the sustainability t4d pro jects · information and communication technologies (icts) ... embedded...
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Abstract
Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) are identified as a promising technology
that can be employed in promoting development in the developing-world. Embracing this
view, many developing nations have shown an avid interest in leveraging ICTs for development
and invested heavily in such projects. Unfortunately, the vision of ICTs acting as the
transformative technologies in enabling development in developing nations has not been
realised. In reality, successful implementation and benefits realisation from ICT-enabled
development initiatives has proven a daunting challenge and project failure is a prolific and
widely-acknowledged phenomenon. Among the issues that have contributed to this
disheartening state of affairs, the difficulty of sustaining ICT projects for development in
developing nations is a prominent concern. This thesis presents a study which examines the
less-understood and neglected problem of project sustainability with respect to ICT projects
for development implemented in developing nations. The study answers the research question
of “How can ICT projects for development (ICT4D projects) in developing nations achieve
sustainability?” The research question is addressed via an interpretivist, embedded case study
on a large-scale, national level, government sector ICT project that targets agricultural
development implemented in a South Asian developing nation. In examining project
sustainability, the study employs Actor-Network Theory (ANT) concepts to extend analysis
beyond the typical influencing factor and sustainability dimension-based interpretations of the
phenomenon which are inherently static and limited in terms of the extent to which the
dynamics of sustainability can be analysed. Through the adoption of this alternative theoretical
lens, project sustainability is visualised and explored as a dynamic phenomenon that involves
critical influencing relationships in actor-networks. The study has produced two key outputs.
The first output is an alternative theoretical approach that could be employed by practitioners
in enabling project sustainability, which is based upon the formation and sustenance of critical
relationships that influence project sustainability. The second output is a framework that can
be employed in sustaining ICT4D projects implemented in developing nations. Considered
overall, the study findings suggest that project sustainability in the context of an ICT4D project
in a developing nation can be visualised, interpreted and addressed on the alternative basis of
critical influencing relationships in actor-networks. The results of the study essentially
emphasise the importance of treating project sustainability as an ever-evolving, dynamic
phenomenon that must be managed pro-actively and constantly throughout the lifetime of an
ICT4D project implemented in a developing nation.
ii
Acknowledgements
It gives me immense pleasure to pay tribute to the following individuals whose support
proved vital in completing this thesis. First and foremost, my deepest gratitude to my
supervisor Associate Professor Nick Letch for his exemplary guidance and support.
I am indebted to The University of Western Australia and the Australian government
for giving me the opportunity of a lifetime by awarding the postgraduate scholarship
which made this study possible.
I am extremely grateful to the Project Director of the ICT project investigated in the
study for the extensive and tireless support extended. The unrestricted access to study
sites, respondents and project documentation granted by him enabled collection of an
invaluable data set, without which this study would not have been possible. Further, I
wish to acknowledge with much gratitude the immense support offered by the Project
Manager of the AKC project throughout the data collection process. I am also grateful
to the numerous officials from the Project Execution Unit, the Agriculture Knowledge
Centers, the Provincial Agriculture Authorities, the Department of Farmer Services and
the funding agencies who contributed to the study in the capacity of interviewees.
I owe my utmost gratitude to Emeritus Professor Nalaka Mendis, University of
Colombo for his encouragement, brilliant advice and tenderness.
I am indebted to my wonderful parents, family and my aunt Chitra De Zoysa for their
unfailing love, support and patience throughout the course of the study. Further, I am
extremely grateful to Mr. Ampalam Kandasamy and Mr. Jayampathi Perera for the
financial support provided during my Masters studies, which paved the way for the
PhD. To my friends, Thushanti Kamalakanth, Dr. Chanaki Amaratunga, Diyana
Samaraweera, Ranjith Jayasena, Hwee Ping Koh, Sita Varagunam, Dr. Naomi Segal, Dr.
Arthur Weston, Uthpala Dassanayake and Assistant Professor Sandra Vannoy, words
are inadequate to express my gratitude for the constant support, love and
encouragement given.
Last but not least, my eternal gratitude to the farmers who participated in the study,
giving meaning to it. It is my most fervent hope that this work would make at least a
minute difference in terms of benefiting you and easing the many burdens you carry.
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Table of Contents
Abstract ......................................................................................................................... i Acknowledgements....................................................................................................... ii List of Tables ................................................................................................................ vi List of Figures ............................................................................................................... vi Abbreviations .............................................................................................................. vii Chapter 1: Introduction ................................................................................................. 1
1.1 Background and Motivation ............................................................................ 1
1.2 Research Question and Approach ................................................................... 4
1.3 Significance of the Study ................................................................................. 5
1.4 Outline of the Thesis ....................................................................................... 6
Chapter 2: Literature Review......................................................................................... 7
2.1 Introduction .................................................................................................... 7
2.2 Developing Nations and Development ............................................................ 7
2.3 ICTs as an Enabler of Development in Developing Nations .............................. 8
2.4 ICTs for Development: The Problem of Project Sustainability ........................ 13
2.5 Defining Project Sustainability ...................................................................... 14
2.6 Sustainability of ICT4D Projects: A Review of Influencing Factors .................. 17
2.7 Criteria for Assessing Project Sustainability ................................................... 21
2.8 An Assessment of Current Understanding on the Research Topic ................. 22
2.9 Conclusion .................................................................................................... 24
Chapter 3: Theoretical Framework .............................................................................. 26
3.1 Introduction .................................................................................................. 26
3.2 Approach to Exploring Project Sustainability ................................................. 26
3.3 Meta-Theoretical View.................................................................................. 27
3.4 A Theoretical Lens based on Actor-Network Theory ...................................... 28
3.5 Key Elements of the Theoretical Lens ............................................................ 30
3.5.1 Translation ............................................................................................. 31
3.5.2 Network Analysis ................................................................................... 32
3.5.3 Inscription.............................................................................................. 33
3.6 Conclusion .................................................................................................... 34
Chapter 4: Research Methodology .............................................................................. 35
4.1 Introduction .................................................................................................. 35
4.2 Research Epistemology: An Interpretivist Perspective ................................... 35
4.3 Research Method: An Interpretivist Case Study ............................................ 36
4.4 Data Collection Techniques ........................................................................... 39
4.4.1 Semi-structured Interviews .................................................................... 39
4.4.2 Document Analysis ................................................................................ 40
4.4.3 Technology Artefact Evaluation ............................................................. 40
4.5 Data Collection Procedures ........................................................................... 40
4.6 Approach to Data Analysis ............................................................................ 43
4.6.1 Data Analysis Stage One......................................................................... 44
4.6.2 Data Analysis Stage Two ........................................................................ 45
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4.7 Research Rigour ............................................................................................ 45
4.8 Conclusion .................................................................................................... 46
Chapter 5: The Agriculture Knowledge Center Project ................................................ 48
5.1 Introduction .................................................................................................. 48
5.2 The AKC Project: An Overview ...................................................................... 48
5.3 Project Organisation ..................................................................................... 49
5.3.1 The Agriculture Knowledge Centers (AKCs) ............................................ 49
5.3.2 The Project Execution Unit (PEU) ........................................................... 50
5.3.3 Administrative Entities associated with the Project................................ 53
5.4 AKC Operations ............................................................................................. 54
5.5 Approach to Project Implementation ............................................................ 56
5.6 Conclusion .................................................................................................... 58
Chapter 6: An Influencing Factor-based Sustainability Analysis ................................... 60
6.1 Introduction .................................................................................................. 60
6.2 The Sustainability of the AKC Project: A Broad Assessment ........................... 61
6.3 The Sustainability of the AKC Project: An Analysis of Influencing Factors ...... 66
6.4 Conclusion .................................................................................................... 70
Chapter 7: Network Construction and Transformation ................................................ 71
7.1 Introduction .................................................................................................. 71
7.2 Construction of the AKC Project’s Global Network ........................................ 71
7.3 Construction of the AKC Project’s Local Network .......................................... 85
7.4 The Connection between the Global and Local Networks ............................. 92
7.5 Conclusion .................................................................................................... 92
Chapter 8: An Analysis of Relationships Critical to Sustainability ................................. 94
8.1 Introduction .................................................................................................. 94
8.2 Project Sustainability and Critical Influencing Relationships .......................... 94
8.3 An Analysis of the Global Network Relationships .......................................... 95
8.3.1 The Relationship between the PEU and the DOA/the MOA (G1) ............ 95
8.3.2 The Relationship between the PEU and the Funding Agencies (G2)........ 98
8.3.3 The Relationship between the PEU and Central Government Politicians (G3) .................................................... 103
8.4 An Analysis of the Local Network Relationships .......................................... 104
8.4.1 The Relationship between the AKC and the Farming Community (L1)................................................................ 104
8.4.2 The Relationship between the AKC and the Provincial Agricultural Authority(PAA) (L2)..................................... 121
8.4.3 The Relationship between the AKC and the Project Execution Unit (PEU) (L3) ................................................... 127
8.4.4 The Relationship between the AKC and its Operator (L4) ..................... 130
8.4.5 The Relationship between the AKC and the Technology Vendors (L5) ............................................................... 134
8.4.6 The Relationship between the AKC and the Department of Farmer Services(DFS) (L6) ...................................... 137
8.5 Salient Findings of the ANT-based Analysis of Sustainability ....................... 140
8.6 Conclusion .................................................................................................. 142
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Chapter 9: A Framework for Sustaining ICT4D Projects ............................................. 144
9.1 Introduction ................................................................................................ 144
9.2 The Framework and its Development ......................................................... 144
9.3 Application of the Framework ..................................................................... 153
9.4 Conclusion .................................................................................................. 153
Chapter 10: Discussion .............................................................................................. 155
10.1 Introduction ............................................................................................ 155
10.2 An Exploration of Key Study Findings ....................................................... 155
10.2.1 Sustaining ICT4D projects: Influencing Factors and Dimensions ........... 156
10.2.2 Sustaining ICT4D Projects: An ANT-based Approach............................. 157
10.2.3 Suitability of an ANT-based Theoretical Lens........................................ 161
10.2.4 Project Sustainability: Observations on Its Intrinsic Nature .................. 163
10.3 Contributions of the Study ...................................................................... 164
10.4 Limitations of the Study........................................................................... 167
10.5 Conclusion ............................................................................................... 167
Chapter 11: Conclusions ............................................................................................ 170
Reference List ........................................................................................................... 182
Appendices ............................................................................................................... 195
Appendix 2.1 - Indicators of Project Sustainability ................................................. 195
Appendix 3.1 - Law et al.’s (1992) Two-Dimensional Graph ................................... 196
Appendix 4.1 - Information Sheet and Consent Form ............................................ 197
Appendix 4.2 - Examples for Interview Protocols ................................................... 201
Appendix 4.3 - Final Data Organising System ......................................................... 206
Appendix 8.2 - Cross-case Analysis of Critical Local Network Relationships ........... 219
Appendix 9.1 - Relationship Mapping (Project-specific to Generic) ........................ 227
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List of Tables
Table 2.1 Examples of ICT4D Projects from the Developing-World 11
Table 6.1 Criteria for Ascertaining the Degree of Project Sustainability 61
Table 9.1 A Framework for Sustaining ICT4D Projects in Developing Nations 146
List of Figures
Figure 5.1 Organisation Chart of the Project Execution Unit 51
Figure 5.2 Administrative Entities Associated with the AKC Project 53
Figure 6.1 Factors Influencing the Sustainability of the AKC Project 61
Figure 7.1 Global Network of the AKC Project 72
Figure 7.2 Local Network of the AKC Project 85
Figure 8.1 The AKC Project Network 94
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Abbreviations
AED Agricultural Extension Division
AKC Agriculture Knowledge Centre
ARPB Agriculture Research and Policy Bureau
DFS Department of Farmer Services
DOA Department of Agriculture
FSC Farmer Support Center
MOA Ministry of Agriculture
NITA National IT Agency
PAA Provincial Agriculture Authority
PEU Project Execution Unit
RPDP Rice Production Development Programme
RRO Rice Research Organisation
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Chapter 1: Introduction
1.1 Background and Motivation
Developing nations are home to 1.4 billion people living in extreme poverty, surviving
on less than US$1.25 a day (IFAD, 2010; IFAD, n.d.). Such populations are affected by
the massive development challenges inherent to developing-world settings.
Developing nations typically lack an environment that promotes sustained economic
growth (McNamara, 2003). Further, they face difficult issues related to social or human
development such as hunger and undernourishment, unemployment, lack of access to
opportunities for education, high levels of child and maternal mortality and the spread
of diseases such as HIV/AIDS, Malaria and Tuberculosis (United Nations, 2010a).
Considered as a whole, these facts suggest that achieving socio-economic
development is a critical need of developing nations, a goal which is identified as a key
challenge that confronts both developing nations and the donor community that
supports their development efforts (United Nations, 2001).
Technology is recognised as a central input required for development (Avgerou et al.,
1992; Van Ryckeghem, 1992; Heeks, 2002a). Subscribing to this view, in recent
decades, the capabilities of an array of technologies have been exploited to enable
development in developing nations (McNamara, 2003). Older technologies employed
for this purpose include radio and television (McNamara, 2003). Modern or newer
Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) employed to facilitate
development include a broad range of electronic technologies such as computers, the
Internet and wireless networks (McNamara, 2003; UNESCAP, 2002).
ICTs can be described as “electronic means of capturing, processing, storing, and
communicating information” (Heeks, 1999, p.3). They are identified as a powerful tool
that can be employed to promote development in the developing world (for example
see, World Bank, 1999; UNDP, 2001). ICTs have the capacity to promote development,
particularly within rural areas in developing country contexts, through the delivery of
advantages such as facilitation of community access to information and markets,
creation of employment opportunities, enabling of better community access to
government services, empowerment of rural communities and improved delivery of
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healthcare and education services (UNESCAP, 2002; Rao, 2004; Munyua, 2000; Heeks,
2010).
Given ICTs’ predicted potential for addressing poverty and enabling socio-economic
transformation, developing nations have shown an avid interest in their adoption
(McNamara, 2003). Their intense and enthusiastic commitment to the agenda of
leveraging ICTs for promoting development is obvious from a number of facts.
Attempts have been made by such nations to harness the capabilities of ICTs to
promote development in a range of sectors such as agriculture (UNDP, 2005), health
(Braa et al., 2004) and government services (Krishna et al., 2005). Further, the
employment of ICTs for development is a ubiquitous phenomenon in the developing
world, with a vast range of such projects currently underway in regions such as Latin
America, Africa and Asia (for example see, Munya, 2000; Dossani et al., 2005).
Furthermore, developing nations have invested substantial resources on such projects
(McNamara, 2003; Keniston, 2003a). Keniston (2003a) hints at the magnitude of the
financial resources expended on ICTs for development by stating that “So attractive is
this concept that literally billions of dollars have been committed to its
implementation”.
Despite the trend of wide-spread adoption and heavy investment highlighted above,
ICTs have largely failed to fulfil their predicted promise of acting as “transformative
tools” in achieving development in developing nations (McNamara, 2003, p.3).
Commenting on this reality, the Independent Evaluation Group of The World Bank
(2011, p.1) states that “…the promise of ICT to enhance economic opportunities for
the poor, improve delivery of services to the underserved, enhance government
efficiency and transparency, and affect social change has yet to be fully realized.”
Among the issues that have contributed to this unfortunate state of affairs, ICT project
failure is particularly prominent. The literature highlights that ICT project failure is a
very common phenomenon in developing nations (for example see, Walsham et al.,
2007; Avgerou et al., 2000). According to Heeks et al. (1999 cited in Heeks, 1999) the
main types of ICT project failure are total failure, partial failure, replication failure and
sustainability failure. Among the different types of failure, sustainability failure is
identified as an issue that afflicts developing nations in particular (Heeks, 2002b).
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Heeks et al. (1999 cited in Heeks, 1999, p.13) defines sustainability failure as involving
an ICT initiative “...that succeeds initially but then fails after a year or so”. Thus, this is
a type of failure which essentially implies the inability of an ICT project to prevail in the
longer term. The study presented in this thesis focuses on the issue of project
sustainability with reference to ICT projects for development (or ICT4D projects as they
are commonly known) implemented in developing nations.
The difficulty of sustaining ICT4D projects in developing nations is recognised as a
challenging issue (Heeks, 2008; Marais, 2011; Keniston, 2003a; Keniston, 2003b;
UNESCAP, 2002; Braa et al., 2004; Badsar et al., 2011). Finding solutions to this
problem is critical to developing nations given reasons such as the “opportunity cost”
of IT investment failure in developing-world contexts (Heeks, 1999, p.16; Heeks,
2002b) and its impact of discouraging donor support for ICT-enabled development
interventions (Bell, 2006).
Unfortunately, current understanding of project sustainability in relation to ICT4D
projects in developing nations is very limited. Firstly, work that explores the topic in
depth is rare. Secondly, existing research commonly examines the sustainability of
ICT4D projects in terms of influencing factors or dimensions associated with project
sustainability (for example see, Pade et al., 2006; Stoll et al., 2003; Kumar et al., 2006;
Best et al., 2008; Gordon et al., 2007; Pade-Khene et al., 2011). This approach although
useful, produces static analyses that are limited in terms of the extent to which the
dynamics of project sustainability can be analysed. Thirdly, there is a lack of
comprehensive normative guidelines, frameworks and theories that offers guidance to
practitioners in sustaining such projects. Hence, clearly, there are important
knowledge gaps that must be addressed if developing nations are to have a fair chance
at sustaining ICT4D projects.
The study presented in this thesis contributes towards bridging the knowledge gaps
noted above and offers a practical approach for addressing the problem of sustaining
ICT4D projects in developing nations. It proposes a framework that provides
recommendations for sustaining such projects and suggests an alternative approach
that could be employed by practitioners in achieving project sustainability. The next
section introduces the specific research question addressed by the study and provides
a brief overview of the approach adopted in executing the study.
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1.2 Research Question and Approach
The research question addressed by the study is “How can ICT projects for
development (ICT4D projects) in developing nations achieve sustainability?” The
question was posed with a view to finding an answer that both enhances current
understanding of project sustainability as a phenomenon and leads to the proposal of
a practical solution for achieving project sustainability, in the context of ICT4D projects
implemented in developing nations.
The novelty of the study lies in the theoretical view employed in examining the
research question, which facilitates a richer, more comprehensive and realistic
interpretation of project sustainability. As noted earlier, typically, previous studies
examine project sustainability in terms of influencing factors or dimensions (for
example see, Stoll et al., 2003; Pade et al., 2006; Gordon et al., 2007). While useful, the
approach produces static and flat analyses which are limited in terms of the extent to
which the dynamics of project sustainability can be analysed. Addressing this
limitation, the study employs an alternative theoretical view (i.e. a framework of
analysis based on Actor-Network Theory or ANT) to visualise and explore project
sustainability as a dynamic phenomenon that unfolds over time. In essence, project
sustainability is explored on the basis of ever-evolving network relationships critical to
project sustainability.
In line with the theoretical view mentioned above, four research objectives were
formulated and achieved in the study. They are:
1. Identify factors that influence the sustainability of ICT4D projects in developing
nations, as highlighted in the literature.
2. Explore factors that influenced the sustainability of the ICT4D project examined
in the research.
3. Identify and explore heterogeneous networks pertaining to the sustainability of
the ICT4D project examined in the research.
4. Develop a framework for sustaining ICT4D projects in developing nations.
In terms of the methodology employed in the study, the research question is explored
through inquiry into an interpretivist, embedded case study. The case chosen for
investigation is a prominent, large-scale, national level, government sector ICT project
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for agricultural development implemented in a developing nation in South Asia. For
the purposes of the study it is named the Agriculture Knowledge Centre (AKC) project.
The project comprised a network of fifty one Agriculture Knowledge Centres (AKCs)
that utilise ICTs to deliver agriculture-related information required by the country’s
farming community. In exploring the sustainability of the AKC project, five AKCs, each
of which was treated as an embedded case, were studied. The case data was collected
over a period of six months, employing the multiple methods of semi-structured
interviews, document analysis and technology artefact evaluation which entailed
examination of the ICTs deployed in the project in terms of their role and impact on
project sustainability. A total number of seventy semi-structured interviews, each
typically lasting one to two hours, were conducted. The massive volume of data
collected was analysed over a period of seventeen months. Subsequently, the findings
of the analysis were drawn upon to produce a framework and an approach that can be
utilised by practitioners to sustain ICT4D projects implemented in developing nations.
