the structure and design of programming languages
TRANSCRIPT
The Structure and Design of
Programming Languages
JOHN E. NICHOLLS IBM (UK) Laboratories Ltd.
W ADDISON-WESLEY PUBLISHING COMPANY Reading, Massachusetts • Menlo Park, California London • Amsterdam • Don Mills, Ontario • Sydney
Contents
PART 1 INTRODUCTION: BACKGROUND AND TECHNICAL FOUNDATIONS
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
Bibliography 6
CHAPTER 2 USER ASPECTS
2.1 Introduction 9
2.2 Objectives for Language Design 10
2.3 Users and Their Characteristics 12
2.4 Studies of the Use of Programming Languages 13
2.5 The Programming Process 16
2.6 Structured Programming 17
2.7 The Dialogue Between User and System 18
2.8 Errors in Programming 19
Bibliography 20
XV
xvi Contents
CHAPTER 3 APPLICATIONS
3.1 Introduction 27
3.2 Scientific Computing 28
3.3 Commercial Computing 31
3.4 Systems Programming 32
3.5 Combinatorial Programming 34
3.6 Summary 36
Bibliography 36
CHAPTER 4 THE IMPLEMENTATION OF LANGUAGES
4.1 Introduction 39
4.2 Types of Compilers 40
4.3 Outline of Compiler Design 42
4.4 Optimization 46
4.5 Compiler Output 48
4.6 Formal Methods of Compiler Construction 50
4.7 Programming Languages and Machine Design 51
Bibliography 52
CHAPTER 5 THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS
5.1 Introduction 59
5.2 Algorithms 61
5.3 Basic Mathematics 62
5.4 Formal Systems 64
5.5 Abstract Syntax 69
5.6 Proving Program Correctness 76
5.7 Analysis of Algorithms 78
5.8 Some Results from the Analysis of Algorithms 79
Bibliography 81
Contents xvii
PART 2 ELEMENTS OF PROCEDURAL PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES
CHAPTER 6 PROGRAM STRUCTURE AND REPRESENTATION
6.1 Introduction 91
6.2 The Importance of Structure 92
6.3 Fixed- and Free-Format Languages 93
6.4 Comments 94
6.5 A Hierarchy of Program Elements 96
6.6 Program Structure of Some Current Languages 107
6.7 Editing and Processing Program Text 118
6.8 Text-Copying Systems 119
6.9 The COBOL Library Module 120
6.10 Macroprocessors of High-Level Languages 122
6.11 The PL/I Preprocessor Facilities 123
6.12 Segmentation 125
6.13 Segmentation and Programming Languages 127
Bibliography 129
CHAPTER 7 DATA ELEMENTS, VARIABLES, AND DECLARATIONS
7.1 Introduction 137
7.2 Elements and Structures 139
7.3 The Concept of a Variable in Programming Languages 140
7.4 Binding 142
7.5 Type 143
7.6 Other Attributes of Data Elements 145
7.7 Literals and Constants 152
7.8 A Survey of Data Element Types 155
7.9 Numeric Data 156
7.10 Logical Data 159
7.11 Control Variables 161
7.12 Data Elements in Current Languages 162
7.13 PL/I Problem Data 168
xviii Contents
7.14 PL/I Control Variables 170
7.15 Declarations 173
7.16 Control of Defaults 178
7.17 Fixed and Variable Types 180
7.18 Further Reading 184
Bibliography 185
Exercises 188
CHAPTER 8 DATA STRUCTURES
8.1 Introduction 191
8.2 Inverse-Access Functions 195
8.3 Data Structures and Storage Structures 195
8.4 Storage Models in High-Level Languages 196
8.5 The Place of Storage Concepts in Programming Languages 206
8.6 Data Structures in Programming Languages 207
8.7 Further Reading 274
Bibliography 278
CHAPTER 9 EXPRESSIONS AND ASSIGNMENT
9.1 Introduction 295
9.2 The History of Arithmetic Operations 297
9.3 Simple Expressions 299
9.4 Arithmetic Operators 300
9.5 Fixed-Point Operators 302
9.6 Fixed-Point Arithmetic in COBOL and PL/I 306
9.7 Other Types of Operator 316
9.8 Conditional Expressions 322
9.9 Array Expressions 325
9.10 Array Operations 326
9.11 Binary Operators Giving Array Results 326
9.12 Unary Operators Giving Array Results 326
9.13 General Operators in APL 329
9.14 General Expressions 332
9.15 Expressions in ALGOL, COBOL, and PL/I 341
9.16 FORTRAN Expressions 341
Contents xix
9.17 ALGOL Expressions 342
9.18 COBOL Expressions 342
9.19 PL/I Expressions 344
9.20 Assignment 345
Bibliography 350 Exercises 355
CHAPTER 10 SEQUENCING AND CONTROL STRUCTURES
10.1 Introduction 359
10.2 The GO TO Statement 361
10.3 The IF Statement 372
10.4 The CASE Statement 381
10.5 Decision Tables 382
10.6 Looping Statements 387
10.7 Condition Handling 399
10.8 COBOL Condition Handling 400
10.9 PL/I Condition Handling 401
10.10 A Comparison of Status-Condition Handling in COBOL and PL/I . 406
10.11 Asynchronous Processing 406
10.12 Further Reading 408
Bibliography 410
Exercises 416
CHAPTER 11 BASIC INPUT-OUTPUT
11.1 Introduction 419
11.2 Files 422
11.3 Blocks, Records, and Fields 424
11.4 Data Set Labels 426
11.5 Data Set Organization 426
11.6 File Concepts in COBOL and PL/I 428
11.7 Two Forms of Sequential Input-Output: Stream and Record 439
11.8 The READ and WRITE Statements 442
11.9 Data Transmission in Record I/O 443
11.10 Input-Output Conditions and Errors 447
11.11 Updating a Master File 450
xx Contents
11.12 Summary—The Importance of Sequential Processing 453
11.13 Stream Input-Output 453
11.14 Specification of the Data List 457
11.15 Formatless I/O 464
11.16 PL/I List-Directed I/O 465
11.17 I/O with Self-Identifying Data (Data-Directed I/O) 466
11.18 Stream I/O for Internal Transmission 469
11.19 Report Writing 470
Bibliography 475
Exercises 482
CHAPTER 12 SUBROUTINES, PROCEDURES, AND PROGRAMS
12.1 Introduction 485
12.2 Subroutine and Function Procedures 487
12.3 The Static Structure of Procedures: The Syntax of Procedure Specification 488
12.4 Examples of Procedure Syntax 494
12.5 The Dynamic Structure of Procedures: The Semantics of
Procedure Invocation 498
12.6 Call by Name, Call by Value, and Call by Reference 499
12.7 Further Topics 505
12.8 Summary: Aspects of Procedure Design 521
Bibliography 529
Exercises 533
APPENDIX 537
INDEX 561