the struggle for access to forest justice in india: the forest rights act 2006 and bureaucratic...

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Oliver SpringateBaginski & Madhu Sarin

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Presentation in Taking stock of smallholder and community forestry workshopat session Smallholder and community forestry in South and Southeast Asiaby Oliver Springate-Baginski and Madhu Sarin24-26 March 2010Montpellier, France

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Page 1: The struggle for access to forest justice in India: The Forest Rights Act 2006  and bureaucratic resistance to commoning enclosures

Oliver Springate‐Baginski & Madhu Sarin 

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Can local people in the forest landscapes of India secureIndia secure recognition of their right to community forestry (establishedforestry (established de jure by the FRA 2006) against the 

h d ientrenched interests of the forest bureaucracy?y

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1. Context 

2. Forest Rights Act 2006 emergence

3. Study of implementation

4. State experiences

5. Conclusions

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ForestForest Survey of India 2003India 2003

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1. Context~320mha land areaIndian forest cover –67.71mha of which ‘good’ forest cover est. 48mha [FSI 2008]Legal forest estate –’ d d f ’’recorded forest area’ ~76.96mha (23%)  [source & date?]1 1B l1.1Bn popl>80m indigenousPoverty across forest areas

Poffenberger & McGean 1997

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History of state forest appropriationHistorically customary CPRs widespread State appropriated forest post 1864 for timber:

On colonial principle that customary tenures were based on statesOn colonial principle that customary tenures were based on states acquiescence, a ‘privilege’ which could be withdrawn. (Guha 1984 ‐ EPW) Through due legal process of ‘settlement’: 1878 & 1927 Forest ActsPost independence continued appropriationEven due process often not completed especially post independence (Ghosh et al. 2007 ODG) 

Local people’s customary forest rights were widely deprived Both collective & private extinguished committed to insecure ‘privileges’Both collective & private extinguished, committed to insecure  privileges  or ignoredEven those not evicted have been criminalised for normal livelihood practices

Extreme conflict and numerous risings ensuedExtreme conflict and numerous risings  ensued‘Forest Department most unpopular arm of colonial regime’continuing with Maoist groups, for whom forest rights are a major manifesto issue.

E i ti h ti d t tExpropriation process has continued to present

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The Forest AdministrationComposition and control of forest estate 

23% of land areaExtensive staffExtensive staff 

over 90,000 formal staff plus labourers Policing and quasi‐judicial powers 

to apprehend, judge and punish based on 1927 Forest ActRevenue generation ability

Timber & NTFP (plus govt. & donor funds)(p g )Own knowledge production 

(research, training, survey) – appropriating the object of knowledge (forest) with legitimating terms such as ‘scientificknowledge (forest) with legitimating terms such as  scientific forestry’

Decisive influence over forest policyA durable semi‐autonomous power structureA durable semi‐autonomous power structure

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The Range of Forest Rights DeprivationsThe Range of Forest Rights DeprivationsForest rights have been deprived in a range of different processes

Rights deprived during settlement / forest reservation process disputes /Rights deprived during settlement / forest reservation process disputes / unsurveyed villagesEstate acquisitionShifting cultivationg‘Encroachment’ ‘Forest villages’‘Primitive Tribal Groups’Tribals without Scheduled Tribe status Sacred grovesNational parks / sanctuariesR f t b d di tRevenue forest boundary disputes,  Joint Forest ManagementSelf‐initiated forest protection (CFM)Earlier evictionsEarlier evictionsDisplacement / ‘diversion’ of forest lands

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Kumar et al. 2008 

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FRA emergenceMany millions severely negatively affected by forest rights deprivations

Hard to separate from wider context of marginalisationThe most seriously affected are those rural communities living in andThe most seriously affected are those rural communities living in and depending on forests for cultivation, habitat and forest products.  ‘Scheduled’ tribes ‐ ~80M.   Forest governance affects the livelihoods of perhaps as many as 25%  275m 

/ /Khare / WB / ...Extreme livelihood insecurity: routine oppression / bribe seeking; imprisonment, eviction & destitution; starvation deaths Voluntary bureaucratic reform? SF JFM not CF (despite WB ‘CFM’Voluntary bureaucratic reform?  SF, JFM not CF (despite WB  CFM  inflation of terms):  

no rights reform – ‘participation’ on FD termsSome donors withdrew (WB, DFID); some persisting in supporting (JICA)( , ); p g pp g ( )