1.3 Significance of the Study
The study is significant given several reasons. Firstly, it extends the analysis of project
sustainability beyond the typical approach of an interpretation that is based on
influencing factors or associated dimensions, which is limited in terms of the extent to
which the dynamics of sustainability can be analysed. Alternatively, it proposes an
advantageous theoretical approach (i.e. a framework of analysis based on Actor-
Network Theory) that enables more effective visualisation and interpretation of
project sustainability in the context of ICT4D projects in developing nations. This
approach facilitates inquiry into project sustainability as a dynamic phenomenon and
incorporates the essential but missing temporal dimension, into the examination of
project sustainability. Secondly, the approach proposed by the study is more
manageable in comparison to the typical approach to addressing project sustainability,
which forces practitioners to deal with a complex combination of diverse factors and
numerous dimensions. Thirdly, the study addresses the important knowledge gap of
lack of comprehensive normative guidelines or frameworks that enable the
achievement of project sustainability. Towards this end, it proposes a framework that
can be employed by parties such as developing nation governments, project
implementers and international donor agencies to sustain ICT4D projects. Fourthly, the
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study undertakes a rich and comprehensive exploration of project sustainability with
reference to ICT4D projects in developing nations thereby addressing the scarcity of in-
depth studies on the topic. In particular, it addresses the dearth of studies that
progress beyond the often-emphasised financial dimension of project sustainability
and undertakes a wider exploration which considers both the social and technical
elements involved in project sustainability. Lastly, the study addresses the prevailing
dearth of definitions of project sustainability in relation to ICT4D projects in developing
nations by proposing a suitable definition.
1.4 Outline of the Thesis
This thesis is composed of eleven chapters. Chapter 2 undertakes a review of the
literature relevant to the research topic. Chapter 3 explains the theoretical foundations
of the study and introduces the framework of analysis employed in exploring the
research question. Chapter 4 discusses the methodology employed in exploring the
research question. It identifies the key methodological choices made and the
philosophical positions assumed in the study, explaining the reasoning behind their
selection. Chapter 5 describes the case investigated in the study. It comments on
aspects such as the history, organisation, implementation and operations of the
Agriculture Knowledge Centre (AKC) project. The results of the data analysis are
presented in the form of three chapters. Chapter 6 documents the findings of the first
stage of the data analysis which involved analysis of the many factors that impacted
the sustainability of the AKC project. Chapter 7 employs ANT concepts to examine the
construction and reshaping of the global and local networks of the AKC project.
Chapter 8 presents a detailed analysis of the global and local network relationships
that were critical in terms of sustaining the AKC project. Thereafter, the key outputs
produced by the study are presented and discussed. Accordingly, Chapter 9 presents a
framework for sustaining ICT4D projects in developing nations, developed by drawing
upon the results of the ANT-based data analysis. Chapter 10 discusses the findings of
the study. It presents and explores the essence of study findings, highlights the study’s
contributions to the field and identifies its limitations. The final chapter i.e. Chapter 11
presents the key conclusions drawn from the study and proposes avenues for further
research.
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Chapter 2: Literature Review
2.1 Introduction
This chapter reviews the literature relevant to the research topic. It presents the
essence of current understanding on project sustainability in the context of ICT4D
projects in developing nations, critically assesses the content, breadth and
comprehensiveness of the existing body of work that comments on the topic and
isolates knowledge gaps worthy of attention.
The chapter begins with a brief commentary on developing nations and the challenge
of socio-economic development that confronts such nations. This is followed by a
section that establishes the significance of ICTs in enabling development in the
developing world. The next section highlights the difficulty of sustaining ICT4D projects
in developing nations as a pressing issue that deserves attention. The section
presented thereafter draws on previous research to define sustainability in the context
of ICT4D projects in developing nations. This is followed by a section that identifies and
classifies a diverse range of factors that influence the sustainability of such projects.
Criteria that may be employed in assessing the degree of sustainability attained by an
ICT4D project deployed in a developing nation are discussed next. The chapter
concludes by assessing the extent of current understanding on the research topic and
isolating noteworthy knowledge gaps that must be addressed.
2.2 Developing Nations and Development
Developing nations or Least Developed Countries are described as “...a category of
States that are deemed highly disadvantaged in their development process...”
(UNCTAD, n.d.). They are characterised as being more prone “...to the risk of failing to
come out of poverty” (UNCTAD, n.d.). Further, they meet the main criteria employed
by the United Nations in designating a country as a developing nation, namely, low
income, weak human assets and economic vulnerability (UNCTAD, n.d.). Currently,
developing nations are home to 1.4 billion people living in extreme poverty (IFAD,
2010; IFAD, n.d.).
According to the United Nations (2001) socio-economic development is a key challenge
that confronts both developing nations and the donor community that support their
development efforts. In terms of economic development, developing nations typically
8
lack an environment that promotes sustained economic growth (McNamara, 2003).
Numerous constraints impede economic growth within such contexts. This includes
constraints such as “poor policy frameworks”, “poor incentives for risk and
innovation”, “weak governmental capacity”, “poor access to capital, information, and
communications access to new markets” and “weak physical infrastructure”
(McNamara, 2003, p. 26). In terms of social or human development, developing
nations encounter a range of difficult issues that affects the quality of life and well-
being of their citizens. Such issues include hunger and undernourishment, high levels
of child and maternal mortality, gender inequality, unemployment, lack of access to
opportunities for education, lack of access to safe drinking water and sanitation,
displacement of populations due to conflicts or persecution, the spread of diseases
such as HIV/AIDS, Malaria and Tuberculosis and challenges pertaining to
environmental degradation such as deforestation, climate change and loss of
biodiversity (United Nations, 2010a). Given the negative influence exerted by the
complex amalgamation of constraints, challenges and vulnerabilities noted above,
achieving socio-economic development in developing nations has become a
monumental undertaking.
The challenge of achieving socio-economic development is particularly staggering in
the case of rural areas in developing nations, characterised by numerous
disadvantages that hinder socio-economic growth and perpetuate poverty among
those living within such environs. Such disadvantages include poor infrastructure,
remoteness which prevents access to urban markets, employment options, industrial
zones thereby hindering economic progress, limited delivery of health services,
inadequate opportunities for education (UNESCAP, 2002), low agricultural output,
environmental degradation (Mwabu et al., 2001 cited in Pade et al., 2006), political
marginalisation and discriminatory policies (Parker, 1995).
2.3 ICTs as an Enabler of Development in Developing Nations
According to Van Ryckeghem (1992, p. 42), “Technology has been the primary input for
development since the beginning of development cooperation”. In recent decades,
much effort has been expended on exploiting the capabilities of an array of
technologies for enabling development in developing nations (McNamara, 2003).
9
Among such technologies, Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) are
undeniably prominent.
ICTs can be described as “electronic means of capturing, processing, storing, and
communicating information” (Heeks, 1999, p.3). Modern or newer ICTs (which are of
interest in the case of the current study) comprise a broad range of electronic
technologies such as computers, the internet and wireless networks (McNamara, 2003;
UNESCAP, 2002).
In development discourse (for example see, World Bank, 1999; UNDP, 2001), ICTs are
identified as a powerful tool for promoting development in the developing world.
McNamara (2003, p.15) echoes this position by stating that ICTs offer
“...unprecedented opportunities for developing countries to break out of the cycle of
poverty...”. Evidence from some existing ICT initiatives indicates that these
technologies can indeed facilitate social development and economic growth and
improve the circumstances of populations in the developing world (for example see,
UNESCAP, 2002; Kaushik, 2006).
Recognising the potential of ICTs, both developing nations and the international
development community have enthusiastically embraced ICTs as a promising enabler
of development. Developing nations’ intense commitment to this agenda of ICT4D
(Information and Communication Technologies for Development) is obvious from a
number of facts. A vast range of ICT4D projects are currently underway in developing
regions such as Latin America, Africa and Asia (for example see, Munyua, 2000;
Dossani et al., 2005; De Silva, 2005). Further, enormous amounts of resources have
been expended on harnessing ICTs for promoting development in developing nations
(McNamara, 2003; Keniston, 2003a). Indicating the extent of such investment,
Keniston (2003a) states that “So attractive is this concept that literally billions of
dollars have been committed to its implementation”. In addition, an impressive range
of entities are engaged in funding ICT-enabled development initiatives. This includes
international development agencies (for example, the United Nations, the World Bank,
USAID), national governments in many developing countries, bilateral agencies (for
example, DFID, SIDA), multinational technology companies (for example, Microsoft,
Intel, Hewlett Packard) and Non-Governmental Organizations (Keniston, 2003a; Bell,
2006). Finally, the global scale of the ICT4D movement is evident from the formation of
10
several international bodies for advancing this cause. Such bodies include the G8
Digital Opportunity Task Force and the UN ICT Task Force (McNamara, 2003).
In terms of how they are utilised in achieving development, ICTs are currently
employed in a range of application areas crucial for the socio-economic development
of developing nations. In the agriculture sector, ICTs promote agricultural development
by supporting the agricultural extension mechanism, facilitating agricultural research,
providing access to prices in agriculture produce markets and educating agriculture
professionals (Singh, 2006). In relation to governance, ICTs facilitate efficient delivery
of government services to citizens, promote accessibility, accountability and
transparency of governments and enable citizen participation in public debates and
government decision-making (UNESCAP, 2002; Caspary et al., 2003). With regard to
education, ICTs offer opportunities for lifelong learning and access to vast resources
for educating the population of developing nations and facilitate knowledge exchange
between educational institutions (UNESCAP, 2002; World Bank, 1999). In the case of
the health sector, ICTs enable remote access to medical knowledge, better
management of health care delivery and training of remote health professionals
(UNESCAP, 2002, Jacucci et al., 2006; Surana et al., 2008). In terms of employment
generation, ICTs have been instrumental in creating both direct and indirect job
opportunities in developing environments (UNESCAP, 2002). With regard to
empowerment and emancipation of marginalised groups in developing nations, ICTs
enable poor communities to voice their concerns and be heard by decision makers
(UNESCAP, 2002; Kaushik, 2006; Heeks, 2010). In the case of trading, ICTs facilitate
access to markets beyond the local confines of rural communities (UNESCAP, 2002).
Table 2.1 presents an example list of ICT4D initiatives implemented in developing
nations that target a range of application areas.
11
ICT Project Region/Country Project Description
e-Choupal India Implemented by the Indian Tobacco Company (ITC) the project covers 40,000 villages and serves 4 million farmers. A network of Internet kiosks enables farmers to eliminate intermediaries and deal directly with ITC in marketing their agricultural products. ICTs also deliver information valuable to the farming community such as weather information, scientific farming practices, market prices and information on farming inputs (ITC, n.d.; Singh, 2006).
RANET Africa
ICTs enable rural populations to access weather and climate information (NOAA research, n.d.; RANET, n.d.).
Horizon e-village
Sri Lanka
Wireless ICTs are employed to educate children, broaden employment prospects and deliver agricultural information, weather forecasts, crop prices and market information to farmers located in a remote rural village (Groundview, 2009).
Aravind eye care system
India A rural wireless telemedicine system implemented in the state of Tamil Nadu which enables doctors based in major hospitals to interact with and provide care to eye patients located in remote, rural regions (Surana et al., 2008).
India Healthcare Delivery Project
India Auxiliary Nurse Midwives responsible for delivering healthcare to rural populations utilise handheld computers or PDAs to improve the efficiency of collection and transmission of health data (Cecchini et al., 2003).
FIDAMERICA
Latin America, the Caribbean
Funded by the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), this project utilises ICTs in enabling the rural poor to access agricultural market and technical information, commercial channels and financial systems (Munyua, 2000).
e-Seva India ICTs enable the citizens of Andhra Pradesh to interact with a range of government agencies by visiting a single location named an e-Seva center. Government services delivered by e-Seva centers include electricity and water bill payment, property tax payment, birth and death registration, issue of vehicle and trade licenses (Krishna et al., 2005).
e-Bario
Malaysia
ICTs facilitate the development of a remote highland community in Borneo. Sectors supported by the project include education, tourism, healthcare (Tarawe, 2006).
Mango Information Network (MIN)
Philippines A web-based project funded by the Japanese government via the United Nations Development Program that addresses the information needs of mango farmers in the Philippines (Flor, 2005).
FARMNets Latin America ICTs are employed in networking farmers, farmer organisations, co-operatives, NGOs and local governments. The network enables the exchange of essential information such as market prices of agricultural products, weather information (Munyua, 2000).
Table 2.1 - Examples of ICT4D Projects from the Developing-World
As suggested by the wide variety of applications mentioned above, adoption of ICTs for
enabling development in the developing world is a prolific phenomenon. However,
existing discourse (for example see, Heeks, 2002a; Keniston, 2003b; Toyama, 2010)
12
advocates a more tempered and pragmatic view of the potential of ICTs in the sphere
of development. The literature brings up several issues that discourage perception of
ICTs as the perfect technological solution to the development challenges faced by
developing nations. Scholars point out that the link between ICT investment and
economic growth in developing nations is tenuous (for example see, Avgerou, 1998;
Soeftestad et al., 2003). Commenting on this issue, McNamara (2003, p.1) states that
there is “...little hard evidence about the sustained impact of these ICTs on poverty
reduction and economic growth...” in developing nation contexts. Highlighting the low
impact of ICT-enabled rural development interventions, Bell (2006, p.11) points out
“....a patent lack of compelling evidence about the impact of village computing on rural
development.” and the disheartening experience of years of experimenting with
unproductive pilot projects. Another matter of contention questions the wisdom of
expending resources on ICTs whilst the basic needs of disadvantaged populations in
developing countries remain unmet (Keniston, 2003b). Highlighting yet another issue
that discourages perception of ICTs as the perfect remedy, researchers such as Heeks
(1999, pp. 7-9) mention the prevalence of numerous “overt resource inequalities” and
“social resource inequalities” that constrain poor people in developing nations from
benefiting from ICTs. Finally, the value of ICTs as a tool for catalysing development in
developing nation contexts has been contested in view of the potential adverse effects
of such technologies. Examples of possible adverse effects of ICTs include damage to
the socio-cultural identity of local communities (Avgerou et al., 2000), unemployment
(Heeks, 1999) and oppression of citizens by governments (Soeftestad et al., 2003).
Notwithstanding the various concerns and reservations highlighted above, scholars
also present a strong argument for not abandoning the use of ICTs for enabling
development in less-developed nations. For instance, D’Costa (2006, p.5), states that
“it would be foolhardy to ignore the benefits of ICT in poor societies”. Despite
advocating a more realistic view of the potential of ICTs, Heeks (2002a, p.10) proceeds
on to declare that “ICTs do offer genuine possibilities” in achieving development.
Offering another reason for the continued adoption of ICTs, D’Costa (2006, p.5) draws
on Clarke’s work (2003) to warn that developing nations who fail to embrace ICTs “are
likely to be impoverished further and experience a pronounced form of global digital
divide”. Considered overall, as claimed by Walsham et al. (2006), the debate regarding
the appropriateness of ICTs in the context of developing nations has been resolved in
13
the affirmative. However, realising the potential of ICTs in catalysing development in
developing nations requires appropriate application of ICTs (Soeftestad et al., 2003). It
is in meeting this requirement that finding solutions to complex issues such as the
difficulty of sustaining ICT4D projects in developing nations assume central
importance. The discussion that follows explores this issue, which is the focus of the
study.
2.4 ICTs for Development: The Problem of Project Sustainability
According to researchers, the failure of ICT projects in developing nations is a very
common phenomenon. For instance, Walsham et al. (2007, p.317) points out the
existence of “many examples of partial or complete failure”. Further, Avgerou et al.
(2000, p.1) contends that “...frustrating stories of systems which failed to fulfil their
initial promise are more frequent” than instances of successful application. Such ICT
project failure assumes several different forms. Heeks et al. (1999, cited in Heeks,
1999, p.13), identify four main types of ICT project failure. A total failure refers to “a
system that never works”. A partial failure involves an ICT initiative “in which major
goals are unattained or in which there are significant undesirable outcomes”. Another
type of failure, namely, replication failure refers to “a pilot scheme that cannot be
reproduced”. Finally, sustainability failure is a form of failure where an ICT project that
initially succeeds is unable to survive in the long run (specified as failure after a year or
so).
Among the different types of ICT project failure mentioned above, sustainability failure
has been highlighted as an issue that afflicts developing nations in particular (Heeks,
2002b). According to Braa et al. (2004, p.359), “...the lack of sustainability of working
information systems in developing countries is striking”. Furthermore, the difficulty of
sustaining ICT projects that target development in developing nations is recognised as
a challenging issue (Heeks, 2008; Marais, 2011; Keniston, 2003a; Keniston, 2003b;
UNESCAP, 2002; Braa et al., 2004; Badsar et al., 2011). Commenting on the lessons
learnt in employing ICTs for development during the decade beginning from the mid
1990s, Heeks (2008, p. 27) highlights the sustainability of such projects as a prominent
concern, stating that “the failure of many ICT4D projects to deliver and survive
prompted a new emphasis on ensuring the longevity of such projects.” Further,
expressing the fact that this is an issue that has persisted for an extended period of
14
time, Marais (2011, p.100) identifies the sustainability of ICT4D projects as “an
enduring concern.” Furthermore, suggesting the importance of the issue, Best (2010)
lists the sustainability of ICT4D initiatives among the major problems that deserves the
attention of the ICT4D community. Finally, existing research suggests that the
sustainability of ICT4D projects is a widespread, globally-relevant concern that affects
many nations in developing regions throughout the world including Asia (for example
see, Gamage, 2007, Dossani et al., 2005; Pringle et al., 2002), Africa (for example see,
Kimaro et al. 2005; Benjamin, 2000; Braa et al., 2004) and Central and Latin America
(for example see, Proenza, 2001).
Several arguments support the importance of addressing the problem of sustaining
ICT4D projects in developing nations. Firstly, developing nation governments and
donor agencies have expended limited resources that could very well have been
invested in other development areas, on implementing ICTs for development (Heeks,
1999). Thus, there is an obvious “opportunity cost” attached to ICT investment failure
in developing nation contexts (Heeks, 1999, p.16; Heeks, 2002b). Given this fact,
finding solutions to a problem such as sustainability failure which could prevent the
accrual of maximum benefits from ICT investments and waste resources developing
nations can ill-afford to squander, is important. Secondly, challenges pertaining to
sustainability contribute to international donor agencies’ diluted interest in investing in
ICTs for development in less-developed nations (Bell, 2006). As such, resolving this
problem is important in terms of retaining continued donor sponsorship. Finally, the
sustainability of ICT projects in developing countries has been identified as a significant
but largely unaddressed topic that deserves the attention of researchers (Walsham et
al., 2006).
Prior to undertaking an exploration of project sustainability with reference to ICT4D
projects implemented in developing nations, it is important to define the meaning of
the term sustainability. The section that follows examines the extant literature in order
to arrive at the definition of project sustainability employed in the study.
2.5 Defining Project Sustainability
The term ‘sustainability’ encapsulates the idea of “…maintaining something that
already exists over time…” (Kimaro et al., 2005, p.275). Further, Pretty (1998, cited in
Batchelor et al., 2003, p.30) suggests that the concept of sustainability “...implies
15
persistence and the capacity of something to continue for a long time”. Therefore, in a
general sense, sustainability is a term that encompasses basic ideas such as continuity,
longevity, maintenance and persistence.
In terms of isolating a suitable definition for sustainability in the context of ICT4D
projects in developing nations as required by the study, definitions coined in relation
to development projects seems a prudent starting point. Such definitions are likely to
be relevant as ICT4D projects in developing nations are in essence development
projects themselves. Existing definitions of sustainability devised with reference to
development projects emphasise on different aspects. According to Shediac-Rizkallah
et al. (1998) the definitions promoted by international development agencies highlight
the perspective of delivery of project benefits as salient to sustainability. Illustrative
examples include the following:
The Operations Evaluation Department of the World Bank describes project
sustainability as “the ability of a project to maintain an acceptable level of benefit
flows through its economic life” (Bamberger et al., 1990, p.7)
USAID (1988, p.11) contends that “A development program is sustainable when it is
able to deliver an appropriate level of benefits for an extended period of time after
major financial, managerial and technical assistance from an external donor is
terminated.”
Other attempts at defining sustainability in relation to development projects highlight
the dynamic nature of sustainability. Such definitions describe sustainability from the
perspective of project continuation through an on-going process of adaptation. For
instance, in examining the sustainability of community-based health programmes,
Shediac-Rizkallah et al. (1998) opted to view sustainability as a dynamic, persistent and
evolutionary process of project survival, through continuous adjustment to emerging
needs and situations.
