into Social Organizations 73Initial Group Membership 74Maintenance of Group Membership 74Interpersonal Approval 74Mutual Interdependence 75Coercion 75Rewards/Punishments 76Survival 76

Theory and Social Order 77Functionalist Theory 77Conflict Theory 77Symbolic Interactionist Theory 78

Deviance 78Definition of Deviance 78Theoretical Views of Deviance 79

Social Organizations:Maintenance of Order and Control of Deviance 80Population 80Collective Behavior/Social Movements 83Social Classes 84Groups 86Families 87Associations 88Communities 90Networks 91Societies 92

Popular Beliefs and Scientific Data:Capital Punishment Deters Crime 93

References 95

Part IIILess Organized Contexts

Chapter 5 • Population and Human Ecology 99The Study of Population 99

Demography 100Human Ecology 105

Population and Social Organization 106Collective Behavior 106

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Social Classes 107Groups 107Families 107Communities 109Associations 109Networks 109Societies 110

Population, Social Organizations, and Social Control 110Birth Control Strategies 110Death Control Strategies 112Migration Control Strategies 113

Coping with Environmental Destruction 113Air Pollution 114Water Pollution 117Food Contamination 118

Popular Beliefs and Scientific Data: Overpopulation and Societal Destruction 121Environmental Problems and Resource Scarcity 121Problems Associated with Below-Replacement Fertility 122

References 123

Chapter 6 • Collective Behavior and Social Movements 127Collective Behavior 128

Aggregations and Collective Behavior 128The Effects of Collective Behavior on Established

Social Organizations 128Crowds 129

Crowds as Social Organizations 129Types of Crowds 130

Dispersed Groups 131Crazes, Fads, and Fashions 132Panics and Mass Hysteria 133

Public Opinion in Mass Society 134The Nature of Public Opinion 134Mass Publics 136Rumor 136Propaganda 137

Research Methods Used to Study Collective Phenomena 139General Theories 139

CONTENTS xiii

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Specific Theories of Crowd Behavior 140Collective Behavior and Social Organization:

The Writer’s Strike 141Population 141Social Class 142Groups 142Families 142Communities 142Associations 142Networks 143Societies 143

Social Movements 143Stages toward Action 144Absolute and Relative Deprivation 145Life Cycle of Social Movements 145Types of Social Movements 146

Popular Beliefs and Scientific Data:Willpower, Veganism and Social Movement 147

References 148

Part IVMore Organized Contexts

Chapter 7 • Groups 153Foundation of Social Organization 153

Categories 153Groups 154

Types of Groups 155Primary and Secondary Groups 156In-Groups and Out-Groups 157Reference Groups 158Voluntary and Involuntary Groups 158Membership Groups 159

Groups: Theory and Research Methods 159Theories 160Research Design 163Collecting and Analyzing Data 163

Relations within Groups: Group Dynamics 164Leadership Patterns 164

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Group Conformity 166Groupthink 166Functions 166

Variables Affecting Group Dynamics 167Size 167Physical Conditions 168Demographic Variables 168

The Overall Importance of Groups 168Group Composition Affects Survival: A Research Example 169

Order versus Disorder: Relations between Groups 170Gender 170Race/Ethnicity 171Age 171

Groups and Social Organization 172Population 172Aggregations 172Social Class 172Families 173Communities 173Associations 173Networks 173Societies 173

Popular Beliefs and Scientific Data: Jury Members Have Already Made Up Their Minds—Juries Don’t Deliberate 174

References 175

Chapter 8 • Social Class, Race, and Ethnicity 177The Nature of Social Stratification 178

Social Inequality 178Social Stratification 178

Examples of Social Stratification 179Socioeconomic Status (SES) 179Race/Ethnicity 180Religion 181Possessions 181Social Attitudes/Values 182

Stratification Systems 182Closed Stratification Systems 182Open Stratification Systems 183

CONTENTS xv

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Social Mobility 184Vertical Mobility 184Intragenerational Mobility 184Intergenerational Mobility 185Structural Mobility 186

Social Class and Social Organization 186Populations 186Collective Behavior 187Groups 187Families 188Communities 189Associations 190Networks 190Societies 191

Race and Ethnicity 191Race 191Ethnic Background 193Other Social Markers of Social Class 193

Majority and Minority Status 195Race, Ethnicity and Social Organization 196

Population 196Collective Behavior/Social Movements 196Social Classes 197Groups 198Families 198Communities 199Associations 199Networks 200Societies 200

Popular Beliefs and Scientific Data:Black Men Abandon Their Family Ties 201

References 201

Chapter 9 • Gender and Age 203Gender and Age in America 203

Definitions of Gender 204Definitions of Androgyny 205Definitions of Age 205

Differences in Gender and Age 207

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Roles and Statuses of Women, Men, and the Elderly 207Income Differences 208Occupational Differences 208Education Differences by Gender and Age 209Gender, Age and Physical, Psychological and

