The Spanish-American War and the

Root Reforms

The problem in Cuba . . .

• Significant U.S. economic interests in Cuba.• Revolution (off and on) in Cuba since 1868.

– Resumes in 1895

• U.S. interests want stability.• 1896: General Valeriano Weyler sent to

suppress the rebellion.– Weyler’s methods were brutal.– Reconcentrado policy

The problem in Cuba . . . the U.S. “war faction”• Humanitarians• “Jingoists”• Elements of the Republican Party• Expansionists

. . . and the “Yellow Press”

Joseph PulitzerThe New York World

William Randolph HurstThe New York Journal

January 1898, USS Maine arrives in Havana

The slide toward war . . .

• McKinley was opposed to war.• 9 FEB, Hurst publishes “DeLome Letter”

“. . . McKinley is weak and a bidder for the admiration of the crowd besides being a would-be politician who tries to leave a door open behind himself while keeping on good terms with the jingoes of his party”.

18 February 1898 USS Maine blows up.

The slide toward war . . .• 25 February: Roosevelt instructs Navy to attack

Philippines in the event of war.

• 11 April: McKinley calls for intervention in Cuba.– Approved 20 April

• 20 April: Teller Amendment Teller Amendment.

• 23April: Spain declares war on the U.S.

1 May 1898 Battle of Manila Bay

22-24 JuneUS troops land in Cuba

Hawaii annexed 7 July

Sanford Dole

Queen Lili‘uokalani’American businessmen took over Hawaii in 1893.

• 17 July: Santiago surrenders to General William Shafter

• 12 August: Spain signs armistice

• 13 August: US troops capture Manila

Costs . . .

• $250,000,000• 5,462 Americans dead

• 385 KIA• 5,077 of disease• 1,604 WIA

Results . . . The Treaty of Paris, 1898• Cuba would become independent

• Temporary American occupation• Platt Amendment

• Spain would assume Cuban debt.• U.S. acquires:

• Puerto Rico• Guam• Philippines (for $20 million)

The American Empire, 1898

The American Empire, 1898

Election of 1900

• Imperialism the major issue.• McKinley wins. 295 to 155• 6 September, 1901 McKinley shot.

“That damn cowboy’s President!”

The Filipino-American War

The Filipino-American War1898-1902(?)

• Vicious and brutal (both sides).• Significant American war crimes.• Aguinaldo eventually captured.• Taft’s teachers.• Roosevelt declares war over 4 July 1902.

• Americans and Filipinos eventually develop a close relationship.

Summary . . .

• Spanish-American War makes U.S. an international power.

• America’s new role accepted by most Americans.

• The Navy’s performance reinforced the ideas of Mahan.

• The Army’s performance left much to be desired.

China Relief Expedition1900-1901

• Commander, BG Adna Chaffee • 9th and 14th Infantry Regiments• Detachment, 6th Cavalry• Battery F, 5th Artillery• Battalion, U.S. Marines

China Relief Expedition

• British• French• Italian• Russian• German• Austrian• Japanese

Multinational force,19,000 troops.

Americans worked with:

The “Root Reforms”

• Army’s performance in the war with Spain had been poor.– Outdated organization; Staff and Line– Archiac equipment– No real planning capability

• Elihu Root become Secretary of War, 1899.– a corporate lawyer

The “Root Reforms”

• Elihu Root become Secretary of War, 1899.– a corporate lawyer

The “Root Reforms”

• Weapons improvements:– 1903 Springfield replaces the Krag– Knife bayonet replaces rod bayonet– Smokeless powder replaces black powder– New 3 in. artillery field piece– Experimentation begun with machine guns– .45 M1911 Colt pistol replaces the .38 caliber

revolver

3-inch M1902 field gun

Colt

Lewis

Hotchkiss

S&W .38 Special1898

Colt M1892

The “Root Reforms”• The General Staff Bill

– Root reads Upton’s

Military Policy of the United States

– LTC William Carter helps convince him– Congress passes the bill in 1903.

The General Staff

G -1A d m in is tra tion

G -2In te llig en ce

G -3O p era tion s

an d Tra in in g

G -4L og is tic s

C h ie f o f S ta ff

Improved education . . .

• Army War College• General Staff and service College• Service Schools:

– Artillery– Engineer– Submarine Defense (mines and torpedeos)– Cavalry and Field Artillery– Medical Corps– Signal Corps

Regulars vs. the Militia• Militia Act of 1903, “Dick Act” reforms the militia

– “Organized Militia” National Guard– Reserve Militia

• Federal $$ made available to National Guard• Drills twice a month• Annual training• Regulars could be detailed to the Guard• President could proscribe length of Federal service• President could appoint all officers while in Federal

Service.

Higher Echelon Organization

• Largest peacetime organization = regiment.• 1910, General Staff draws plans for divisional

organization.• Provisional division formed in 1911.

• Average strength of the Army 1902-1911 = 75,000• Average installation strength = 700

The Army continued its non-military functions.

• Provided governmental services in American colonies.

• Projected American power in “operations other than war.”– “Little Wars”

• Built the Panama Canal

Then came Mexico . . .and war in Europe.