As suggested by the definitions cited above, the term sustainability in the context of
development projects refers to more than the mere existence and continuity of a
project. It also encapsulates the ideas of a productive project existence in the sense of
sustained delivery of project benefits at acceptable levels and a persistent process of
adaptation towards ensuring project survival.
16
In the case of ICT4D projects implemented in developing nations, it is difficult to find
well-established definitions of project sustainability. Drawing attention to this paucity
of acceptable definitions Keniston (2003a) declares that “....one is struck with the
almost complete absence of any adequate or realistic definition of sustainability”.
Further, existing discourse falls short of explicitly distinguishing between the
sustainability of ICT4D projects in developing nations and other types of projects.
However, available definitions indicate that notions such as project continuity, project
endurance and prolonged delivery of project benefits identified in relation to
development projects in general are applicable in the case of the sustainability of
ICT4D projects in developing nations as well. For instance, Jacobs et al., (2005, p.60)
declares that “sustainability for a project or an organization means being able to
maintain or prolong the services with the means available”. Further, Heeks (2002b,
p.102) describes the “sustainability failure” of an ICT project in a developing country
context as “an initiative that at first succeeds but is then abandoned after a year or
so.”
Project sustainability in the case of ICT4D projects in developing nations is often
considered in the very narrow economic terms of financial sustainability (for example
see, UNESCAP, 2002; Munyua, 2000). However, some researchers point out the
existence of other equally important dimensions, describing sustainability as a
complex, multi-dimensional phenomenon. As an example, Keniston (2003a) claims that
sustainability in the case of ICT4D projects “.....is not simply a matter of economics: it
also means rootedness in local communities; it means cultural and political
acceptance; it means value to individuals”. Focusing on community telecentres, Stoll et
al. (2003) emphasises the importance of paying attention to other facets of
sustainability such as social and cultural sustainability, political sustainability and
technological sustainability. Combining the work of several authors including Stoll et al.
(2003), Batchelor et al. (2003) and Hietanen (2002), Pade et al. (2006) proposes a
number of categories of sustainability that must prevail in harmony in order to achieve
sustainability in the case of a rural ICT project implemented in a developing country.
The proposed categories include social and cultural sustainability, institutional
sustainability, economic/financial sustainability, political sustainability and
technological sustainability. Finally, introducing a “Sustainability Failure Model” by
drawing upon their study of an e-government project implemented in India, Kumar et
17
al. (2006) identifies “five principal modes” of sustainability failure, namely,
Financial/economic sustainability failure, Cultural/social sustainability failure,
Technological sustainability failure, Political/institutional sustainability failure and
Environmental sustainability failure.
Amalgamating the various definitions and the positions examined above, project
sustainability in the context of ICT4D projects in developing nations is defined as a
phenomenon characterised by:
Project continuity and longevity in the sense of maintenance of uninterrupted
project operations for a significant period of time
Project adaptation in the sense of project survival through a persistent process of
adjustment to emerging needs and situations
Productive project existence in the sense of sustained delivery of anticipated
project benefits at an acceptable level over an extended period of time
Ability of a project to prevail from the perspective of multiple dimensions such as
socio-cultural, financial, technological, political and environmental dimensions
2.6 Sustainability of ICT4D Projects: A Review of Influencing Factors
As highlighted previously, sustaining ICT4D projects in developing nations is no mean
feat. According to the literature, a diverse range of factors impact such projects’
capacity to survive and flourish in the long run. The various factors that influence the
sustainability of ICT4D projects in developing nations are presented in this section. The
factors are classified under six major dimensions of project sustainability, namely, the
socio-cultural dimension, the project execution dimension, the financial dimension, the
technology dimension, the macro environment dimension and the information
dimension. The dimensions were determined by drawing on two sources i.e.
commentary on the various dimensions of sustainability identified by authors such as
Bamberger et al. (1990), Stoll et al. (2003), Batchelor et al. (2002) and Pade et al.
(2006) and the researcher’s own interpretation of the types of influencing factors that
affect the sustainability of ICT4D projects in developing nations identified in the
literature.
It is worthwhile to comment on the general nature of the key studies that identified
the listed factors. Some studies exclusively examined ICT4D project sustainability (for
18
example see, Sarker, 2003). Others were more restricted in scope and pre-dominantly
addressed a specific dimension of ICT4D project sustainability such as financial
sustainability (for example see, Keniston, 2003a). Some studies focused more widely
on ICT-enabled development interventions, commenting on project sustainability as
one of the issues that must be addressed (for example see, UNESCAP, 2002; Dossani et
al., 2005). Finally, there were studies that highlighted a range of factors associated
with project sustainability, whilst commenting in general on realising the potential of
ICTs in a specific developing country context (for example see, Cecchini, 2003).
The Socio-cultural Dimension:
This dimension covers factors that influence the sustainability of ICT-enabled
development interventions in developing nations, associated with the social and
cultural context within which such projects are implemented. Some examples for
socio-cultural factors are:
Level of basic literacy and IT literacy in the community served by the project
(Dossani et al., 2005; UNESCAP, 2002)
Social inequalities such as gender disparity, class and caste inequalities that act
as barriers to community usage of rural ICT facilities (Cecchini, 2003; Bell, 2006)
Degree to which local governance and power structures of the community is
supportive of sustainability (Kanungo, 2004; Roman et al, 2002)
Degree of community trust in project implementers (Arunachalam, 2002)
Community members’ understanding of the value of information (Roman et al.,
2002) and their perceived value of ICTs in relation to their lives (Kanungo, 2002)
Extent of community participation in the project and local ownership of the
project (Sarker, 2003; Kanungo, 2004; Cecchini, 2003; Whyte, 1999)
Degree of community awareness of the services and benefits offered by the
project (Dossani et al., 2005; Cecchini, 2003).
The Project Execution Dimension:
This dimension encompasses factors that impact the sustainability of ICT4D projects in
developing nations, pertaining to the various aspects of project execution (for
19
example, project design, implementation, operation, management, evaluation).
Examples for project execution-related factors include:
Clarity of project objectives (Bachelor et al., 2003)
Effectiveness of project/business planning (Keniston, 2003b) and robustness of
the business model employed in project execution (Bell, 2006)
Extent of community engagement in information needs assessment (Cecchini,
2003, Keniston, 2002)
Adequacy of local human resource capacity from a technical and organisational
capacity perspective (Batchelor et al., 2003). In particular, the capabilities of
the operators responsible for managing rural ICT facilities (Dossani et al., 2005;
Bell, 2006; Badsar et al., 2011).
Adequacy of Information Technology training provided to project staff and
project beneficiaries (Roman et al., 2002; Kimaro, 2006; UNESCAP, 2002;
Cecchini, 2003).
Strength of project leadership (Krishna et al., 2005)
Institutional and technical capacity of agencies responsible for project
execution (Kimaro et al., 2005)
Employment of project monitoring and review processes (Kanungo, 2004)
Project re-design and adjustment (Sarker, 2003)
Robustness of contracts drawn with entities involved in project execution
(Kimaro et al., 2005)
The Financial Dimension:
This dimension encompasses factors involving the various financial elements that
influence the sustainability of ICT4D projects in developing nations. Finance-related
factors include the following:
Accuracy and comprehensiveness in estimating project costs (Keniston, 2003a)
Availability of constant revenue streams (Kaushik, 2006)
20
The Technology Dimension:
This dimension includes factors that influence the sustainability of ICT4D projects in
developing nations, pertaining to the technologies employed in such projects. Some
examples for technology-related factors are:
Adequacy and reliability of ICT infrastructure (Dossani et al., 2005; Kimaro et
al., 2005; Mayanja, n.d.)
Efficiency of mechanisms for the maintenance of ICT infrastructure (Dossani et
al., 2005)
Appropriateness of the chosen ICT solutions in terms of the constraints
encountered in developing nation contexts (Bhatnagar, 2000).
The Macro Environment Dimension:
This dimension encompasses a range of factors pertaining to the macro environment
that influences the sustainability of ICT4D projects in developing nations.
Examples for macro environment-related factors include:
Degree to which the policy and regulatory environment is supportive of
sustainability (Batchelor et al., 2003; Whyte, 1999; Bell, 2006)
Degree to which the political environment is conducive to sustainability
(Krishna et al., 2005; Braa et al., 2004)
Degree to which the government organizational context is supportive of
sustainability (Krishna et al., 2005).
Adequacy of the basic physical infrastructure in the implementation context
such as power supply, roads and transportation (Dossani et al., 2005; Kimaro et
al., 2005)
The Information Dimension:
This dimension includes influencing factors related to the content (i.e. the information)
and the services offered to project beneficiaries by ICT4D projects in developing
nations. Some examples for such content and service-related factors are:
21
Availability of content and services relevant to the needs of the communities
served by the project (Badsar et al., 2011; Bell, 2006; Akbar, 2006; Dossani et
al., 2005; Kaushik, 2006)
Efficiency of content maintenance (Caspary et al., 2003)
Affordability of the services offered to the community (UNESCAP, 2002;
Caspary et al., 2003)
Considering the wide range of influencing factors listed above, it is easy to envision
why sustaining ICT4D projects in developing nations could prove a complex challenge.
2.7 Criteria for Assessing Project Sustainability
With regard to assessing the degree of sustainability achieved by an ICT project that
targets development in a developing nation, the literature offers several useful sources
that may be drawn upon to derive an appropriate list of criteria for assessment. One
such source, Bamberger et al. (1990, p.9), proposes indicators of project sustainability
with reference to social development projects. The suggested approach involves
gauging the extent of project sustainability on the basis of a set of indicators reflective
of four major aspects, namely, continued delivery of project services and benefits,
maintenance of physical infrastructure relevant to the project, long-term institutional
capacity to sustain project operations and key stakeholder or political support for the
project. Appendix 2.1 presents the suggested list of indicators.
Another particularly relevant source of indicators of project sustainability is Krishna et
al.’s (2005) study which identifies principal features of successful public IS
implementations in a developing country context. In this study, the authors apply
several criteria to ascertain whether the IS projects under scrutiny are sustainable. The
criteria include continuous project operation for a considerable length of time,
significant site replication and expansion of project coverage and scope, presence of
economic and organisational factors conducive for sustaining the project’s IS, delivery
of noteworthy economic returns by the project, retained interest of project investors
and the degree of enthusiasm of target project beneficiaries. Drawing upon the two
sources highlighted above, the following list of criteria are suggested as a starting point
for ascertaining the degree of sustainability attained by an ICT4D project implemented
in a developing nation.
22
1. Continuous project operation for a considerable length of time
2. Significant site replication and expansion of project coverage and scope
3. Retained interest of project investors
4. Degree of enthusiasm and satisfaction of project beneficiaries
5. Delivery of noteworthy benefits by the project
6. Comparison of actual and intended benefits and services and their stability over
time
7. Efficiency of service delivery and the quality of services
8. Condition of physical infrastructure and equipment
9. Adequacy of procedures for project maintenance
10. Availability of adequate resources for project maintenance
11. Capacity and mandate of the principal operating agencies
12. Flexibility and capacity to adapt project design and operation to changing
circumstances
13. Adequacy of interagency co-ordination
14. Adequacy of co-ordination with community organizations and beneficiaries
15. Strength and stability of support from international agencies, the national
government, provincial and local government agencies and the community
16. Extent to which the project has built a broad base of support and avoided
becoming politically controversial
2.8 An Assessment of Current Understanding on the Research Topic
The findings of the literature review reveal that the sustainability of ICT4D projects in
developing nations is a less-understood phenomenon. Accordingly, several limitations
are noted with regard to the content, breadth and comprehensiveness of the existing
body of work that focuses on this topic.
As already highlighted under section 2.5, a fundamental knowledge gap that is
immediately obvious is the lack of strong definitions of sustainability specific to ICT4D
projects in developing nations. Studies do identify critical categories/dimensions of
23
sustainability with reference to such projects (for example see, Pade et al., 2006).
However, there is a lack of well-articulated definitions that make a precise statement
on the exact meaning of sustainability in the context of ICT-enabled development
interventions in the developing world.
Another limitation is the paucity of in-depth studies on the research topic. Researchers
do acknowledge the need for addressing the sustainability of ICT4D projects in
developing nations (for example see, UNESCAP, 2002; Keniston, 2003b). Nevertheless,
studies that undertake an exhaustive exploration of the topic are rare. In particular,
studies that focus solely on the sustainability of ICT4D projects in developing nations in
an effort to meticulously uncover the ‘inner workings’ or ‘underlying mechanics’ of
sustainability, are uncommon.
Perusal of existing research also reveals the importance ascribed to the dimension of
financial sustainability (for example see, Keniston, 2003a; Harris et al., 2003; UNESCAP,
2002; Munyua, 2000). This emphasis is definitely justified given both the criticality and
the acknowledged challenge of attaining financial sustainability highlighted by
researchers (for example see, Harris et al., 2003; Cecchini, 2003). Yet researchers also
point out the existence of other important dimensions of sustainability associated with
the technologies employed, the community, the macro environment, institutional
arrangements etc., which deserve equal attention (for example see, Stoll et al., 2003;
Pade et al., 2006; Keniston, 2003a). However, studies that extend beyond financial
concerns to explore such dimensions in detail are limited in number.
The next observed limitation is the dearth of studies that examines the sustainability of
ICT4D projects in developing nations subject to a strong theoretical foundation. Studies
that employ established theories to make sense of this phenomenon do exist (for
example see, Braa et al., 2004). However, most studies comprise a general
commentary rather than a theoretically grounded interpretation.
Another limitation in the existing research involves the approach adopted in examining
project sustainability. Typically, the sustainability of ICT4D projects in developing
nations is examined in terms of influencing factors or dimensions (for example see,
Pade et al., 2006; Stoll et al., 2003; Kumar et al., 2006; Best et al., 2008; Gordon et al.,
2007; Pade-Khene et al., 2011). Despite being a useful approach, such analyses fail to
do justice to the complex web of relationships and interactions involved in sustaining
24
ICT-enabled development interventions in the developing world. Further, such
interpretations are intrinsically static in nature and limited in terms of capturing the
true nature of project sustainability as a dynamic, ever-evolving phenomenon that
unfolds over time. Rare studies that have analysed the relationships between key
project entities to understand the unsustainability of ICT-enabled development
interventions in developing country contexts (for example see, Kimaro et al., 2005),
although not addressing the relationships in dynamic terms, hint at the potential
benefits of adopting a relationship-based view of project sustainability.
While the literature stresses the significance of sustainability in relation to ICT projects
that target development in developing nations (for example see, Keniston, 2003a), the
scarcity of sufficiently prescriptive guidelines on how to go about meeting this
challenge is conspicuous. In particular, there is a noticeable lack of comprehensive
normative guidelines and frameworks that could be employed in facilitating the
sustainability of ICT4D projects in less-developed nations. In addition, there is a lack of
theories that shed light on this phenomenon.
2.9 Conclusion
ICTs are recognised as a promising enabler of development in developing nations.
Subscribing to this view, both developing nations and the international development
community have invested a vast amount of resources in harnessing ICTs in an array of
application areas important for development. However, the failure of ICT4D projects in
developing nations is an extremely common occurrence. In particular, the difficulty of
sustaining ICT projects that target development in developing nations is a pervasive
and pressing issue.
Project sustainability in the context of ICT4D projects in developing nations is a
complex, multi-dimensional phenomenon. It is characterised by project continuity and
longevity, project adaptation, productive project existence and the ability of a project
to prevail from the perspective of multiple dimensions such as socio-cultural, financial,
technological, political and environmental dimensions.
In terms of the forces that determine project sustainability, a diverse range of factors
influence the sustainability of ICT4D projects in developing nations. These factors may
be classified under six major dimensions. The dimensions are the socio-cultural
25
dimension, the project execution dimension, the financial dimension, the technology
dimension, the macro environment dimension and the information dimension.
Further, the degree of sustainability attained by an ICT-enabled development
intervention implemented in a developing nation may be ascertained by employing
sixteen indicative criteria that are proposed in the chapter by drawing on the work of
Bamberger et al. (1990) and Krishna et al. (2005).
With regard to the extent of current understanding on the research topic, based on the
findings of the literature review, the sustainability of ICT4D projects in developing
nations is deemed a less-understood phenomenon that requires further exploration.
Knowledge gaps that must be addressed through future research include the necessity
of coining well-articulated, precise definitions of project sustainability in the context of
ICT-enabled development interventions in the developing world. There is also a need
for exhaustive studies on this topic that pay equal attention to the various dimensions
of project sustainability. Ideally, such studies should be based on a strong theoretical
foundation, undertake analysis that extends beyond the analysis of factors or
dimensions that influence project sustainability and aspire to develop frameworks and
theories that offer guidance on achieving project sustainability.
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Chapter 3: Theoretical Framework
3.1 Introduction
This chapter discusses the theoretical foundations of the study and introduces the
framework of analysis employed in exploring the phenomenon examined, namely, the
sustainability of ICT4D projects implemented in developing nations. The fundamental
purpose of the chapter is to explain the ‘world-view’ that shaped inquiry.
The chapter begins by outlining the approach adopted in the study to examine project
sustainability, which was the basis for isolating a suitable theoretical framework. The
next section focuses on the meta-theoretical view employed in the study. This is
followed a section that introduces the chosen theoretical lens, presenting the key
arguments that support its selection. The final section of the chapter elaborates on the
theoretical lens by describing its salient elements.
3.2 Approach to Exploring Project Sustainability
The study aspired to explore the sustainability of ICT4D projects in developing nations,
in a manner that transcends the limitations noted in extant studies that address the
topic. The approach adopted was geared towards realising this aspiration and involved
a number of key goals pertaining to inquiry, as outlined below.
The first goal was to undertake a comprehensive and encompassing investigation of
the sustainability of ICT4D projects in less-developed country contexts, which captures
the wide variety of influencing elements that shape the phenomenon. In particular, it
was important to overcome the limitation of emphasis on financial and technological
elements, evident in many existing studies (chapter 2). Drawing on the results of the
literature review which identified six major dimensions and a diverse array of factors
associated with the sustainability of ICT4D projects in developing nations, it was
concluded that achieving the goal of comprehensive and encompassing investigation
called for equal examination of both technical and social elements.
Extant studies that comment on the sustainability of ICT4D projects in the developing-
world adopt the typical approach of identifying factors or dimensions that influence
sustainability (chapter 2). While there is definite value in employing such an approach,
the outcome is static and flat analyses of a phenomenon that is inherently dynamic in
27
nature. Thus, the second goal pertaining to inquiry was to extend beyond such flat
analyses and explore project sustainability in a manner that captures its intrinsic
nature as an ever-evolving, dynamic phenomenon that unfolds over time.
The third goal pertaining to inquiry was to explore the underlying ‘mechanics’ of the
phenomenon of interest in depth and capture its complexity. It was asserted that
examining the sustainability of ICT4D projects in developing nations in terms of the
complex interactions and relationships which are an intrinsic part of it would enable to
accomplish this goal.
The preferred approach to investigation outlined above served as the fundamental
basis for isolating a theoretical framework appropriate for the study. The requirement
was to find a theoretical framework that facilitated such inquiry. The account that
follows documents the search for such a theoretical framework. The next section
focuses on the first step of determining the overarching meta-theoretical view to be
employed in executing the study.
3.3 Meta-Theoretical View
The search for a meta-theoretical view appropriate for the study commenced within
the realm of theoretical traditions that conceptualise the relationship between
technology and society. Theoretical traditions of this nature seemed a prudent starting
point, given that the study focuses on a socio-technical phenomenon. Two such
prominent theoretical traditions, i.e. technological determinism and social
constructivism (Hanseth et al., 1997), were initially evaluated as potential options.
The theoretical tradition of technological determinism portrays technology as a driver
and determinant of social change (Smith, 1994). This uni-directional theoretical view
assigns prominence to technology and fails to acknowledge the role played by social
constraints in shaping technology (Smith, 1994). Thus, a meta-theoretical stance
grounded in technological determinism was identified as likely to be of limited use in
the case of the study, which investigates a phenomenon such as project sustainability
where exploring the influence of social elements is of paramount importance. This
conclusion encouraged consideration of an alternative meta-theoretical view that
emphasises on the social, i.e. social constructivism, as a possible option.