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Renewed evictions From 1996 public interest litigation (PIL) led to the Supreme Court pushing full enforcement of forest laws across India. In 2002 Forest Departments interpreted a Supreme Court directive  to evict all so‐called ‘encroachers’ in a time‐bound manner. (estimated to coverall so called  encroachers in a time bound manner. (estimated to cover 1,250,000ha forest area under encroachment in eight states) Evictions of forest dwellers and forest adjacent populations (seen as illegal ‘encroachers’) were attempted in many states 

‘ th 300 000 f ili I di f ibl i t d M th‘… more than 300,000 families across India were forcibly evicted. More than a hundred villages were burned in Madhya Pradesh, eight people killed in police firings and 40,000 families left homeless in Assam, and elephants used against villagers in Maharashtra and Assam.  In many cases those i t d h d b lti ti f i t 1980 d h l llevicted had been cultivating from prior to 1980 ‐ and hence were legally 

entitled to their lands.’ CSD November 2007 – from depositions made at a public hearing

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From: Campaign for Survival and Dignity 2005

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Th E f FRA 2006

2002 evictions led to concerted action under the national umbrella

The Emergence of FRA 2006

2002 evictions led to concerted action under the national umbrella ‘Campaign for Survival and Dignity’ as well as through numerous other groups 

National Forum of Forest People and Forest Workers (NFFPFW), Lok Sangharsh Morcha ‐ Gujarat, Jan Sangharsh Morcha ‐MPNAPM, ‐Maharashtra

Three years of complex drafting process and intense contestation fromThree years of complex drafting process and intense contestation from Ministry of Environment and Forests, and hard‐line ‘fortress conservationists’The Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act was passed in December 2006of Forest Rights) Act was passed in December 2006After further delays the Act came into force with issuing of Rules on Jan 1st 2008

CSD Website: www.forestrightsact.com

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Breakthrough?Breakthrough?‘… the forest rights on ancestral lands and their habitat were not gadequately recognized in the consolidation of State forests during the colonial period as well as in independent India resulting in historical injustice to the forest dwelling Scheduled Tribes and other traditional forest dwellers’Scheduled Tribes and other traditional forest dwellers’

aim:  ‘to recognise and vest the forest rights and occupation in forest land in forest dwelling Scheduled Tribes and other traditional forest dwellers who have been residing in suchtraditional forest dwellers who have been residing in such forests for generations but whose rights could not be recorded; to provide for a framework for recording the forest rights so vested and the nature of evidence required for suchrights so vested and the nature of evidence required for such recognition and vesting in respect of forest land’  (FRA 2006)

The nodal agency for implementation is the Ministry of TribalThe nodal agency for implementation is the Ministry of Tribal Affairs NOT the Ministry of Environment and Forests

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C.  The rights: Key Sections of the Act‘3 (1) For the purposes of this Act the following rights which secure individual or community3. (1) For the purposes of this Act, the following rights, which secure individual or community 

tenure or both, shall be the forest rights of forest dwelling Scheduled Tribes and other traditional forest dwellers on all forest lands, namely:‐right to hold and live in the forest land … for habitation or for self‐cultivation for livelihood …livelihood …community rights such as nistar [forest product collection] …right of ownership, access to collect, use and dispose of minor forest produce …other community rights of uses or entitlements such as fish and other products of water bodies grazing (both settled and transhumant)bodies, grazing (both settled and transhumant) …rights including community tenures of habitat and habitation for primitive tribal groups and pre‐agricultural communitiesrights in or over disputed lands …i h f i f lrights for conversion of Pattas or leases or grants …right of settlement and conversion of all forest villages, …right to protect, regenerate or conserve or manage and community forest resource …Rights of access to biodiversity and community right to intellectual property ..g y y g p p yAny other traditional right customarily enjoyed by the forest dwelling Scheduled Tribes or other traditional forest dwellers …Right to in situ rehabilitation …