Sociological Health 210Theory and Research Methods: Gender and Age Inequality 211

Theories of Gender Inequality 211Theories of Aging Inequality 212Data Collection 213Analysis 213Conclusions 214

Gender/Age Inequality and Social Organization 214Population 214Social Movements 215Social Class 216Groups 217Families 217Communities 218Associations 218Networks 219Societies 219

Order versus Disorder 220Care and Abuse of the Elderly 220The Possibility of Equality between Men and Women 221Adversarial Movements and the “Oppressed” Majority 221

Popular Beliefs and Scientific Data:Men Drink More Alcohol Than Women 221

References 222

Chapter 10 • Families and Communities 225Conceptualizing the Family 225

Definitions and Universality of the Family 226Structural Family Patterns 227

Number of Partners 227Extended Families 227Authority Patterns 228Descent Systems 229Residence Systems 229

CONTENTS xvii

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The Process of Change 230Effects of Industrialization on the Family 230From Traditional to Contemporary Marriages 231Single Parent Families 231

Families and Social Organization 232Population 232Collective Behavior/Social Movements 233Social Classes 233Groups 233Communities 234Associations 234Networks 235Societies 235

Popular Beliefs and Scientific Data:Five Myths about Relationships 236

Community Defined 237Geographic Area 237Social Interaction 238Common Ties 238

Types of Communities 238Urban Communities 238Suburban Communities 239Rural Communities 239

Urban, Suburban and Rural Life 239The Ecological and Structural Patterns 240Structural Patterns of Urban Development 240The Process of Change 241

Communities and Social Organization 242Population 242Social Movements 242Social Class 243Groups 244Families 244Associations 245Networks 245Societies 246

References 246

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Chapter 11 • Education and Religion 249Education: The Formal Socialization Agency 249

Definition of Education 249Formal Organizational Association 250Bureaucratic Structure 250

Structure of Education in the U.S. 251Elementary, Secondary, and College 251Public, Private, and Alternatives 251Forced Educational Socialization 252Separation of Church and State 253Paid Educators and Credentialing 253Basics versus Progressive Educational Curriculum 253

Outcomes of Education 254Scholastic Achievement 254Occupational Success, Income, and Mobility 255Political Attitudes 255

Popular Beliefs and Scientific Data:The Myth of Education and Equality 256

Theoretical Views of Education 257Functional Theory 257Conflict Theory 257Interactionist Theory 258Other Theories: Exchange and Dramaturgical 259

Educational Associations and Social Organization 259Population 259Collective Behavior 260Social Class 260Groups 261Families 261Communities 261Associations 262Networks 262Societies 262

Religion Defined 263What Is Religion? 263Formal Religious Organizations 264

Major Western Religions 265Protestantism 265

CONTENTS xix

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Catholicism 265Judaism 265

Cultural Differences in Religion 266Symbols, Values, Norms, Rituals, and Sanctions 266Religious Leaders 267

Religion and Social Organization 268Population 268Collective Behavior 269Social Class 269Groups 269Families 270Communities 270Associations 271Networks 271Societies 271

References 272

Chapter 12 • Politics and Economics 275Power, Legitimacy and Authority 276

Traditional 276Charismatic 276Rational-Legal 277

Political Systems of Power 277Monarchy 277Democracy 278Totalitarianism 278

Economic Systems of Property Control 279Capitalism 279Communism 280Socialism 280

Popular Beliefs and Scientific Data: Politics and Homophobia 282Political and Economic Relationships 282

Political-Economic Culture 282Large Corporations 283PACS and Interest Groups 283Governmental Regulations of Industry and Trade 284Government Control of the Money Supply 285Government, Military, and Industrial Triad 285

Politics and Work 286Unionization 286

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Mediation and Arbitration 288Political/Economic Associations and Social Organization 288

Population 288Social Movements and Crowd Behavior 289Social Class 289Groups 290Families 290Communities 291Associations 291Networks 292Societies 292

References 293

Chapter 13 • Networks and Societies 295Networks: The Lost Area of Study 295

Networks: Definition and Types 296Networks versus Groups 299Developing and Sustaining Networks 299

Networks and Social Organizations 301Population 301Collective Behavior 301Social Class 302Groups 302Families 303Communities 303Associations 304Societies 304

Society: The Largest Element of Social Organization 305The Elements of Society 306

Territorial Boundary Maintenance 306Independence 306Power and Decision Authority 306Allegiance 307Common Culture 307

Popular Beliefs and Scientific Data:Culture Is Unique to Humans 308

Classification of Societies 308Size 308Subsistence Strategies 309Developmental Changes 310

CONTENTS xxi

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Societies and Social Organization 312Population 312Collective Behavior 313Social Class 313Groups 314Family 314Community 315Associations 315Networks 315

References 316

Index 319

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