28
Social constructivism or the Social Construction of Technology (SCOT) adopts the
position that the development of technology is “grounded in and constituted by social
forces” (Lea et al., 1995, p.463). According to this theoretical view, social groups
possess the capacity to influence the development of technology and the design of a
technical artefact may continue to evolve well beyond its development stage, as it is
used and interpreted by relevant social groups (Bijker, 1992). In essence, technical
artefacts arrive at their ultimate form and function through a process of socially
grounded construction of meaning (Bijker, 1992; Lea et al., 1995). While a social
constructivist theoretical view does support the study requirement of addressing the
social facet of project sustainability, its lack of attention to technology as a defining
force made it a less than ideal meta-theoretical view for the study.
Having recognised the limitations of the theoretical positions discussed above, it was
apparent that the study called for a meta-theoretical view that avoids adopting an
extreme stance that is uni-directional and deterministic from the perspective of either
technology or society. Thus, a decision was made to adopt an intermediate meta-
theoretical position (Hanseth et al., 1997) that acknowledges the relevance of both the
technical and the social. Accordingly, several theories and analytical approaches that
meet this criterion were considered as possible frameworks of analysis for the study.
This included Socio-Technical Interaction Networks (Kling et al., 2003), Web Models
(Kling, 1992), Structuration Theory (Orlikowski et al., 1991) and Actor-Network Theory
(Callon, 1986). In comparison to the other options, a theoretical lens based on Actor-
Network Theory was chosen as the framework of analysis most appropriate for the
research. Avoiding a deterministic stance, Actor-Network Theory adopts a “co-
constructionist” position in relation to technology and society, contending that “the
process of constructing technology and its users is a reflexive one in which both
technology and social groups mutually elaborate each other” (Lea et al., 1995, p.464).
The section that follows introduces the Actor-Network Theory and explains the
reasoning behind its selection as the theoretical lens for the study.
3.4 A Theoretical Lens based on Actor-Network Theory
The Actor-Network Theory (ANT) was developed by Bruno Latour, Michel Callon and
John Law in the 1980s (Stanforth, 2006). It has its origins in the field of Science and
Technology Studies, an area of research “that has developed conceptual constructs to
29
deal with the processes through which technologies are developed and influence
societies” (Stanforth, 2006, p. 38).
In terms of its core form, ANT employs “a network metaphor” to make sense of
technological innovation (Law et al., 1992, p.21; Callon, 1986). It conceptualises the
conduct and fate of technology projects from the perspective of “creation of networks
of aligned interests” that comprise heterogeneous (i.e. human and non human)
elements identified as actors (Callon, 1986; Latour, 1987; Madon et al., 2004; Mahring
et al., 2004, p.213). Examples for such heterogeneous elements include people,
institutions, documents and technical objects (Law et al., 1992).
ANT’s distinctiveness as a theoretical position lies in its equal treatment of non human
elements as legitimate actors that are active participants in socio-technical
phenomena (Stanforth, 2006; Callon, 1986; Law et al., 1992). The theory’s refusal to
draw a distinction between human and non human elements, promotes the discovery
of the mechanisms that bring together the various actors in a socio-technical network,
without the need to consider whether the associated means are technical or non-
technical in nature (Faraj et al., 2004; Hanseth et al. 1997).
In applying ANT, researchers typically follow how key human actors who declare
themselves as proponents for the achievement of a particular technological goal, build
alliances with both other humans and non-human actors thereby creating networks
towards reaching the defined goal (Callon, 1986; Law et al., 1992; Stanforth, 2006). An
illustrative example is Callon’s seminal study which follows the progress of a scientific
project that aspired to conserve a population of scallops located in St Brieuc Bay in
France (Callon, 1986). The study describes how three scientists who position
themselves as the champions of this cause engage in convincing and recruiting the
necessary allies (e.g. local fishermen, scientific colleagues, scallops) thereby
constructing socio-technical networks towards achieving their objective. It explains the
progress and the eventual fate of the scientific venture in terms of the formation and
transformation of the identified networks and the negotiations that take place
between the entities that are a part of it.
ANT was chosen as the framework of analysis for the study as it supported the
preferred approach to inquiring on project sustainability outlined earlier in the chapter
under section 3.2. A fundamental reason for its selection is the theory’s capacity to
30
support the requirement of undertaking a comprehensive and encompassing
investigation of project sustainability, taking into account both technical and social
elements. ANT’s consideration and equal treatment of both the technical and the
social (Callon, 1986; Law et al., 1992; Stanforth, 2006; Lea et al., 1995) enables holistic
exploration of project sustainability without privileging either technical or social
aspects.
ANT also accommodates the requirement of exploring project sustainability as an ever-
evolving, dynamic phenomenon that unfolds over time. It enables such inquiry given
its facilitation of “telling stories and tracing histories” (Stanforth, 2006, p. 39) and
provision of analytic constructs such as network analysis (section 3.5.2) that could be
employed to map the trajectory of a technology project.
Finally, ANT meets the requirement of exploring the underlying ‘mechanics’ of project
sustainability and capturing its complexity through the examination of the complex
interactions and relationships involving the phenomenon. The theory’s adoption of a
network metaphor and focus on the construction and transformation of relationships
between entities in the networks permits such inquiry.
In addition to the reasons highlighted above, ANT was also selected on consideration
of its overall credibility as a theory, in general and within the discipline of Information
Systems. According to Stanforth (2006, p.38), ANT “is well established and there is an
important hinterland of work explaining, critiquing, developing and applying the
theory”. Within the field of Information Systems, it has been successfully employed by
previous researchers to explain the evolution and fate of IT projects/solutions (for
example see, Stanforth, 2006; Faraj et al., 2004). Finally, ANT is a fairly stable theory
given that it has been enhanced in the years following its conception by a small group
of researchers such as its pioneers and other researchers such as John Law, grounded
in the original work (Mahring et al., 2004; Stanforth, 2006). The next section describes
the key elements that make up the ANT-based theoretical lens employed in the study.
3.5 Key Elements of the Theoretical Lens
The theoretical lens employed in the study comprises the following salient concepts
drawn from ANT. The concepts were selected on consideration of their capacity to
support the preferred approach to investigating project sustainability. This approach of
31
employing cherry-picked concepts out of a theory as opposed to employing a theory in
its entirety is a legitimate approach that has been adopted in previous ANT-based
studies in the field of IS (for example see, Stanforth, 2006; Braa et al., 2004; Lea et al.,
1995).
3.5.1 Translation
Translation refers to the process by which actor-networks are constructed (Stanforth,
2006). According to Callon (1986, p. 203), translation is the process “during which the
identity of actors, the possibility of interaction and the margins of manoeuvre are
negotiated and delimited”. It involves four phases, namely, problematization,
interessement, enrollment and mobilisation, identified as “the four moments of
translation” (Callon, 1986, p.203). During the problematization phase, certain actors
assume the role of initiators in resolving a defined problem. They articulate a solution
to the problem and establish themselves as indispensable entities or “an obligatory
passage point” in bringing together an appropriate network of actors towards problem
resolution (Callon, 1986, p. 204; Madon et al., 2004; Mahring et al., 2004). The next
phase, interessement, is defined as “the group of actions by which an entity attempts
to impose and stabilize the identity of the other actors it defines through its
problematization” (Callon, 1986, pp. 207 - 208). During this phase, the key actors lock
in the allies required for problem resolution by isolating them from competing
influences and convincing them that the solution articulated by the key actors is in fact
the only possible solution to the problem and that subscribing to it would be beneficial
to the allies (Callon, 1986; Madon et al., 2004). To win over allies, the key actors may
employ a variety of strategies including the use of tactics such as force and seduction
(Callon, 1986). The next phase in the translation process, enrollment, involves the
actual formation of the desired alliances through the definition, attribution and
acceptance of actor roles (Callon, 1986). During the final phase, i.e. mobilisation, the
key actors become the ultimate representatives of the actors within the network,
effectively mobilising them towards problem resolution (Callon, 1986). Further, during
the course of translation, actors produce and circulate intermediaries, which are
defined as “anything passing between actors that defines the relationship between
them” (Lea et al. 1995, p.466). Examples for intermediaries that circulate between
32
actors within heterogeneous networks include “texts, technical artifacts, monies or
human skills” (Stanforth, 2006, p.39).
Previous researchers have successfully employed the concept of translation to
examine the progress of technology projects/innovations and explain their eventual
fate. Examples for such studies from the field of Information Systems include
Stanforth’s (2006) analysis of the implementation of an e-government initiative in a
developing country and Mahring et al.’s (2004) study which examined IT project
escalation by focusing on the computerised baggage handling system implemented at
the Denver International Airport. As evident from such studies, translation is a concept
that is extremely useful in making sense of the progress and transformation of
technology projects over time. It facilitates the identification and study of entities,
mechanisms, interactions and contextual elements that define the course of
technology projects.
3.5.2 Network Analysis
Network analysis was developed as a part of a study which employed an ANT view to
examine the evolution of a large-scale British aviation design project, namely, the
construction of the TSR2 military aircraft (Law et al., 1992). The study investigated the
history of this project and explained its eventual failure from the view point of
construction and transformation of two linked heterogeneous networks identified as
the global network and the local network. A global network can be defined as “a
network that is built up, deliberately or otherwise, and that generates a space, a
period of time, and a set of resources in which innovation may take place” (Law et al.,
1992, p.21). In essence, it is a network that mobilises the necessary resources and
creates a favourable environment so that a technological innovation can be built. A
local network can be described as the network involved in “the development of an
array of the heterogeneous set of bits and pieces that is necessary to the successful
production of any working device” (Law et al., 1992, p.22). In essence, it is the network
that is directly involved in constructing a technological innovation.
Having identified the two types of networks defined above, Law et al. (1992, p.46)
traced the formation and reshaping of these networks over the lifetime of the TSR2
project to conclude that the “shape and fate of technological projects” depends upon
several factors. This includes a project’s capacity to construct and sustain an enabling
33
global network, a project’s capacity to construct and sustain an enabling local network
and a project’s capacity to maintain an effective connection between the two
networks. As a part of their analysis, they also devised a two-dimensional graph
(appendix 3.1). The graph enables to plot the trajectory of a technological project over
time, in relation to the status of its global and local networks. In this graph, “the x axis
measures the degree of mobilization of local actors (control over local network) and
the y axis measures the extent to which external actors are linked (control over global
network)” (Law et al., 1992, p.47).
The concept of global and local networks and network analysis offers a useful
framework for undertaking historical analysis of the trajectory followed by technology
projects. It is particularly valuable in understanding a technology project’s deviations
and detours from its originally designated path. Examples of studies from the field of
Information Systems that have engaged these concepts include Stanforth’s (2006)
examination of the implementation of an e-government initiative in a developing
nation and Lea et al.’s (1995) study that explored the development of an electronic
communications system within a professional services company in the information
industry.
3.5.3 Inscription
In designing a technical object, innovators make assumptions about its potential users
and the world within which it will eventually operate. Such beliefs in turn play a role in
shaping the form of the technical object as it is developed (Akrich, 1992). The concept
of inscription refers to the process by which the interests, visions, motives and ideas of
those involved in creating a technical object become an intrinsic part of it, thereby
shaping its form (Akrich, 1992; Mahring et al., 2004). According to Akrich (1992), such
shaping of a technical object does not end at the point of creation by its inventors.
Instead, the ultimate form of the technical object is determined as the result of
negotiations that occur when the technical object confronts the real world and is used
and interpreted by its real users. Thus, Akrich (1992, pp. 208-209) contended that
understanding the form and fate of technical objects required an exploration of the
negotiations that take place “between the designer and the user, between the
designer’s projected user and the real user, between the world inscribed in the object
and the world described by its displacement”.
34
In terms of its usefulness as a concept, inscription offers a conceptual means of
unravelling the story behind how technical objects come to assume their ultimate
form. It can be employed to understand technical objects that are a part of
heterogeneous networks and discern the role that they play in socio-technical
phenomena. Thus, in terms of the study, this concept would prove useful in
understanding the role played by technology in project sustainability.
3.6 Conclusion
The study employs a theoretical lens that draws on Actor-Network Theory (ANT) to
explore the sustainability of ICT4D projects in developing nations. ANT subscribes to a
meta-theoretical view that is co-constructivist with regard to its conceptualisation of
the relationship between technology and society. This theory was chosen as the
framework of analysis for the study based on a number of reasons. The first reason
was its facilitation of comprehensive and encompassing inquiry that pays equal
attention to the technical and the social, a feature that is desirable given the socio-
technical nature of project sustainability. The second reason was its capacity to
support investigation of project sustainability as a dynamic phenomenon. The third
reason was its potential usefulness in uncovering the underlying mechanics and
capturing the complexity of project sustainability. In terms of the composition of the
ANT-based theoretical lens employed in the study, its salient elements include
translation, network analysis and inscription.
35
Chapter 4: Research Methodology
4.1 Introduction
This chapter discusses the methodology employed in addressing the research question.
It describes the methodological choices made and the philosophical positions assumed
in research execution, revealing the deliberations involved in their selection.
The chapter begins by justifying the epistemological stance adopted in the research.
This is followed by a discussion of the chosen research method and its appropriateness
for exploring the research question. The next section focuses on the key techniques
employed in collecting the data. This is followed by a discussion of the data collection
procedures. The approach adopted in data analysis is presented thereafter. The final
section of the chapter outlines the various strategies adopted to ensure research
rigour.
4.2 Research Epistemology: An Interpretivist Perspective
The epistemological paradigms considered in determining the philosophical stance
appropriate for the research include interpretivism and positivism. The interpretivist
view contends that people construct their own meanings of the world and as such
reality can only be defined in subjective terms (Sarantakos, 2005). It is an
epistemological perspective that distinguishes between natural and social realities
(Gray, 2004) and “assumes the possibility of multiple realities” (Gilbert, 2008, p.509).
Adopting an alternative position, the positivist view argues that “reality consists of
what is available to the senses” and that “the natural and social worlds operated
within a strict set of laws which science had to discover through empirical inquiry”
(Gray, 2004, p.18). Thus, positivism is a philosophical stance that is intrinsically rooted
in principles such as objectivism, determinism and quantitative measurement
(Sarantakos, 2005).
The study addresses the research question of “How can ICT projects for development
(ICT4D projects) in developing nations achieve sustainability?” A positivist approach is
limited in investigating such a research question for a number of reasons. The physical
or natural science model that positivism adheres to (Sarantakos, 2005; Robson, 2002)
is unsuitable for examining a phenomenon such as the sustainability of ICT4D projects
36
in developing nations which requires contextually and socially-situated interpretation.
Further, the deductive and predictive approach to inquiry employed in positivism
(Gray, 2004) restricts freedom of inquiry and inhibits discovery, requirements which
are essential for exploring a less understood phenomenon such as project
sustainability in the context of ICT4D projects in developing nations. Finally, the
phenomenon examined in the study does not lend itself to quantitative measurement,
which is an intrinsic requirement of positivism (Sarantakos, 2005).
In comparison to positivism, an interpretivist epistemological stance is more
appropriate for addressing the research question for several reasons. Project
sustainability in the context of ICT4D projects in developing nations is a phenomenon
that is inextricably embedded within its wider context. Thus, gaining a true
understanding of this phenomenon calls for a philosophical approach that enables
holistic, contextually-grounded interpretation. An interpretivist stance meets this
requirement as it facilitates gaining a “ “holistic” (systemic, en-compassing, integrated)
overview of the context under study” (Miles et al., 1994, p.6). Further, the
sustainability of ICT4D projects implemented in the developing-world is a relatively
unexplored, less-understood research topic in relation to which there is a lack of
extensive theory. Therefore, an epistemological paradigm such as interpretivism that
targets the ultimate objective of “understanding, discovery, description, meaning”
(Merriam, 1998, p.9) is an appropriate choice. In addition, interpretivism adopts an
inductive approach to building knowledge and involves construction of theory by
drawing upon field experiences (Merriam, 1998). Thus, it supports the research
requirement of theory development on project sustainability. Finally, an interpretivist
approach is characterised by an orientation towards flexibility and a preference for an
unstructured approach to inquiry (Bryman, 2001; Ghauri et al., 2005), a feature that is
useful given the research requirement of discovery.
4.3 Research Method: An Interpretivist Case Study
The study employs an interpretivist case study method to explore the research
question. A case study could be defined as “an in-depth description and analysis of a
bounded system” (Merriam, 2009, p.40). Described from the perspective of the
research process, “a case study is an empirical inquiry that investigates a
contemporary phenomenon within its real-life context, especially when the boundaries
37
between phenomenon and context are not clearly evident" (Yin, 1994, p.13; Merriam,
2009). The case study method facilitates the adoption of different epistemological
paradigms such as interpretivism and positivism, supports the employment of a
combination of data collection techniques and accommodates varied research goals
such as building theory, testing theory and description of phenomena (Cavaye, 1996;
Darke et al., 1998; Yin, 1994).
Selection of the interpretivist case study as the research method that best serves study
needs was based upon several arguments. An interpretivist case study “aims to
understand the case in depth, and in its natural setting, recognising its complexity and
its context” (Punch, 2005). Thus, it meets the research requirement for a method that
facilitates in-depth, holistic and contextually-situated interpretation of project
sustainability in the context of ICT4D projects in developing nations. Further, the
interpretivist case study method is selected when researchers’ aspire towards “insight,
discovery, and interpretation rather than hypothesis testing” (Merriam, 2009, p.42), as
is the case in the study. Additionally, the case study method’s reputation as “the most
widely used qualitative research method in information systems research” (Orlikowski
et al., 1991, Myers, 1998 cited in Darke et al., 1998, p. 273 - 274) makes it a credible
choice. Finally, the fact that previous researchers have employed interpretivist case
studies to explore similar research problems successfully also encouraged its selection
(for example see, Kanungo, 2001; Kimaro et al., 2005).
Phenomena can be studied through the examination of a single case or a multiple
number of cases (Yin, 1994). In the study, the phenomenon of interest was explored
through a single case which comprised five embedded cases. A single case design was
chosen as it “enables the researcher to investigate a phenomenon in-depth, getting
close to the phenomenon, enabling a rich description and revealing its deep structure”
(Cavaye, 1996). The ability to undertake such comprehensive examination was
considered useful given the complexity and the currently limited understanding of the
phenomenon investigated in the study.
The case examined in the study is a large-scale, national-level ICT4D project named the
“Agriculture Knowledge Centre Project” for the purposes of the study, which was
launched in 2004 (note that the actual name of the project is not revealed in
adherence with the confidentiality requirements agreed to as a part of the research
38
ethics process). The project is implemented in a South Asian developing nation where
approximately 80% of the population is rural and more than 70% of the rural
population depend on agriculture for their livelihood. It is a government sector
initiative implemented by the country’s Department of Agriculture which aims to
contribute towards the national agenda of agricultural development by establishing an
efficient mechanism to deliver agriculture-related information required by the
country’s farming community. Towards this end, the project has established an
information network of fifty one Agriculture Knowledge Centres (AKCs) that utilise ICTs
for information dissemination. At present, the project is one of the most visible ICT-
enabled development interventions that target the agriculture sector operating in the
country.
The case was chosen for the study based on several criteria. The first criterion was
unrestricted access to research sites, respondents and project documentation granted
by the Project Director in charge of the AKC project. This guaranteed freedom of
inquiry, particularly in terms of examining aspects that hinder project sustainability.
Secondly, the selected project had been in existence for a sufficient length of time so
that exploration of its sustainability can be convincingly justified. Thirdly, the case
possessed a profile pertaining to project sustainability which is typical of ICT-enabled
development interventions implemented within less-developed country contexts.
Thus, it was deemed that the findings derived from the case have the potential of
being applicable elsewhere. Finally, the project’s scale, its complexity and its focus on a
sector critical to developing nations, made it an interesting prospect for study.
A single case such as the one chosen for the study and described above may be
examined holistically in its entirety or as a case which constitutes multiple, embedded
units of analysis (Yin, 1994; Gray, 2004). Preliminary investigation into the case
revealed the existence of AKCs with different statuses pertaining to sustainability. For
example, some AKCs were operational whilst others were struggling to maintain
operations or had been abandoned due to the inability to maintain operations. Thus,
the researcher contended that studying the AKC project holistically in its entirety
would fall short of realistic and encompassing interpretation of its sustainability. As
such, a single embedded case design was selected in order to capture and examine the
variations in sustainability that existed among the AKCs, towards richer understanding.