6(1) The Gram Sabha shall be the authority to initiate the process for determining the nature6(1) The Gram Sabha shall be the authority to initiate the process for determining the nature and extent of individual or community forest rights or both …

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Duties of holders of forest rights.5. The holders of any forest right, Gram Sabha and village level institutions in areas where there are holders of any forest right under this Act are empowered tounder this Act are empowered  to‐protect the wild life, forest and biodiversity;ensure that adjoining catchments area, water sources and other ecological sensitive areas adequately protected;ecological sensitive areas adequately protected; ensure that the habitat of forest dwelling Scheduled Tribes and other traditional forest dwellers is preserved from any form of destructive practices  affecting their cultural and natural heritage;p g g ;ensure that the decisions taken in the Gram Sabha to regulate access to community forest resources and stop any activity which adversely affects the wild animals, forest and the biodiversity are complied withcomplied with ;

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Key rights: Private rights to land in forests (up to 4ha)Collective rights to control manage and use forest land around village under gram sabhavillage under gram sabhaNTFP harvesting and marketing rights

Conservation safeguards:  Critical Wildlife Habitats’ (CWH)

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Recognition of Forest Rights Act 2006g gImplementation process/mechanism elaborated in Rules:

Nationally (federal) ‐Ministry of Tribal AffairsState ‐ 3 departments: Tribal / Rural Development, Revenue, ForestLocal ‐ based on  the village gram sabha.  This will elect a Forest Rights Committee to identify, verify and recommend claims

National reform came into effect 1st Jan 2008

N i l l l M TA di dNational level MoTA directed state governments...

BUT implementation responsibility to state govt.s ‐ requires transfer of control from FDs who have long tradition oftransfer of control from FDs, who have long tradition of paternal exclusionary relationship. ... to forest communities, who have long history of marginalisation and weak political organisation ...

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Local implementationinvolves five key stages

1. The initial Gram Sabhameeting and formation of Forest Rights Committee

2. FRC awareness‐raising, training

3 Di ib i f l i f d i3. Distribution of claim forms and receipt. 

4. Verification of claims (review, survey, mapping)

5 Fi l I i f titl5. Final Issuing of titles

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Potential Livelihood prospects?Freedom from harassment, rent seeking, destruction of assetsReduced livelihood vulnerability ‐ very high where households are liable to eviction Improved income streams from range of rights to manage forests and secure access to their harvest.  Incentive for investing in land and forest ‐ land‐based investment depends on security of tenureRecognition of cultivation rights over forest land through its conversion to revenue land should permit the right holders to gain access to development inputs from other departments which they are currently deprived ofwhich they are currently deprived of.May allow access to credit on basis of patta (as collateral) (although, since the titles will be inalienable, special arrangements will be required to facilitate access to formal credit)required to facilitate access to formal credit)  The benefit of land reform may be increased with credit or other complimentary inputs (e.g. water). 

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3 Research issues3. Research issuesFRA came into force Jan 1st 2008

1. To what extent are legislated forest rights being secured?  

2 Wh h b l f l l l h i2. What are the obstacles for local people to access their CF rights?

Modest research programme funded by DFID ‘InstitutionsModest research programme funded by DFID  Institutions for Pro‐Poor Growth’ Research Programme Consortium

Late 2008‐10

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Field study:Field study:23 study sites selected across 3 statesWest Bengal – 9Orissa – 8AP – 6

Reflecting rangeReflecting range of agro‐ecological conditions, d i i t tiadministrative structures and rights deprivations

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AP Context

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FRA implementation process inA dh P d hAndhra PradeshJan 2008 – Chief Minister issued ‘road map’ for rapid implementation (& cut‐off): 

titles to be granted within 10 months

f l f l dfocus on private claims – as if land grant patronage

inevitably this had to slide – still proceeding

Extremely hasty local Committee formation (at panchayatExtremely hasty local Committee formation (at panchayat level), ‘awareness raising’ and training

The officials informed the villagers two days before their visit, the ‘Gram Sabha’ meeting for electing the FRC was held in April 2008 at the Panchayat.  

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Addariveedi Tribal hamlet, Panasanpal village

some villagers have ‘patta’ land for settled agriculturemost depend on ‘podu’ where nomost depend on  podu  where no rights are recognised.  On village forest land under JFM, they have only tenuous usufruct rightsrights.