39
In terms of the number of units of analysis, five AKCs, each of which was treated as an
embedded case, were examined in the study. The chosen AKCs represent five different
statuses pertaining to sustainability observed in the project. The set of AKCs chosen
included an AKC that had maintained uninterrupted operations throughout its
existence, an AKC that had struggled to maintain uninterrupted operations throughout
its existence, a previously operational AKC that became inactive, a previously inactive
AKC that became operational and an AKC that was closed given its inability to maintain
operations.
4.4 Data Collection Techniques
The data collection techniques employed in the study include semi-structured
interviews, document analysis and technology artefact evaluation. The discussion that
follows briefly introduces these techniques and explains the reasoning behind their
selection for the study.
4.4.1 Semi-structured Interviews
Gray (2004, p.213) defines an interview as “a conversation between people in which
one person has the role of researcher”. Interviews were selected as the primary data
collection technique on consideration of several inherent features that support the
research requirement of investigating a less-understood phenomenon in retrospect.
The features include the technique’s ability to support exploratory research (Gray,
2004), its facilitation of reconstruction and understanding of events from the past that
the researcher did not experience personally (Rubin et al., 2005) and its usefulness in
investigating respondents’ perspectives and understanding of events (Walsham, 1995).
In terms of the type of interview, semi-structured interviews were chosen as the best
option for the study. Semi-structured interviews are a non-standardised form of
interview where while investigation is guided by a schedule of questions and issues,
the researcher retains the freedom to change the wording and ordering of questions
and introduce new questions (Gray, 2004; Merriam, 2009). This form of interviewing
allows a researcher to probe respondents to seek further clarification on topics under
discussion and pursue previously unanticipated lines of inquiry that may contribute
towards meeting research goals (Gray, 2004). Thus, semi-structured interviews were
selected for the study given their potential to generate rich insight on the
40
phenomenon of interest through the pursuit of interesting lines of inquiry and further
clarification of emerging themes and issues.
4.4.2 Document Analysis
Document analysis involves analysing the contents of written documents (Robson,
2002). It is an unobtrusive data collection technique that overcomes interaction-
related issues that may surface when employing obtrusive techniques such as
interviewing (Gray, 2004). In the study, document analysis was employed as a
supplementary data collection method. It served the multiple purposes of exploring
the background of the ICT4D project examined in the study, corroborating the data
gathered through semi-structured interviews and establishing the historical sequence
of events pertaining to project sustainability.
4.4.3 Technology Artefact Evaluation
Another supplementary data collection method employed in the study was technology
artefact evaluation. This involved examination of key technology artefacts associated
with the AKC project, to understand their role and impact in relation to project
sustainability. The evaluation entailed the study of elements such as the design,
construction, content, functionality and operational efficiency of the key technology
artefacts.
4.5 Data Collection Procedures
As the first step in data collection, a case study protocol was prepared to serve as a
guide in case exploration. The protocol addressed aspects such as the research project
background, substantive issues being investigated, study sites and contact persons,
access to key organisations and interviewees, schedule for data collection activities,
expected preparation prior to site visits, field procedures for each data collection
method to be employed, main lines of inquiry/case study questions and the basic
outline of the case study report.
In terms of the basic approach adopted in collecting the data, the Project Execution
Unit which was responsible for the implementation and management of the AKC
project was studied first. Thereafter, the five Agriculture Knowledge Centres
considered in the research were studied by conducting site visits which typically lasted
one week. Lastly, the agencies responsible for funding the AKC project were examined.
41
As noted in the previous section, the primary method of data collection employed in
the study was semi-structured interviews. Thus, a total number of seventy semi-
structured interviews were conducted by the researcher over a period of six months.
In terms of the list of research participants, those interviewed in relation to the Project
Execution Unit included the Project Director, the Project Manager, the Manager in
charge of the interactive CD development operation, the project implementation team
and the interactive CD development team. The list of research participants interviewed
in the case of each AKC included the AKC operator responsible for operating the AKCs,
senior officials of the Provincial Agriculture Authorities entrusted with maintaining and
administering the AKC, farmers who were the project beneficiaries and external local-
level parties that exerted an influence on the AKC such as officers of the Department
of Farmer Services. In the case of the funding agencies, the research participant
interviewed was the main representative appointed by the funding agency in relation
to the AKC project. Contact information on these research participants was obtained
via several means. The contact information on research participants from the Project
Execution Unit were provided by the Project Director during initial discussions
conducted to gain entry into the AKC project. The Project Manager provided the
contact information on AKC operators and funding agency representatives. The
researcher communicated with the AKC operators to obtain contact information on
research participants associated with each AKC such as senior officials from the
Provincial Agriculture Authority, farmers, and officers from the Department of Farmer
Services. In terms of how those interviewed were selected from all possible relevant
potential research participants, no selection was made in the case of research
participants from the Project Execution Unit and the funding agencies. With respect to
these entities, all key officers associated with the project were interviewed without
omission. In the case of research participants associated with the AKCs, the list of
farmers to be interviewed was determined based upon recommendations made by
both the AKC operator and officers from the Department of Farmer Services. Effort
was made to include farmers based on multiple criteria such as the extent of the
proximity of their physical location to the AKC, frequency of engagement with the AKC,
productivity in farming and diversity in attitudes. The selection of research participants
from the Provincial Agriculture Authority was determined by their availability for
interviewing and effort was made to interview at least one of the following key
42
officials, namely, the Provincial Director, the Deputy Director and the Assistant
Director. The chosen research participants were recruited by employing a formal
written consent mechanism approved by the University’s research ethics committee.
Upon detailed verbal explanation, an informed consent package (appendix 4.1) which
comprised an information sheet and a consent form written in a language of
preference (either English or the local language) was given to individuals who
expressed an interest in taking part in the study. Actual engagement of a research
participant in the study was commenced only on receipt of the completed consent
form. In terms of the interview protocols employed in conducting the interviews, a
protocol was prepared for each different type of research participant (appendix 4.2).
With regard to the number of participants in an interview, the majority of interviews
conducted involved a single participant. A smaller number of group interviews were
conducted in the case of interviewing farmers from some villages who were available
only for a limited period of time. In terms of interview duration, each interview
typically lasted one to two hours and was audio-recorded if the research participant
had granted consent. With respect to the language in which the interviews were
conducted, the majority were conducted in the local language used in the country
given the interviewees’ lack of proficiency in English. The interviews were translated
and transcribed by the researcher herself given that the local language concerned was
her mother tongue. The approach adopted involved listening to the audio recording of
the interview, translating into English whilst listening and then typing in the transcript
in English. The entire interview was transcribed without any selection of the content.
As mentioned in the previous section, document analysis and technology artefact
evaluation were employed as supplementary means of data collection. With regard to
document analysis, documents were collected from several different sources such as
the Project Execution Unit, the AKCs, the funding agencies and relevant websites such
as the Department of Agriculture website. Examples of documents collected include
project proposals, presentations and minutes of meetings on project progress and
various documents produced by the AKCs such as monthly progress reports, material
for training farmers and registers that record site activities.
With respect to technology artefact evaluation, the key technology artefact examined
was the interactive CDs which was the main medium employed in disseminating
43
agriculture-related information to the farming community. This artefact was examined
in terms of its role and impact on project sustainability. Elements considered during
the evaluation include the design, construction, content, functionality and operational
efficiency of the artefact.
4.6 Approach to Data Analysis
Data analysis could be described as “the process of making sense out of the data”
(Merriam, 2009). The study employed interpretivist data analysis (Miles et al., 1994)
and an inductive approach to knowledge generation which involves “moving from a set
of observations to a theory” (Gilbert, 2008).
The data sources examined during analysis include interview transcripts, field notes,
project documents and technology artefacts. Organising the raw data is crucial
towards facilitating the interpretation of qualitative data (Tesch, 1990). Coding was
used for this purpose in the study as it allows to reduce a large volume of data into
manageable proportions towards meeting the research requirement of building theory
(Neuman, 2006) and enables retrieval of data of a particular type (Robson, 2002)
thereby aiding analysis. Further, codes can be pre-specified prior to commencing
fieldwork or developed as a study progresses (Miles et al., 1994). The study adopted
the strategy of devising a data organising system of codes prior to engaging in
fieldwork, which is an approach advocated by Miles et al. (1994).
In terms of the timing of data analysis, the commonly used approach of undertaking
analysis both during and after data collection was adopted in the study (Sarantakos,
2005). Rudimentary analysis carried out while collecting the data was drawn upon to
refine interview schedules and identify lines of inquiry worth pursuing. Intensive data
analysis was performed on completion of the data collection phase.
With regard to the means of data analysis, the research employed computer assisted
qualitative data analysis (Gilbert, 2008) given benefits such as speedy handling of large
volumes of data and ease of data retrieval (Robson, 2002). The qualitative data
analysis tool NVivo (1.0) was used to support the process of analysis. In the study,
NVivo was utilised for the purposes of data coding, recording analytic memos and
retrieval of coded data across the embedded cases examined in the research.
44
In analysing the data, each AKC was treated as an embedded case. The process of data
analysis comprised two stages. The discussion that follows provides a detailed account
of each stage.
4.6.1 Data Analysis Stage One
The first stage of data analysis involved the analysis of the case data to gain an
understanding of the sustainability of the AKC project in terms of factors that influence
project sustainability. The stage commenced with the development of a data
organising system of codes for the purpose of analysis by drawing upon literature
relevant to the research topic. The approach of devising a data organising system
based on relevant literature is a legitimate approach mentioned by authors such as
Rubin et al. (2005). The pre-specified data organising system of codes employed in the
study comprised six dimensions of project sustainability identified by examining the
literature that comments on factors that influence the sustainability of ICT4D projects
and the sustainability of development projects, within less-developed country
contexts. The dimensions include the socio-cultural dimension, the project execution
dimension, the financial dimension, the technology dimension, the macro environment
dimension and the information dimension. This data organising system was repeatedly
refined during the process of analysis and was used to separately analyse the data
collected from the AKCs studied. Appendix 4.3 presents the final data organising
system as it stood upon completion of data analysis.
Within-case analysis of the AKC data involved identification of a range of factors that
facilitated and hindered the sustainability of the AKC project at its grassroots level. On
analysing the data from each AKC, the findings were documented in the form of a case
report. The data organising system was also utilised to scrutinise the data collected
from the Project Execution Unit and the funding agencies. This analysis pre-dominantly
targeted the isolation of influencing factors that manifested themselves at the project
level. Finally, the results of the cross-case analysis of the AKC data and the results of
the analysis of the data from elements such as the Project Execution Unit and the
funding agencies were drawn upon to derive the influencing factor-based view of the
sustainability of the AKC project.
45
4.6.2 Data Analysis Stage Two
The second stage of data analysis involved the application of ANT concepts to the case
data to explore the sustainability of the AKC project in terms of actor-networks. In
essence, this stage involved an examination of project sustainability visualising it as a
dynamic phenomenon that involves complex interactions in actor-networks. It is
important to note that ANT was not used as a methodology but rather as a sensitising
framework or lens. Sustainability was used to guide data collection and the resulting
data was then interpreted using ANT concepts.
The analysis entailed the identification and exploration of actor-networks that played a
crucial role in project sustainability. Towards this end, the researcher adopted the
approach of tracing the evolution of actor-networks formed at the global and local
levels of the project over time, an approach that has been successfully employed by
researchers such as Stanforth (2006). The analysis also involved the isolation of
network relationships within the identified networks that proved critical to project
sustainability and interpretation of why the relationships were critical. Further, the
impact of the shaping and reshaping of these critical relationships on project
sustainability was assessed. Furthermore, the analysis involved identification of the
various influences that were instrumental in shaping the critical relationships. In
addition, the analysis placed emphasis on exploring technology as an actor involved in
determining project sustainability. Towards this end, the ANT concept of Inscription
was employed to examine the role played by technology artefacts in project
sustainability.
On completion of the two stages of data analysis, the results from the ANT-based
analysis were drawn upon to produce the key output of the study, namely, a
framework for sustaining ICT4D projects implemented in developing nations.
4.7 Research Rigour
Demonstrating the trustworthiness and authenticity of interpretivist research involves
considerations such as credibility and dependability (Merriam, 2009). A number of
strategies were adopted to ensure the credibility and dependability of research
findings. This includes triangulation, adequate engagement in data collection,
articulation of the researcher’s position and audit trail (Merriam, 2009).
46
Triangulation can be defined as “the combination of methodologies in the study of the
same phenomenon” (Denzin, 1978, p.291, cited in Jick, 1979). In the study, data
obtained through the use of multiple data collection techniques was cross-validated
towards demonstrating the credibility and dependability of research findings
(Merriam, 2009).
Another strategy that was used is ensuring sufficient engagement in data collection.
According to Merriam (2009, p.219), sufficient engagement in data collection is likely
to have taken place if “you begin to see or hear the same things over and over again,
and no new information surfaces as you collect more data.” The research employed
this strategy of continuing data collection until the point of saturation is reached.
The study also adopted the strategy of articulating the researcher’s world-view, biases,
assumptions and experiences (refer section 6.1) so that an individual who evaluates
the research is able to discern the dynamics behind data interpretation (Merriam,
2009). Finally, the strategy of maintaining an audit trail, which is “a detailed account of
how the study was conducted and how the data were analysed” (Merriam, 2009,
p.223), was employed towards research rigour.
4.8 Conclusion
The research question is best addressed by an interpretivist epistemological stance as
it meets the study requirement for holistic, in-depth, contextually-situated, socially-
grounded interpretation, rich description, flexible inquiry and theory construction.
With regard to the research method, an interpretivist case study is the most
appropriate strategy given its accommodation of holistic and context-sensitive inquiry,
its facilitation of discovery and its credibility in terms of both use within the IS field and
successful employment in addressing similar research topics. In terms of case design, a
single embedded case is well-suited for the study as such a design facilitates in-depth
inquiry and enables exploration of variations in sustainability status among case sites.
The data collection techniques employed in the study include semi-structured
interviews, document analysis and technology artefact evaluation. Semi-structured
interviews are a suitable option as this form of interviewing supports the research
need of gaining a comprehensive and in-depth understanding of a largely unexplored
phenomenon such as project sustainability with respect to ICT4D projects in
47
developing nations, by allowing clarification and pursuit of unanticipated lines of
inquiry. The supplementary data collection technique of document analysis serves the
purposes of corroborating interview evidence and establishing the project background
and history of sustainability. Technology artefact evaluation addresses the study
requirement of exploring how technology artefacts impact the sustainability of ICT4D
projects.
The data analysis approach adopted in the study is interpretivist and inductive. The
process of data analysis comprises two distinct stages geared towards exploration of
project sustainability in terms of influencing factors and as a dynamic phenomenon. In
organising the case data for analysis, coding is employed as it is an effective means of
data reduction and retrieval. With regard to the means of data analysis, computer
assisted qualitative data analysis is appropriate given advantages such as speedy
handling of large volumes of data and ease of data retrieval.
The strategies adopted to ensure the credibility and dependability of research findings
include triangulation, adequate engagement in data collection, articulation of the
researcher’s position and audit trail.
The next chapter discusses the case studied in the research project, namely, the
Agriculture Knowledge Center project.
48
Chapter 5: The Agriculture Knowledge Center Project
5.1 Introduction
This chapter discusses the case studied in exploring the sustainability of ICT4D projects
in developing nations, namely, the Agriculture Knowledge Center (AKC) project. The
chapter commences with an overview of the project. This is followed by a section that
explains the organisation of the AKC project. The next section addresses the operations
performed by the Agriculture Knowledge Centers implemented under the project. The
approach that was adopted in implementing the AKC project is discussed in the final
section.
5.2 The AKC Project: An Overview
The AKC Project is an ICT4D project implemented in a developing nation in South Asia.
It is a national-level, public sector initiative executed under the authority of the
country’s Department of Agriculture (DOA). The project was launched in 2003 and had
been in operation for five years, at the point of conducting the case study in 2008.
In terms of its focus, the AKC project targets the development of the agriculture sector,
a crucial sector in the national economy. More specifically, the project addresses the
country’s deficient agricultural extension mechanism. Agricultural extension which is
an activity critical to national agricultural productivity, involves the transfer of
agriculture-related information produced by researchers to the farming community.
Typically, the transfer of information is carried out by grass-root level agricultural
extension workers. At the time of proposing the AKC project, the country’s agricultural
extension mechanism was ailing due to issues such as the lack of manpower at the
village level to transfer information to farmers. Thus, towards revitalising and
increasing the efficiency of the ailing agricultural extension mechanism, the AKC
project established an information network to disseminate agriculture-related
information required by the nation’s farming community. This information network
comprises fifty one Agriculture Knowledge Centres (AKCs), which employ ICTs as an
enabling technology in delivering information to farmers.
In terms of project sponsors, the AKC project is funded by funding agencies external to
the DOA such as the Agriculture Research and Policy Bureau (the ARPB). In terms of its
degree of visibility, at the point of conducting the case study, the AKC Project was
49
recognised as one of the most prominent ICT4D projects that target the agriculture
sector operating in the country. The section that follows discusses the basic
organisation of the AKC project, identifying the key project elements.
5.3 Project Organisation
The AKC Project comprises three key project elements, namely, the Agriculture
Knowledge Centres (AKCs), the Project Execution Unit (PEU) and the administrative
entities associated with the project. The discussion that follows describes these project
elements in detail.
5.3.1 The Agriculture Knowledge Centers (AKCs)
An AKC can be described as a grass-root level ICT facility established for the purpose of
disseminating agriculture-related information required by the farming community. As
noted earlier, at the point of conducting the case study in 2008, the AKC project had
established a network of fifty one AKCs. These AKCs are located predominantly in rural
areas, in all provinces of the country.
The AKCs were established within the framework of the country’s existing agricultural
extension infrastructure which comprises a network of five hundred and fifty Farmer
Support Centers (FSCs). A FSC operates as a “one-stop-shop” that offers all agriculture-
related inputs and services required by the local farmers (for example, agriculture-
related information, credit facilities, insurance, fertilizer). A typical AKC is located in a
small room within such a FSC. The FSCs are owned and managed by the Department of
Farmer Services (DFS), another department which reports to the Ministry of
Agriculture. This department is responsible for the provision of all agriculture-related
services and inputs required by farming community except the provision of
information, which is under the authority of the DOA. Thus, in essence, the AKCs were
embedded within existing infrastructure owned by a different department.
In terms of its operation, an AKC is maintained and administered by the Provincial
Agriculture Authority (PAA) of the province where it is established. In terms of its daily
operation, an AKC is operated by an agriculture advisor, an officer who plays the role
of grass-root level representative of the PAA responsible for the provision of advice on
agriculture to the farming community. In general, the agriculture advisors who
50
functioned as AKC operators were agriculture diploma holders who lacked prior
exposure to ICTs.
With regard to the resources contained within an AKC, each AKC is equipped with a
standard array of ICT resources, some basic furniture and interactive CDs. The ICT
hardware owned by an AKC includes a personal computer, a laser printer, a scanner, a
telephone, a digital camera and a UPS. The main ICT applications deployed at an AKC
include email, internet and Microsoft Office applications.
The most important resource contained within an AKC is the interactive CDs which
function as the medium for storing the agriculture-related information disseminated to
the farming community. Every AKC in the AKC project’s network was provided with
forty eight interactive CDs which addressed a variety of topics including the cultivation
of a range of crops, pest and disease management, irrigation technologies and soil
management. In terms of its basic form, an interactive CD requires a computer to be
viewed and comprises a navigable, book-like interface that provides access to the
agriculture-related information stored within. Further, they employ media elements
such as animation, photographs, illustrations, sound, video-clips and graphics towards
presenting information in a manner that is generally comprehensible and memorable.
The information contained within the interactive CDs is presented in local languages so
that it is comprehensible to farmers.
5.3.2 The Project Execution Unit (PEU)
The Project Execution Unit (PEU) functions as the centre of operations for the AKC
project and is in essence, the entity that keeps the project afloat. The PEU is
responsible for both project implementation and management. The specific functions
performed by the PEU include project planning and design, raising the funds required
for project execution, implementation of the AKCs, facilitation of on-going operations
at the AKCs by executing tasks such as the provision of ICT maintenance support,
training of the AKC operators, production of interactive CDs, progress monitoring and
evaluation of the AKCs and project co-ordination and facilitation via maintenance of
links with various project entities such as the PAAs, the DOA and the AKCs.
51
Figure 5.1 Organisation Chart of the Project Execution Unit
In terms of its organisation chart (figure 5.1), the PEU is headed by a Project Director
who is entrusted with the overall responsibility for project execution. The individual
appointed as the Project Director is the originator of the AKC project and is an
Assistant Director in terms of his rank within the administrative hierarchy of the DOA.