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Koluturu hamlet

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O t i AP t d tOutcomes in AP to date (31 Aug 2009)Private rights claims:

d llIn 6 AP study villages:63% private claims approved (176 claims ‐mean 4.1 acres)

Overall in state:53% private claims approved (173,382 claims ‐mean ~3.5 acres)

Collective rights claims:In 6 AP study villages:In 6 AP study villages:

4 of 6 making range of collective claims (mean 71ha) status undecidedOverall in state:

Unclear picture: 2276 ‘community certificate of titles’ issues to 784 949Unclear picture: 2276  community certificate of titles  issues to 784,949 acresThrough RTI it was discovered the majority are JFM committee claims! (who have no right to claim) Forest Dep't attempting ‘coup’ t( g ) p p g p

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AP FRA process reviewLocal implementation through village (panchayat) not hamlet (gram sabha) 

f fForest guard accompanying and interfering at the point of verification (have no authority to do so)

FD taking over community forests through VSS (‘CF coup’)FD taking over community forests through VSS ( CF coup )

Schemes emerging to force people to have plantations on granted landsgranted lands

Challenge to abuses from grass‐roots groups

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FRA Implementation process inlWest Bengal 

t t f t 12 343 kstate forest area: 12,343 sq. km.

forest dependent est. ~8.3 million (~10% of statemillion, ( 10% of state population)

North: ‘Forest villages’ bonded glabour

SW: virtually all forest under JFM

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Process so far4 month delay in commencement – local elections

Violations from the start – FD exerting controlling influenceinfluence

FRC hastily formed on multi‐village not on gram sabha basis – quorum rarely achieved,

FRC M b hi d h l ti G tFRC ‐Membership on ad hoc selection ‐ Govt officials made members!

V. Poor awareness raising & training

N. Bengal: 

Conversion of ‘Forest Village’ not proceeding

Community challenging FD control

SW Bengal:

Virtually no recognition of rights in JFM villages

Wider political conflict has overtaken FRAWider political conflict has overtaken FRA process

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West BengalWest BengalUNAMBIGOUSLY WORST STATE FOR FRA

the implementers are taking recourse to delay, non‐transparency and different obstructions

The affected people are becoming conscious of the wrongs with the information being passed on to them 

We expect that the implementation will improve with the protests and objections of the people as already seen in North Bengalseen in North Bengal. 

Grassroots group has filed case against GoWB for violating lawviolating law

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FRA Implementation process inFRA Implementation process inORISSAContext

Large scale self initiated CF

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processSlow start but increasingly responsive state

State has issued best guidelines

Dynamic NGO networks engaged with state administration

P i f S T ib l W lf h ll iProactive process from Sec. Tribal Welfare – challenging FD staff hegemony effectively

Proliferation of awareness raising / training facilitationProliferation of awareness raising / training facilitation going on.

Belated but now good attention to community rightsg y g

PROBABLY BEST STATE

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ConclusionsCo c us o sSymbolic and substantive victory: 

‘historical injustice’ finally recognisedLaw fundamentally changedLaw fundamentally changed.Rights being accorded ‐ Some individual rights ‐Very limited community rights yet

‘Window of redress’ sought to be narrowed at every stage by bureaucracy

Pressure to complete process rapidly – distortingPoor awareness and understanding, even across implementersF b li l d i /Focus on number targets not process quality – leads to corruptions / rent seeking / ‘time up’ / denialFDs seeking to curtail ‘window of opportunity’ and foreshortening schedulesNo central interest in common rightsMoTA extremely weak – pressure has been from Prime Ministers office

Marginalised groups finding it hard to access justice ...But people are fighting 

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Policy / strategy recommendations:Policy / strategy recommendations:Where to from here?

Social mobilisation to secure rights remains essential

BUT forest tribal groups remain poorly organised compared to other hitherto marginalised groups

NGOs, umbrella organisations and concerned individuals .

N d f i il i i d lNeed for civil society capacity development raise awareness at different levels, independently monitory, transfer learning’s between statestransfer learning s between states

Use of parliamentary fora