Two managers report to the Project Director. This includes the Project Manager and
the Manager, Interactive CD development. The Project Manager is responsible for the
management of all AKC project operations including the implementation and
facilitation of the AKCs. The Manager, Interactive CD development is in charge of the
production of interactive CDs.
The PEU also comprises two work teams. The project implementation team which
includes eight team members reports to the Project Manager. This team is a multi-
disciplinary team established largely for the purpose of supporting the operations at
the AKCs. The project implementation team is responsible for functions such as the
implementation of the AKCs, provision of technical support to the AKCs and progress
monitoring and evaluation of the AKCs. In terms of skills composition, the team
includes degree and diploma holders who are knowledgeable in subjects such as
agriculture, ICT hardware maintenance, software development and computer
networking.
The other work team of the PEU i.e. the Interactive CD development team reports to
the Manager, Interactive CD development. This work team comprises a co-ordinator,
software developers who develop the interactive CDs and content researchers
responsible for activities such as liaising with agricultural research experts to obtain
Project Director
Project Manager
Project Implementation Team
Manager, Interactive CD Development
Interactive CD Development Team
52
the information to be included within the interactive CDs and co-ordinating the
process of interactive CD development.
In terms of project leadership, the PEU is headed by a committed and dynamic Project
Director who is devoted to the AKC project. In terms of his reputation, within the DOA,
the Project Director is respected as a creative achiever who delivers results. In terms of
his attitude towards the project, the Project Director as evidenced by his tireless
efforts to secure funding for the project and support the AKCs is indefatigably
passionate about ensuring the continuity and further development of the AKC project.
With regard to his management style, the Project Director leads by example, is
approachable and supportive, demands commitment from his employees, encourages
creativity and expects subordinates to take responsibility for the performance of tasks.
Given his influence, the work culture that prevails within the PEU is results-oriented,
free of lethargy and places value on commitment to work. The following example
comments made by staff members of the PEU and an AKC operator attest to the
Project Director’s impressive repertoire of capabilities.
“There is the view [within the DOA] that if he [the Project Director] starts something it
is creative and good. Can communicate with him, can talk to him and ask for anything,
that his interpersonal skills are good.” - Project implementation team member
“If we [the PEU staff] start a job we do it in a totally committed manner without
bothering about whether it is day or night and without considering salary or incentives.
We try to do that job well. The reason why people work that way….it is the leadership.
Those in this place have got used to doing a job that was given to them somehow. No
excuses, somehow the job has to get done.” - Manager Interactive CD development
“Truly, the work environment in this place is somewhat different. Usually in the state
sector we are given something and asked to get that done. We had the opportunity to
think and do something and to add new things.” - Project implementation team
member
“He [the Project Director] is always backing us…the team. Whatever the suggestions
we are giving to him he is willing to accept that. He is considering the suggestion. Then
if it is a better one he is not reluctant to implement that.”- Project Manager
“….there are no inadequacies as far as the Project Director is concerned. He helps
anytime.” - AKC operator
53
5.3.3 Administrative Entities associated with the Project
At the time of implementing the AKC Project, the country’s agriculture sector was
administered by two parallel administrative structures, namely, the central
government and the Provincial agriculture Authorities (PAAs). Both these entities are
currently involved in the administration of the AKC project. Figure 5.2 presents the
hierarchy of the administrative entities associated with the AKC project.
Figure 5.2 Administrative Entities associated with the AKC Project
The central government institutions involved in the administration of the AKC project
include the Ministry of Agriculture (MOA) and the Department of Agriculture (DOA).
Whilst these institutions are not involved in the day-to-day operation of the AKC
project, their approval is required in the case of major project decisions. The Ministry
Central Government
MOA
Provincial Councils
DOA Governm
ent
DFS Governm
ent
AED Governm
ent
Media Unit Governmen
t
PEU Governm
ent
Provincial Agriculture Authority
Provincial Director
Deputy Director
Assistant Director
Agriculture Advisor
54
of Agriculture is the highest level state sector entity responsible for the country’s
agriculture sector. The ministry comprises twenty departments and statutory
institutions including the DOA which is the department directly responsible for the AKC
project. The DOA itself comprises nine divisions. This includes the Agricultural
Extension Division (AED) which is entrusted with the function of agricultural extension.
A prominent section managed under the AED is the Media Unit which produces the
audio-visual material employed in disseminating agriculture-related information to the
farming communities throughout the country. The Media Unit is a well-established
institution that had existed for more than twenty five years which employs over two
hundred staff members. This institution possesses a sound reputation and national
visibility as a productive and creative institution that has brought honour to the DOA
over the years. In terms of its management, the Media Unit is headed by the Assistant
Director who is also the Project Director of the AKC project. The entity that is directly
responsible for the implementation and management of the AKC project i.e. the PEU
was established as a section within the Media Unit. Considering the hierarchy
described above overall, the PEU is essentially an entity that belongs to the central
government.
With regard to the AKCs, they are administered and maintained by the Provincial
Agriculture Authorities (PAAs) of the provinces where they are established. In terms of
the reporting hierarchy pertaining to the PAAs, each province is headed by a Provincial
Director. The senior PAA officials who report to the Provincial Director include the
Deputy Directors and the Assistant Directors. The senior PAA official immediately in
charge of administering an AKC is an Assistant Director. The agriculture advisor who
also functions as the AKC operator reports to the Assistant Director.
5.4 AKC Operations
This section discusses the role of ICTs in delivering AKC services. The key activity
executed by an AKC is the provision of advisory services on agriculture to the farming
community by employing the ICT systems deployed within. The main approach
adopted by the AKC operator in delivering advisory services is to conduct formal
farmer training sessions. These training sessions are lecture-based and interactive CDs
are utilised as a teaching tool at appropriate points in training small groups of farmers.
55
In addition to the training sessions, the AKC operator also provides advisory services on
demand, in response to specific questions posed by farmers who visit the AKC. An
example for one such common query is a request for identification of a crop disease
that impacted a farmer’s cultivation. In answering a specific question posed by a
farmer, the AKC operator has access to several options. The AKC operator can browse
through the information contained within any relevant interactive CDs in search of a
solution. If the information resources available at the AKC are inadequate to offer
credible advice, the AKC operator can use the email facility to contact and seek advice
from agriculture experts located in institutions such as national agriculture research
centres. Further, the AKC operator can utilise the internet connection to access local
websites such as the DOA website and other agriculture-related international websites
in search of a solution to farmers’ problems.
Another main approach to information dissemination that was originally planned for
was independent utilisation of ICT resources such as interactive CDs available at the
AKCs by farmers, in finding solutions to agriculture-related problems. This approach to
information dissemination referred to as ‘self-learning’ proved a dismal failure as
evidenced by the usage statistics noted in the register maintained by the AKC that
records farmer visits. Self-learning is almost non-existent in actual practice, due to
issues such as farmers’ lack of IT skills.
In addition to the provision of advisory services, the AKC operator uses the ICT
resources in the AKC to prepare content material required for agricultural extension
activities such as power point presentations, leaflets and flip charts. Another activity
performed by the AKC operator is the maintenance of documentation that record the
activities performed by the AKC, for the purpose of AKC progress evaluation by the
PEU. The documentation produced by the AKC operator includes monthly progress
reports submitted to the PEU and various registers that record information such as the
number of farmer visits. Some operators also use the digital camera provided, to
maintain a database of digital photographs on agricultural activities in the locality
served by the AKC.
It is important to note that the operations mentioned above were not performed with
equal efficiency at all AKCs implemented under the AKC project. Further, the AKCs
although expected to operate all five working days of the week are usually active only
56
one day per week. Furthermore, more often than not, visits by farmers to utilise the
AKC was an infrequent occurrence.
5.5 Approach to Project Implementation
The first step in implementing the AKC project involved the preparation and
submission of a project proposal to the DOA and the MOA, in order to seek their
approval. On securing the approval of these institutions, the Project Director secured
the funding necessary for project execution. Thereafter, a computer laboratory was
established for the purpose of producing the interactive CDs. Further, the staff
required for interactive CD production such as software developers and content
researchers were recruited and the production of interactive CDs was commenced in
earnest. Around the same period, the technical specifications for the ICT equipment
required for establishing the AKCs was prepared by the project implementation team
of the PEU and the equipment was purchased adhering to the procurement
procedures followed by state sector institutions in the country.
As the next step, the implementation of the AKCs was begun by the project
implementation team. The fifty one AKCs implemented under the AKC project were
not implemented all at once. Instead, they were implemented in batches based on
availability of funding. The procedure pertaining to the establishment of AKCs that
follows was employed in implementing each batch of AKCs. Firstly, the PAAs were
informed of the impending implementation, given that the AKCs were to be
established within the provinces and were expected to be maintained and
administered by them. On securing the PAAs agreement, they were instructed to
propose suitable locations (i.e. FSCs) for establishing the AKCs. The locations were
recommended by the PAAs based upon criteria such as the level of agricultural activity
and productivity in the area surrounding the proposed location and the degree of
capability and commitment of the agriculture advisor in charge of the location. As the
next step, the agriculture advisors attached to the chosen locations that would
eventually function as the AKC operators were summoned to the PEU for a basic IT
training session. On completion of the training, the ICT equipment and interactive CDs
to be used at the AKCs were handed over to the AKC operator to be taken to the
premises where the AKC would be established. The AKC operator was assigned the
responsibility of installing the ICT equipment at the AKC and commencing project
57
operations. During the period of AKC establishment, the PEU provided off-site
technical support to the AKCs via means such as the telephone. In commencing
operations at the AKC, the AKC operator was advised by the PEU to organise an
opening ceremony to introduce the AKC to project stakeholders such as the local
farming community. Considered overall, there was a lack of involvement of entities
such as the farming community and the DFS in the implementation process. Further,
the involvement of senior officials of the PAA (for example, the Provincial Directors,
the Deputy Directors, the Assistant Directors) in the implementation was also minimal.
It is also important to mention the approach adopted in deploying the ICT systems in
the AKCs. The deployment of ICT systems was accomplished in two distinct phases. The
decision to adopt a phased approach to deployment was made on consideration of the
macro-environment that prevailed in the country at the time of project initiation in
2003. At the time, the country’s tele-density was low and poor telecommunications
and internet infrastructure was a significant issue. Thus, the Project Director
contended that it was unwise to deploy ICT systems within the AKCs that relied on full-
fledged internet and telecommunications connectivity. Accordingly, the first phase of
deployment involved the establishment of only stand-alone ICT systems at the AKCs
for information dissemination. The phase did not involve the provision of either
internet or telephone connectivity to the AKCs. Operationally, the stand-alone PC and
the interactive CDs were used by the AKC operator to disseminate information to the
farming community. The AKCs established during the first two years functioned using
only such stand-alone ICT systems.
During the period of 2003 - 2006, the country recorded noticeable growth in mobile
phone and internet usage. Further, improvements were made to the country’s internet
and telecommunications infrastructure. Furthermore, there was a tremendous
national interest in leveraging ICTs for development. On observation of such emerging
trends, in November 2006, the Project Director initiated the second phase of the ICT
systems deployment which involved the provision of CDMA (Code Division Multiple
Access) telephones and internet access to all the AKCs in existence. AKCs implemented
after November 2006 were all given telephone and internet access at the very outset
of site establishment.
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5.6 Conclusion
The AKC Project is a national level, state sector ICT4D project implemented in a
developing nation in South Asia. The project was launched in 2003 and is an initiative
executed under the authority of the DOA. The project targets the country’s ailing
agricultural extension mechanism which is critical to national agricultural productivity.
Towards revitalising and improving the efficiency of this mechanism, the project has
established an information network that comprises fifty one AKCs that employ ICTs in
disseminating agriculture-related information to the nation’s farming communities.
In terms of the implementation context, the project was initiated under a generally
favourable agriculture sector environment where there was interest in revitalising the
country’s ailing agriculture extension mechanism. Further, as the project progressed,
events such as improvement of the country’s internet and telecommunications
infrastructure and trends such as a national-level drive towards leveraging ICTs for
achieving socio-economic development created an environment which promoted the
implementation of a project such as the AKC project.
With regard to project organisation, the AKC Project comprises three key project
elements, namely, the Agriculture Knowledge Centres (AKCs), the Project Execution
Unit (PEU) and the administrative entities associated with the project.
In terms of ICT operations executed at the AKCs, the activities performed by the AKC
operator include conducting farmer training sessions utilising interactive CDs which
contain information on agriculture, providing advisory services on demand in response
to specific questions posed by farmers through means such as the interactive CDs, the
internet or consultation with agriculture experts via email, preparation of content
material required for agricultural extension activities such as powerpoint presentations
using the ICT facilities, maintenance of documentation that record the activities
performed by the AKC and maintenance of a digital photograph database on
agriculture.
With regard to the approach to implementing the AKC project, it was implemented in
phases without the adequate involvement of critical stakeholders such as the farming
community, the DFS and the senior officials of the PAA.
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The next chapter is the first among three following chapters that undertake an in-
depth analysis of the sustainability of the AKC project.
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Chapter 6: An Influencing Factor-based Sustainability Analysis
6.1 Introduction
This chapter presents the findings of the first stage of the data analysis which entailed
analysis and classification of the factors that influenced the sustainability of the AKC
project. The chapter comprises two sections. The first section provides a broad
assessment of the degree of sustainability attained by the AKC project at the point of
conducting the case study. The second section identifies and categorises the numerous
factors that exerted an influence on the sustainability of the AKC project.
Prior to presenting the research findings in this chapter and the two chapters that
follow, it is important to provide the reader with some insight into the world-view,
experiences, biases and assumptions of the researcher that may have inadvertently
shaped data interpretation. In terms of her disciplinary background, the researcher
was a professional in the field of IS who held a postgraduate degree in strategic IS
management. Further, she was familiar with challenges peculiar to implementing IS
within a developing country setting, given project experience gained while working as
an IT consultant for the local arm of a global consulting company. As an individual who
was born and raised in the country where the study was conducted, the researcher
also possessed an adequate understanding of socio-economic, political, cultural and
technological constraints applicable to the research setting. In terms of personal
biases, the researcher’s increasing identification with and empathy for the plight of the
target beneficiaries of the ICT project examined (i.e. the rural farmers) as data
collection progressed, may have impacted data interpretation. Finally, the researcher’s
inclination to lean more towards socially-grounded interpretation rather than
technologically situated analysis may have influenced the research outcome.
It is also vital to highlight the placement of the evidence (in the form of illustrative
quotations) that supports the conclusions drawn in this chapter and the other results
chapters. An exhaustive list of illustrative quotations is included in Chapter 8 which
presents the core analysis undertaken in the study from which the key research
conclusions were drawn and the proposed approach and framework for sustaining
ICT4D projects was developed. The omission of illustrative quotations from Chapters 6 and
7 is deliberate and geared towards avoiding tedious repetition of the same quotations in all
the results chapters.
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6.2 The Sustainability of the AKC Project: A Broad Assessment
This section examines the sustainability of the AKC project on a broad basis. The
analysis provides the background of the AKC project with regard to its sustainability. It
is essentially a basic analysis that sets the stage for the more detailed analyses
presented thereafter.
Drawing on the extant literature, chapter 2 identified sixteen criteria that can be
employed to ascertain the degree of sustainability attained by an ICT4D project
implemented in a developing nation. To reiterate, these criteria are presented in table
6.1 which follows:
Table 6.1 Criteria for Ascertaining the Degree of Project Sustainability
Continuous project operation for a considerable length of time
Significant site replication and expansion of project coverage and scope
Retained interest of project investors
Degree of enthusiasm and satisfaction of project beneficiaries
Delivery of noteworthy benefits by the project
Comparison of actual and intended benefits and services and their stability over time
Efficiency of service delivery and the quality of services
Condition of physical infrastructure and equipment
Adequacy of procedures for project maintenance
Availability of adequate resources for project maintenance
Capacity and mandate of the principal operating agencies
Flexibility and capacity to adapt project design and operation to changing
circumstances
Adequacy of interagency co-ordination
Adequacy of co-ordination with community organizations and beneficiaries
Strength and stability of support from international agencies, the national
government, provincial and local government agencies and the community
Extent to which the project has built a broad base of support and avoided becoming
politically controversial
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The interpretation that follows employs the criteria listed above to assess the degree
of sustainability achieved by the AKC project. The criteria that the AKC project met are
considered first.
Continuous project operation for a considerable length of time:
At the time that the data was collected, the AKC project had been in operation for a
period of five years (i.e. 2003 - 2008). Furthermore, throughout this timeframe, the
project had remained active. As such, it met the fundamental criterion of, ‘continuous
project operation for a considerable length of time’.
Significant site replication and expansion of project coverage and scope:
In the light of macro-environmental issues that affected the country at the time, the
project was able to expand its coverage significantly. For example, the economic
constraints imposed by a long standing civil war limited government funding available
for the expansion of development initiatives such as the AKC project. Despite such
challenges, the number of AKCs implemented under the project increased
approximately five-fold from fifteen to fifty one during the timeframe of 2004 - 2008.
Further, AKCs were established in all provinces of the country. In terms of the scope of
services offered, the project attained the goal of upgrading the stand alone PC-based
information delivery mechanism to an Internet-enabled mechanism as originally
planned and continuously enhanced its information base on agriculture by developing
forty eight interactive CDs.
Retained interest of project investors:
The AKC project was successful in retaining the support of its key project investors in
the long term. For instance, the main funding agency (i.e. the ARPB) which had
supported the project since its inception, continually endorsed the project on an
ongoing basis. As an indicator of this fact, the AKC project was ranked as first in line for
receiving future funding by the ARBP under a new IT-oriented sectoral funding
programme.
Extent to which the project has built a broad base of support and avoided becoming
politically controversial:
The AKC project was not politically controversial and had avoided involvement in any
major conflict that jeopardised its continuity. By 2008, the project had secured the
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patronage of powerful central government politicians such as the country’s President
and the Minister of Agriculture and the apex national body in the area of ICT for
development, namely, the National IT Agency.
Although the AKC project did fulfil some criteria indicative of a sustainable project, the
project also experienced major challenges on the ground in terms of sustaining
individual AKCs located throughout the country. Five classes of operational status were
observed in relation to the AKCs. The network of AKCs established by the project
included:
1. AKCs that had maintained uninterrupted operations throughout their existence
2. AKCs that had struggled to maintain uninterrupted operations throughout their
existence
3. Previously operational AKCs that became inactive
4. Previously inactive AKCs that became operational
5. AKCs that were closed given their inability to maintain operations
Even AKCs that were active and AKCs that were ranked among the top ten AKCs in the
network in terms of activity performance, functioned at sub-optimal levels. This was
evidenced by the content noted in the various registers that record AKC activities and
the results of the annual progress evaluations of the AKCs conducted by the PEU,
which reveal that these AKCs were far from meeting their original expectation of
reaching and efficiently serving the entire farming community. Based on these sources,
all AKCs were plagued by the acute and intractable issue of very low usage and
acceptance by the farming community. In addition, they struggled to address basic
requirements essential to their survival such as meeting operating costs and human
resource requirements. Given that the AKCs were the most vital element in terms of
project delivery, their struggle for survival was indicative of the gradual disintegration
of the AKC project at its grass-root level and a brewing crisis pertaining to project
sustainability. Reflecting this reality of a less than satisfactory status with regard to
project sustainability, the AKC project failed to fulfil the set of criteria discussed below.
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Efficiency of service delivery and the quality of services:
The efficiency of service delivery by the AKCs was low. For instance, although the AKCs
were expected to operate on all five working days of the week, service delivery was
typically confined to one day given issues such as the lack of adequate manpower. In
terms of the quality of services, the information delivered by the AKCs failed to
address the critical information needs of the farming community.
Degree of enthusiasm and satisfaction of project beneficiaries:
The majority of farmers were either unaware of the existence of the AKCs or if aware,
failed to view the AKCs as a valuable resource and were uninterested in visiting the
AKCs to utilise the services offered. This issue resulted in very low levels of AKC usage
by farmers which in turn threatened the long term survival of the AKCs.
Delivery of noteworthy benefits by the project and Comparison of actual and
intended benefits and services and their stability over time:
Delivery of benefits to the project’s target beneficiaries (i.e. the farming community)
was negligible in the light of the original expectations of the project. While the impact
of the project had not been formally assessed at the point of conducting the case
study, AKC usage levels recorded in progress reports produced by the AKCs reveal that
the project had not reached even a fraction of the farming community originally
targeted. Moreover, officials such as AKC operators and senior officers of the PAA who
were privy to the on the ground situation at the AKCs highlighted the absence of
substantial benefits delivery as a serious concern.
Condition of physical infrastructure and equipment:
The operation of the AKCs was affected by the inadequacy of basic physical
infrastructure (for example, lack of proper access roads and public transport for the
purpose of travelling to the AKCs, poor condition of buildings that housed some AKCs)
and the lack of equipment required for efficient service delivery (for example, lack of
multi-media projectors for training farmers).
Adequacy of procedures for project maintenance:
The continuity of the AKC project was impacted by weak and inappropriate procedures
pertaining to project maintenance in areas such as the maintenance of ICTs deployed
at the AKCs, administration of the AKCs and human resource planning.
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Availability of adequate resources for project maintenance:
The project lacked adequate resources to maintain its operations. Issues such as
inadequate funding to meet the operating costs of the AKCs and inadequacy of human
resources for managing the AKCs constantly challenged the existence of the AKCs.
Capacity and mandate of the principal operating agency:
The principal operating agency of the project (i.e. the PEU) although highly committed
to the AKC project and armed with the official mandate to implement it, possessed
limited capacity for project execution. The limited capacity was the result of issues
such as resource constraints and lack of administrative power over influential entities
such as the PAA and the DFS.
Adequacy of interagency co-ordination and Adequacy of co-ordination with
community organizations and beneficiaries:
The principal operating agency (i.e. the PEU) encountered difficulties in co-ordinating
with agencies critical to the sustainability of the AKC project such as the DFS. Further,
co-ordination with the project beneficiaries which was crucial to the survival of the
AKC project was extremely weak and characterised by their lack of participation in the
project.
Strength and stability of support from international agencies, the national
government, provincial and local government agencies and the community:
With regard to this criterion, the state of affairs was mixed. The support extended by
the only international agency involved in the project (i.e. the RRO) and local funding
bodies was adequate and remained stable during the period of sponsorship.
Endorsement by stakeholders such as the national government and senior officials of
relevant state agricultural institutions (i.e. the DOA and the MOA) although initially
unsatisfactory, improved as the project progressed. However, inadequate support
from critical stakeholders such as the provincial level agencies responsible for
maintaining the AKCs (i.e. the PAAs) and the farming community jeopardised the
continuity of the AKC project.
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Flexibility and capacity to adapt project design and operation to changing
circumstances:
The AKC project shows evidence of learning from project experiences and execution of
revisions to existing project design and operation towards accommodating emerging
requirements. For instance, a mechanism for monitoring and evaluating the AKCs was
introduced on realising the need for such a process in ensuring the continuity of AKCs.
However, the flexibility and capacity to undertake such changes was limited given
constraints such as resource limitations and the need to adhere to government
regulations and procedures.
Considered overall, the AKC project is classified as a project which is experiencing a
grave crisis in relation to project sustainability, despite its fulfilment of some criteria
met by sustainable projects. Its sustainability crisis is deemed particularly severe at the
level of the AKCs. The section that follows presents an analysis of the factors that
influenced the sustainability of the AKC project.
6.3 The Sustainability of the AKC Project: An Analysis of Influencing
Factors
This section identifies and categorises the factors that influenced the sustainability of
the AKC project. Given the study’s main focus on undertaking an ANT-based analysis of
project sustainability, it does not extend into a discussion of the individual factors.
Instead, the analysis provides a sweeping view of the numerous forces that were
instrumental in determining the sustainability of the AKC project as a prelude to
presenting the two chapters that follow which employ ANT concepts in exploring
project sustainability.
As evident from figure 6.1, the sustainability of the AKC project was influenced by a
diverse range of factors. Further, project sustainability involved multiple dimensions.
The study identified the existence of six major dimensions of sustainability. This
includes the socio-cultural dimension, the project execution dimension, the financial
dimension, the technology dimension, the macro environment dimension and the
information dimension.
The socio-cultural dimension covers factors that influence the sustainability of ICT4D
projects, associated with the social and cultural context within which such projects are
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implemented. In the case of the AKC project, the factors identified which erected
barriers to achieving sustainability involved areas such as the perceptions and mind-
set, the information culture and demographic aspects of the farming community.
The project execution dimension encompasses factors that impact the sustainability of
ICT4D projects pertaining to the various aspects of project execution. In the case of the
AKC project, numerous factors pertaining to areas such as project design, planning and
implementation proved an obstacle to project sustainability. However, other factors
(e.g. strong project leadership) were instrumental in promoting project sustainability.
The financial dimension encompasses factors involving the various financial elements
that influence the sustainability of ICT4D projects. In the case of the AKC project
deficiencies such as the lack of a robust mechanism to meet the operating costs of the
AKCs, underestimation of project operating costs and the lack of means for revenue
generation proved a barrier to project sustainability. Conversely, factors such as
strong, stable and long-term support from funding agencies were instrumental in
ensuring project continuity.
The technology dimension includes factors that influence the sustainability of ICT4D
projects, pertaining to the technologies employed in such projects. With regard to the
AKC project, technology-related factors such as the inappropriateness of chosen ICT
solutions, the unreliability of ICT infrastructure and ICT service providers’ low quality
services hampered project sustainability.
The macro environment dimension encompasses a range of factors pertaining to the
macro environment that influences the sustainability of ICT4D projects. In general, the
AKC project was implemented under macro environmental conditions that promoted
project sustainability (e.g. presence of a conducive agriculture sector and national ICT
environment). However, another set of macro environmental factors impeded project
sustainability (e.g. discord between the central government and provincial agriculture
authorities that created difficulties in project execution, a weak national economy).
The information dimension includes influencing factors related to the content (i.e. the
information) and the services offered to project beneficiaries by ICT4D projects. In the
case of the AKC project, factors such as low relevance of the information delivered by
the AKCs to community information needs, low efficiency of service delivery by the
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AKCs and farmers’ attraction to alternative sources of information acted as a barrier to
project sustainability.
Considered overall, all six dimensions identified were of importance in terms of
sustaining the AKC project. However, several dimensions appeared to play a defining
role. These include the socio-cultural dimension, the financial dimension and the
project execution dimension.
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AKC Project Sustainability
Information Dimension
- Low relevance of the information delivered by the AKC to the information needs of the farming community
- Farmers’ attraction to private sector agro-chemical vendors who function as an alternative source that provides information to farmers
- Low efficiency of information service delivery by the AKCs
Macro environmental Dimension - Presence of an agriculture sector environment conducive to project execution
- Presence of a national ICT environment conducive to project execution
- Patronage of powerful central government politicians during the latter stages of the project
- Unsupportive state, provincial administrative and regulatory procedures which impeded AKC continuity
- Discord between central government and provincial agriculture authorities that created difficulties in project execution
- Implementation of other national-level development programmes of a higher priority that competed for government funds
- A weak national economy and a civil war that resulted in paucity of government funding for development initiatives such as the AKC project
Technology Dimension
- Inappropriateness of the technologies employed by the AKCs in terms of the constraints that afflict the farming community
- Low quality of the chosen technology vendors/technology vendors’ failure to deliver agreed service levels
- Unreliability of ICT infrastructure (e.g. internet service)
Socio-cultural Dimension - Farming community’s lack of awareness of the AKC project
- Low economic status of farmers which forced them to engage in activities that earn an income for daily living versus expending time and effort on visiting the AKCs
- Farmers’ low receptiveness to the AKC project given the incessant burden of dealing with difficult issues that affect their livelihood (e.g. lack of a profitable market for agricultural produce, high cost of material inputs such as fertilizer required for farming )
- Farmers’ lack of trust and disillusionment with project implementers
- Farmers’ disinterest in self-improvement and acceptance of the status quo of low living standards where only their basic needs are met
- Farmers’ exalted view and overestimation of the extent of their own experience-based knowledge of farming which prevents them from visiting the AKCs in search of information.
- Farmers’ lack of belief in the capacity of ICTs to benefit them in terms of livelihood improvement
- Information culture of the farming community that discourages AKC use (e.g. Farmers’ low propensity to pro-actively seek new information, farmers’ adherence to traditional knowledge on farming handed down over the generations which lowers their interest in the information on new agricultural technologies delivered by the AKC, farmers’ habit of seeking information only in the case of debilitating farming issues or compelling need, farmers’ preference for the DOA’s former approach to information delivery where village-level officers assigned specifically for that purpose would visit villages frequently to deliver advice to the farmer’s doorstep.
- Farmers’ low level of education that influences their ability to recognise the importance and value of the AKCs
- Farmers’ lack of IT skills - Gender inequality that prevents female members of the farming community from accessing the AKCs. - Farmers’ expectation of rewards for their participation in AKC usage - Farmers’ pervasive negativity towards any intervention that targets development in general - Farmers’ lack of assignment of value to the information offered by the AKCs as it is given free of charge. - Part-time farmers’ lack of interest in utilising the AKC given their involvement in jobs other than farming. - Labour-intensive farming which imposes time constraints on farmers thereby discouraging them from
visiting the AKCs.
Financial Dimension - Limited availability of financial resources for project execution
- Lack of a well-defined mechanism for meeting the operating costs of the AKCs
- Inaccurate estimation (underestimation) of operating costs
- Failure to consider the aspect of revenue generation towards achieving project financial viability
- Strong and stable support from the funding agencies and retention of their long term interest
Project Execution Dimension
- Preparation of strong project proposals which helped in securing the sponsorship of funding agencies - Weaknesses in project planning (e.g. inadequacies in human, material resource planning)
- Weak capacity of the Project Execution Unit (e.g. resource constraints, lack of administrative authority over parties critical to project continuity such as the PAA and the DFS) and failure to address capacity building
- Inadequate support, commitment and project ownership by parties vital for project execution (e.g. the PAA, the DFS, the DOA, the MOA)
- Inadequate mechanisms for engaging the participation of parties vital for project execution (e.g. the farming community, the PAA, the DFS) in project execution
- Top-down determination of information needs/lack of a community-driven approach to assessing the information needs of the farming community
- Lack of an efficient and appropriate mechanism to create and sustain project awareness among the farming community
- Lack of a robust mechanism for ICT maintenance
- Failure to review existing administrative procedures that impact the continuity of the AKC project and undertake necessary revisions or devise workarounds or new procedures (e.g. failure to revise centralised, lengthy, time consuming administrative procedures of the PAA)
- Inadequacies in the selection of AKC operators
- Inadequacies in IT training with reference to AKC operators - Failure to establish incentive schemes that reward operators’ performance with regard to the AKCs - Strong project leadership
- PEU’s strong commitment towards supporting the AKCs
- PEU’s effectiveness in managing the relationships with parties critical to project continuity such as funding agencies
- Production of project outputs/benefits valued by parties critical to project execution (e.g. funding agencies) which enabled to secure their continued support for the AKC project
- Project re-design for facilitating sustainability, based on learning gained through project experiences
- Inappropriate selection of locations for establishing the AKCs (e.g. selection of remote locations, selection of locations that were difficult to access given poor road conditions and lack of public transport)
Figure 6.1 - Factors Influencing the Sustainability of the AKC project
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6.4 Conclusion
The assessment of the sustainability of the AKC project revealed that it met several
criteria which are indicative of a sustainable project. For example, the project had
operated continuously for a considerable length of time, recorded significant
expansion of project coverage and scope during its lifetime and succeeded in retaining
the interest of project investors. However, it failed to fulfil a range of other essential
criteria that must be met in order to declare a project as sustainable. For instance, the
project did not meet criteria such as delivery of noteworthy benefits by the project,
efficiency of service delivery and the quality of services and degree of enthusiasm and
satisfaction of project beneficiaries. Considered overall, the broad assessment leads to
the conclusion that the AKC project was experiencing a grave crisis in relation to
project sustainability, which was particularly acute at the level of the AKCs.
Case analyses also revealed that the sustainability of the AKC project was influenced by
a multitude of factors, which were diverse in nature. Further, project sustainability was
associated with six distinct dimensions, namely, the socio-cultural dimension, the
project execution dimension, the financial dimension, the technology dimension, the
macro environment dimension and the information dimension.
The two chapters that follow (i.e. chapter 7 and chapter 8) present the results of the
ANT-based analysis of the sustainability of the AKC project. The chapters comprise a
dynamic analysis of the sustainability of the AKC project versus a static analysis.
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Chapter 7: Network Construction and Transformation
7.1 Introduction
The core analysis undertaken in the study employed ANT concepts to conceptualise
and explore the sustainability of the AKC project as a dynamic phenomenon that
involves complex interactions in actor-networks. The ANT concepts employed for this
purpose include translation, network analysis and inscription. The analysis assumed a
position proposed by Law et al. (1992, p. 46) highlighted in chapter 3, which asserts
that the “shape and fate of technological projects” depends upon a project’s capacity
to: construct and sustain an enabling global network, construct and sustain an enabling
local network and maintain an effective connection between the two networks. From
this point of view, the sustainability of the AKC project was analysed in terms of the
construction and sustenance of enabling global and local networks and the
connections within and between these networks.
This chapter introduces the AKC project’s global and local networks and explores their
construction and transformation over time. It constitutes a narrative that adopts the
language of ANT to trace the history, progress and evolution of the AKC project over a
period of five years, from the point of the birth of the project idea up to the point at
which the study was conducted.
The chapter comprises three sections. The first section examines the construction and
reshaping of the AKC project’s global network. This is followed by a section which
traces the construction and reshaping of the AKC project’s local network. The final
section examines the important connection between the global and local networks.
7.2 Construction of the AKC Project’s Global Network
As noted in chapter 3, a global network is “a network that is built up, deliberately or
otherwise, and that generates a space, a period of time, and a set of resources in
which innovation may take place” (Law et al., 1992, p.21). Figure 7.1 presents the
global network of the AKC project.
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Figure 7.1 Global Network of the AKC Project
As evident from this figure, the global network brought together a number of actors
who/which provided the resources and the environment necessary for project
execution. The actors include the Department of Agriculture (DOA), the Ministry of
Agriculture (MOA), the Agriculture Research Policy Bureau (ARPB), the Rice Research
Organisation (RRO), the Rice Production Development Programme (RPDP), the
National IT Agency (NITA), national-level ICT4D projects and central government
politicians. The account that follows tells the story of the formation and reshaping of
the global network of the AKC project presented above.
The development of the project idea
The idea of implementing the AKC project was proposed by an Assistant Director
employed by the agricultural extension division of the Department of Agriculture
(DOA). The birth of the project idea is associated with both the Assistant Director’s
background and a defining event which occurred during the period of 2001 - 2002.
The Assistant Director held a postgraduate degree in digital media design from a
foreign university. In meeting the requirements for this degree, he undertook a
research project which involved the development of interactive CDs to support the
activities of agricultural extension officers in his home country. By the end of the
research project, which was completed in 2001, the Assistant Director was
unequivocally convinced of the capacity of digital technologies to support the
development of the agriculture sector in his home country. In particular, he viewed the
interactive CDs as an ideal digital medium for supporting the crucial function of
agricultural extension, which involves the transfer of information produced by
knowledge repositories such as agriculture research stations to the farming
DOA
MOA
Central government politicians
RPDP ARPB RRO
National-level ICT4D projects
PEU
NITA
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community. Thus, on returning to his home country and reclaiming his job at the DOA
in 2001, the Assistant Director embraced the self-imposed responsibility of pioneering
the transition of the DOA to the Internet age. During the period of 2001 - 2002, he
spearheaded the implementation of several ICT initiatives including the launching of
the DOA website and the establishment of a small-scale operation to produce
interactive CDs for the agriculture sector.
Around the same period, the Assistant Director attended an international conference
which proved to be the defining event that gave rise to the idea of implementing the
AKC project. The conference included a submission on an ICT-enabled rural
information network implemented in a developing country to support agricultural
development. This project captured the attention of the Assistant Director, who
viewed it as a solution that could contribute in revitalising the ailing agricultural
extension mechanism in his own country. Hence, drawing upon the presented project,
the Assistant Director arrived at a number of conclusions. He was convinced that
establishing an ICT-enabled rural information network comprising a network of
geographically-dispersed Agriculture Knowledge Centres (AKCs) would provide an ideal
channel for disseminating the agriculture-related information required by the farming
community. Further, he concluded that the interactive CDs were the perfect medium
for storing the information delivered to the farming community. The Assistant Director
also envisioned that the ICT-enabled rural information network should be embedded
within the framework of the country’s existing agricultural extension mechanism.
More specifically, the AKCs would be established within the Farmer Support Centres
(FSCs), which met the agriculture-related input and service needs of the farming
community. He contended that this strategy would both eliminate the issue of the cost
of building new infrastructure and ensure that the information network becomes an
intrinsic part of the overall agricultural extension mechanism with greater ease. Thus,
by 2002, the Assistant Director had succeeded in developing the AKC project idea into
a viable and marketable proposition.
The project implementation context
The AKC project was implemented under generally favourable macro-environmental
conditions. More specifically, the country’s agriculture sector, policy and ICT sector
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environments were conducive to implementing a project such as the AKC project, as
explained below.
The agriculture sector which was critical to the national economy was ailing noticeably
at that time. The sector’s contribution to the national GDP had declined over the years
and the percentage of the workforce employed in the sector had reduced significantly.
Further, government mechanisms that support agricultural development had
deteriorated. This included the country’s agricultural extension mechanism which had
weakened substantially. An amendment to the national constitution which resulted in
the partial devolution of power to the country’s provinces had dismantled the
networks that once supported the flow of information between farming communities
and research stations. Further, a politically-motivated administrative reform that lead
to a mass-scale reassignment of officers who were engaged in transferring information
to farmers at the village-level, had both weakened the agricultural extension
mechanism due to the lack of manpower and eroded the relationship between state
agricultural authorities and the farming community. In addition, trade liberalisation
had introduced new players such as private sector agro-chemical companies who
exercised significant influence over farming communities by offering them access to
the latest agricultural technologies and information. Overall, farmers’ reliance on the
state agricultural extension mechanism and their trust and belief in its effectiveness
had reduced significantly. Given this scenario, the crises in the agriculture sector in
general and in the area of agricultural extension in particular, had become issues of
national interest.
Reflecting this interest, state agricultural institutions such as the DOA and the Ministry
of Agriculture (MOA) were in search of appropriate solutions. Thus, the idea of
launching the AKC project emerged at a point in time when the agriculture sector
environment within the country was ripe for the promotion and implementation of an
ICT4D project that targets agricultural development.
The prevailing policy environment also favoured the implementation of the AKC
project. At the time, the country’s state agricultural institutions had realised the
importance of formulating policies that target the revival of the agriculture sector.
Accordingly, a newly introduced national agricultural policy declared growth in the
agriculture sector as essential towards attaining national goals such as self-reliance,
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food security and poverty alleviation. Further, the policy articulated the importance of
reversing the trend of decline in the agriculture sector and declared the development
of the agriculture sector a national priority. It also advocated re-organization and
strengthening of the existing agricultural extension mechanism. Most importantly, the
policy promoted the introduction of ICTs to facilitate effective information
dissemination to the farming community. Hence, the AKC project idea emerged at a
time when the country’s policy environment was extremely conducive to the
promotion and execution of such a project.
Another favourable aspect that encouraged the implementation of the AKC project
was the prevailing ICT sector environment. At the time, the country’s government was
tremendously enthusiastic about harnessing the capabilities of ICTs to enable national
development. In fact, the implementation of the AKC project coincided with a massive,
national-level, state led initiative that leveraged ICTs for economic development, social
improvement and modernisation of the government. Given this climate, it was
relatively easy to promote and achieve buy-in for an ICT4D project such as the AKC
project.
The Assistant Director was prompt in recognising the existence of the afore-mentioned
favourable macro-environmental conditions. Capitalising on them, he launched a
process of enlisting the support of a range of actors whose involvement was critical to
resource and administer the AKC project. The end result of this critical series of
translations was the global network presented in figure 7.1. The account that follows
employs ANT concepts to describe the enlistment of the global network actors and
trace the formation and reshaping of the global network.
Enrollment of the DOA and the MOA
The construction of the global network commenced with the enrollment of two actors
whose approval was essential to implement the AKC project, namely, the DOA and the
MOA. In order to secure the support of these actors, the Assistant Director developed
a proposal which articulated and justified the project idea and circulated it to the
senior officials of the DOA and the MOA for perusal. The proposal positioned the AKC
project as an initiative that addresses the country’s ailing agricultural extension
mechanism. It was also portrayed as a solution to the prevailing paucity of manpower
in the DOA to support agricultural extension activities at the grass-root level.
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The Assistant Director’s proposal was attractive to the senior officials of the DOA and
the MOA, given their interest in finding solutions to the very same issues addressed by
the project. These institutions were also keen to employ digital technologies in
developing the agriculture sector, which was the approach suggested in the proposal.
Thus, the DOA and the MOA were convinced that it was in their own interest to
approve the AKC project and as such were eventually locked-in and converted into
allies of the project. At the point of their initial enrollment, the DOA and the MOA did
not view the project as an important initiative that was worthy of extra attention.
Instead, it was considered as one of the many interventions executed under their
authority and accordingly, attracted only the usual amount of interest. Thus, although
formed, the strength of the project’s relationships with the DOA and the MOA was
relatively weak during the initial stages of the project. In forming the relationships, the
DOA and the MOA were in essence shaped into accommodators of the AKC project
rather than active advocators of the project.
The formation of these relationships also resulted in the shaping of the Assistant
Director as the key actor responsible for the implementation of the AKC project. He
was formally appointed as the Project Director and settled into the role of key
spokesperson and champion of the AKC project.
Enrollment of the prime funding agency
Having secured the mandate to launch the AKC project, the Project Director focused on
finding the funding necessary for project implementation. The DOA was ruled out as a
potential source of funding immediately, given that shortage of financial resources was
already a matter of contention within the institution. Alternatively, the Project Director
entered into a series of negotiations to enlist the support of funding agencies external
to the DOA. The first of such opportunities presented itself when the ARPB (the
Agriculture Research Policy Bureau), the country’s apex state institution for policy
formulation in agricultural research, placed an advertisement that invited proposals to
award competitive grants for implementing projects that target the development of
the agriculture research sector. In response to this advertisement, the Project Director
prepared and submitted a cleverly crafted proposal to the ARPB. The proposal
countered the threat of competing proposals via two means. Firstly, it convincingly
met the standard criteria considered by the ARPB in awarding grants. For instance, one
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such standard criterion required the proposed project to both contribute to the
mandated function of the institution that receives the grant and be relevant to an
ARPB priority area for funding. The AKC project fulfilled this requirement as it
contributed to the DOA’s mandated function and was also an IT-based project that
addressed the agriculture research sector, an area declared by the ARPB as a priority
area for funding. Secondly, the proposal highlighted aspects of the AKC project likely to
be attractive to the ARPB. For example, the AKC project was presented as an initiative
that would enable the country to establish a repository of local research on various
crops, through the inclusion of research data within the interactive CDs to be
developed as a part of the project. The prospect of establishing such a repository was
welcomed by the ARPB, as it would help to both ascertain the present status of
research on a particular crop and avoid the duplication of research. Furthermore, the
AKC project was also promoted as a project that would facilitate the quick transfer of
farmers’ feedback on researchable agriculture problems to research stations. The
prospect of developing such a strong linkage between research and agricultural
extension was also attractive to the ARPB. Given this state of affairs, the ARPB
concluded that funding the AKC project was worthwhile in the light of likely benefits to
multiple entities such as the country, their own institution and the grant receiver.
Thus, in 2003, the ARPB was enrolled as the main actor responsible for funding the AKC
project. At the end of this translation process (which was essentially an economic
exchange), the ARPB assumed the role of a willing but cautious resource provider
which awaited the delivery of results by the AKC project to decide on whether to fund
project activities in the future. Thus, at the point of its formation in 2003, the AKC
project’s relationship with the ARPB was not especially strong and this actor was yet to
assume its future role of being a keen project sponsor.
Establishment of the project infrastructure
The implementation of the AKC project was commenced with the release of the first
grant by the ARPB in 2003. As an initial step, the Project Director established the
infrastructure necessary for project implementation. The PEU which was the central
entity responsible for the AKC project was established as a section located within the
Media Unit headed by the Project Director. Further, a multi-disciplinary project
implementation team attached to the PEU was formed to handle the task of AKC
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implementation and management. The team comprised young, newly recruited
graduates who were eager to be a part of an initiative such as the AKC project which
promised a significant contribution to national development. Further, they welcomed
the opportunity to work with the Project Director who commanded their respect and
admiration, given his reputation within the DOA as a creative, capable officer who
delivers impressive results and his leadership style that encouraged creativity and
initiative in young officers.
Part of the grant released by the ARPB was used to establish a multi-media computer
lab equipped with thirty computers for the purpose of developing the interactive CDs.
Further, new staff was recruited and a content development team was formed to
perform the task of interactive CD development. The team included a manager, a co-
ordinator, software developers who produced the interactive CDs and content
compilers who prepared the information content to be stored within the interactive
CDs. By 2004, the interactive CD development operation of the AKC project was
functioning in earnest.
The shaping of the interactive CDs
The key technology artefact associated with the AKC project was the set of interactive
CDs which functioned as the medium for storing the agriculture-related information
disseminated to the farming community. In terms of its basic form, the interactive CD
required a computer to be viewed and comprised a navigable, book-like interface that
provided access to the agriculture-related information stored within. In the following
discussion, the ANT concept of inscription is employed to explain the shaping of this
technology artefact into the form it had assumed at the point of studying the AKC
project in 2008.
The concept of inscription refers to the process by which the interests, visions, motives
and ideas of those involved in creating a technical object become an intrinsic part of it,
thereby shaping its form (Akrich, 1992; Mahring et al., 2004). According to Akrich
(1992), such shaping of a technical object does not end at the point of creation by its
inventors. Instead, the ultimate form of the technical object is determined as the result
of negotiations that occur when the technical object confronts the real world and is
used and interpreted by its real users. The development of the interactive CD followed
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a similar trajectory, where it was shaped under the influence of the interests, visions,
motives and ideas of a number of actors over the course of several years.
The most prominent actor involved in the shaping of the interactive CD was the
Director of the AKC project. The Project Director was both the original innovator and
the most ardent proponent of this technology medium. As noted earlier in the chapter,
the birth of the interactive CD is associated with the Project Director’s background. The
interactive CDs were first developed by the Project Director as a part of a research
project undertaken towards fulfilling the requirements for the award of a postgraduate
degree. This research project involved the development of two interactive CDs for
supporting the extension activities of agricultural extension workers in the Project
Director’s home country. Upon their development, the Project Director carried out
tests that explored the viability of the interactive CDs as a self-learning tool and a
teaching tool for agricultural extension workers. Based on the results of this
evaluation, the Project Director formed a strong belief that the design of the
interactive CDs facilitates independent, unassisted learning by users who have limited
IT skills. Further, through the exposure gained in pursuing his studies, the Project
Director also formed the belief that his country’s agriculture sector and in particular
the agricultural extension system would benefit from the introduction of digital
technologies.
The beliefs noted above resurfaced in earnest when the Project Director decided to
implement the AKC project which involved the establishment of an ICT-enabled rural
information network to cater to the agriculture-related information needs of the
country’s farming community. A key requirement in implementing this system was the
identification of an appropriate medium for disseminating information to the farmers.
In identifying such a medium, the Project Director looked no further than the
interactive CDs he had developed. The interactive CD was declared the most
appropriate medium for information dissemination on the basis of several arguments
that involved a number of assumptions about its projected main user (i.e. the farmers).
The first argument was that it was appropriate to present agriculture-related
information in the form of an electronic book as the literacy level of the country’s
population was very high. The second argument deemed that farmers who were
accustomed to reading books would readily adopt an electronic medium that employs
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an interface design that resembles a book, with ease. The third argument claimed that
the interactive quality of the CDs would enable farmers to search for information in a
selective manner through mouse-driven navigation unlike mediums such as VCDs and
DVDs which lacked such a feature. The fourth argument was that the interactive CDs
have already proven successful as a self-learning tool and a teaching tool in the case of
agricultural extension workers who similar to farmers lacked IT skills. Above and
beyond these arguments, the choice of technology was also motivated by the Project
Director’s personal familiarity with the medium and his genuine belief in its versatility.
The idea of utilising the interactive CDs was also acceptable to the ARPB which
provided the initial funding for the AKC project. Their acceptance of the medium was
based on the fact that the interactive CD would function as a repository of local
research papers on agriculture. Given this state of affairs, the interactive CD was
chosen as the key medium for information dissemination and development was
commenced by the content development team adhering to the fundamental design
principles used in the original interactive CDs (for example, an interface design that
resembles a book, mouse-driven navigation of content, information in local languages).
The next major decision involving the shaping of the interactive CDs was the
determination of the topics to be addressed by them (for example, tomato cultivation,
micro irrigation, crop pests and diseases) and the specific information content to be
included within. The topics were determined based upon agriculture-related trends
and interventions promoted by the government, topics suggested by the agriculture
advisors attached to a toll-free advisory service run by the Media Unit and topics
suggested by the content development team. The information content within the
interactive CDs was determined by the researchers recruited for the purpose of writing
the script for the CDs. Most importantly, there was no direct consultation with the
farming community or the field-level agriculture extension officers, in determining
either the topics or the information content to be stored within the interactive CDs.
When their development was completed, the interactive CDs were tested by parties
such as the project implementation team, the content development team and the
agriculture advisors of the toll-free agriculture advisory service. Once again, there was
a lack of direct consultation with either the farming community or the field-level
agriculture extension officers. Thus, at the end of the production process, the
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interactive CD was shaped into a technology artefact that largely embodied the project
implementer’s interests, vision and ideas rather than the end users’.
Launching of the first twenty AKCs
A part of the initial ARPB grant was expended on implementing the first set of AKCs
launched under the project. By the end of 2004, the project had succeeded in
establishing and launching operations at twenty AKCs. The process of implementing
the AKCs involved the basic steps of informing the PAAs of the impending
implementation of the AKCs; selection of the locations for establishing AKCs; training
of AKC operators; handing over of ICT equipment to be deployed at the AKCs to the
AKC operators; site establishment; and the execution of a site launching ceremony to
inform key stakeholders such as the farming community about the AKC.
Enrollment of the secondary funding bodies
By 2004, the AKC project had captured the attention of two parties, namely, the
Deputy Director of the Agricultural Extension Division of the DOA and the Rice
Research Organisation (RRO). The Deputy Director was interested in the AKC project
given its applicability to a programme which he managed i.e. the Rice Production
Development Programme (RPDP). The RPDP was an important fixed-term initiative
funded by the state treasury, with objectives such as increasing national rice
production, improving the profitability of rice farming and raising farmers’ income. The
efficient transfer of information from research stations to farmers was recognised as
an essential requirement for achieving these objectives. Given that the AKC project
performed the very same function, the Deputy Director contended that establishing
AKCs in agricultural areas served by the programme would enable the realisation of
the objectives of the RPDP. This contention was accepted by a group of
representatives from the RRO who were visiting the country at the time. The RRO
representatives had toured some AKCs under the invitation of the Project Director and
were impressed by the project’s accomplishments. Subscribing to the Project
Director’s clever positioning of the AKC project, the RRO was convinced that the
project was well-aligned with a mandate of their own institution, which was to employ
an advanced model of technology combined with ICTs to transfer agricultural
technologies to farmers to improve rice productivity. In addition, the RRO was keen to
work on a project with the DOA given their interest in cultivating a link between their
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institution and the country, which was non-existent at the time. Thus, the RPDP and
the RRO agreed to provide funding for the AKC project in collaboration and were
eventually enrolled as actors in the AKC project’s global network. The funds provided
by these actors was utilised to launch fifteen new AKCs in 2004. Therefore, by 2005, a
total number of thirty five AKCs had been established under the AKC project, with the
patronage of three funding bodies (i.e. the ARPB, the RPDP, the RRO).
Further mobilisation of the ARPB
With the expansion of the AKC project, the PEU found it increasingly difficult to obtain
reliable and accurate information on the actual state of operations at the AKCs. As
such, the need to launch a mechanism to periodically monitor and evaluate the
progress of individual AKCs was identified. Accordingly, a second proposal was
submitted to the ARPB in 2005, justifying the need for funding to establish a
monitoring and evaluation mechanism. By this time, the relationship that existed
between the PEU and the ARPB had transformed into a strong, mutually beneficial
alliance where the ARPB was extremely keen to provide more funding for the further
development of the AKC project. This keenness was largely rooted in the AKC project’s
production of project outputs/intermediaries valued by the ARPB. To elaborate
further, in order to obtain the funding necessary to maintain their operations, the
ARPB had to convince the state treasury of the success of the institution by
demonstrating tangible results on an annual basis. The AKC project was one of the few
projects out of a total of approximately five hundred projects funded by ARPB that
delivered such tangible and demonstrable results (for example, interactive CDs, AKCs)
which could be showcased to impress the state treasury. Thus, the ARPB recognised
that continuing to support the AKC project was in their best interest. Given this state of
affairs, the ARPB did not hesitate in approving a second grant which mainly supported
the monitoring and evaluation of the AKCs from 2005 to 2007. In addition, the grant
covered further project expansion in terms of launching new AKCs and producing more
interactive CDs.
In 2006, the Project Director was able to secure a third grant from the ARPB by
submitting another proposal which requested funding for the purpose of producing
more interactive CDs and addressing the need of launching awareness programmes to
popularise the AKCs among the farming community. This grant extended the effective
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period of the first grant proposal by a further two years thereby ensuring that the AKC
project was funded by the ARPB until 2008. Considered overall, in the years ensuing
the initial enrollment of the ARPB, the AKC project’s Director was able to capitalise on
the project’s production of valuable project outputs/intermediaries to further mobilise
the ARPB to the benefit of the project.
Further mobilisation of the RPDP and termination of RPDP sponsorship
The relationship between the AKC project and the RPDP had continued to strengthen
since the release of the first round of funding by the programme in 2004. The
strengthening of this alliance is attributed largely to the delivery of project
outputs/intermediaries that were valued by the funding body. For example, the
officials of the RPDP discovered that AKCs motivated field-level agriculture officers and
encouraged them to perform better at their agricultural extension duties. Further, they
had contributed in enhancing field-level agriculture officers’ technical knowledge on
agriculture. The AKCs had also proven useful by providing information required for
resolving important local problems identified by farmers. Given such benefits, the
RPDP remained committed to supporting the AKC project and funded the
establishment of another thirteen AKCs prior to the closure of the programme in 2007.
However, the RPDP’s more ambitious original plan of establishing AKCs at all seventy
five Farmer Support Centers located in agricultural areas covered under the
programme was never realised due to a decrease in the funding allocated to the
programme by the state treasury and the advent of other national-level programmes
of a higher priority that competed for funding.
Status of the AKC project and its’ global network in 2008
At the time of studying the AKC project in 2008, it had achieved the status of a
prominent and nationally visible ICT4D project. The project had established a total of
fifty one AKCs in all provinces of the country. It had also produced forty eight
interactive CDs that addressed a variety of agriculture-related topics important to the
nation’s farmers.
The delivery of the tangible outputs mentioned above had increased the importance of
the AKC project in the eyes of the state agricultural authorities, who now recognised
its value as a venture that could be capitalised upon to demonstrate their capabilities.
By this time, the AKC project was featured at national agricultural exhibitions and
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highlighted by senior officials of the DOA and the MOA as a success story. The project
had in essence become a trophy employed by the DOA and the MOA to boast of their
accomplishments. Therefore, by 2008, the AKC project had transcended its initial
status of being a fairly invisible initiative executed within the realms of the DOA. It had
managed to strengthen its formerly weak relationships with the DOA and the MOA and
was better placed to mobilise these actors towards the future benefit of the project.
In the years ensuing inception, the AKC project had also strengthened its relationships
with the actors who funded the project and succeeded in retaining their commitment
to the project. As an example, the prime funding agency that was responsible for
financing the project (i.e. the ARPB) had no reservations in declaring its willingness to
sponsor the project well beyond 2008. In fact, the AKC project was identified by the
ARPB as the project that was first in line for receiving grants under a new IT-oriented
sectoral funding programme which was to be launched by the institution in the near
future.
By 2008, the AKC project had also attracted the patronage of new actors who
expressed an interest in funding the project in the future. The Project Director’s efforts
to broaden the project’s funding base by marketing its achievements to the country’s
politicians had proven successful and the project had secured the support of politicians
in the highest echelons of the central government. As an example, the country’s
President held a favourable view of the AKC project and was keen to invest in its
future. Further, the Minister of Agriculture had verbalised his intention to fund the
establishment of hundred AKCs in the years to come. Such willingness to invest in the
AKC project on the part of central government politicians was fuelled by more than the
obvious deliberation of the project’s capacity to contribute to national agricultural
development. The project concept and its outputs were also attractive to them
personally as a potential means of gaining political mileage.
Another new actor that was enrolled by 2008 is the NITA (the National IT Agency)
which is the key government body responsible for the nation’s ICT sector. The AKC
project fit in well with the NITA’s overall agenda of harnessing the capabilities of ICTs
for socio-economic development. As such, they had agreed to finance project activities
such as the development of new ICT applications to be deployed at the AKCs.
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By 2008, the AKC project had also begun to build alliances that were mutually
beneficial from a resource perspective, with other large-scale, national-level ICT4D
projects that operated in the country. Thus, at the point of studying the AKC project in
2008, it was progressing well in terms of securing additional sources of funding by
enrolling powerful actors external to the DOA.
Considered overall, during the period of 2003 - 2008, the global network of the AKC
project had continued to expand and strengthen through the enrollment and further
mobilisation of a range of actors. This global network was instrumental in both
improving the project’s access to resources and creating an environment that was
more conducive to project continuity and development.
7.3 Construction of the AKC Project’s Local Network
A local network is the network involved in “the development of an array of the
heterogeneous set of bits and pieces that is necessary to the successful production of
any working device” (Law et al., 1992, p.22). In the case of the AKC project, the local
network that was directly involved in the delivery of the expected project outputs
existed at the level of the AKCs. A local network developed in relation to each AKC
implemented under the project. Further, each local network maintained a relationship
with the AKC project’s global network via the PEU, for purposes such as acquiring the
resources and services required for AKC operation.
While the fifty one AKCs implemented under the AKC project differed from one
another, the actors and the relationships pertaining to the local network were
common across all the AKCs. As such, it is possible to identify a generic form for the
AKC project’s local network, which is presented in figure 7.2.
Figure 7.2 Local Network of the AKC Project
PEU
AKC operator
DFS
AKC
Farming community
PAA
Technology providers
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As evident from this figure, the construction of the local network entailed the
enrollment of a number of actors whose cooperation was vital to launch and sustain
operations at an AKC. The actors include the farming community, the Provincial
Agriculture Authority (PAA), the Project Execution Unit (PEU), the AKC operator, the
technology providers and the Department of Farmer Services (DFS). The account that
follows describes in general terms the formation and reshaping of the local network of
the AKC project presented above.
Enrollment of the Provincial Agriculture Authority (PAA)
The PAA’s support was crucial to the survival of an AKC, as it was the actor responsible
for its maintenance. This fact was acknowledged by the Project Director prior to the
implementation of the AKCs. Accordingly, a meeting was organised to accomplish the
goals of informing the PAA of the impending implementation and converting them into
allies of the AKC project. At this meeting, which was attended by senior officers of the
PAA such as Provincial Directors and Deputy Provincial Directors, a number of
strategies were employed towards enrollment. Firstly, the AKC project was promoted
as an initiative that would improve the ailing agricultural extension mechanism which
was crucial to the agricultural productivity of the provinces. Further, it was portrayed
as an initiative that requires negligible financial commitment on the part of the PAAs,
as the cost of operating an AKC was anticipated to be very low. The Project Director
also assured that the PEU would take on the responsibility of implementing the AKCs
and will offer its fullest support to the PAAs. These arguments were accepted by the
PAAs who were not averse to the prospect of improving the agricultural extension
mechanism and provincial agricultural productivity at minimal cost. While the Project
Director did specify that the PAAs would be responsible for maintaining the AKCs, he
was unable to alter the PAAs’ view of the AKC project as a central government concern
owned by the PEU that would involve limited effort and contribution on their part. In
essence, the PAAs failed to acknowledge the vital role assigned to them in ensuring the
successful implementation and maintenance of the AKCs. Consequently, the PAAs’
willingness to endorse the project was based on their unarticulated expectation of
limited accountability for the fate of the project.
Considered overall, the relationship that formed between the AKC and the PAA was
weak in the case of the majority of AKCs. The relevant translation was largely
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ineffective in terms of cultivating a real sense of project ownership and commitment in
an actor whose unrestricted support was crucial to the well-being of the AKCs. As the
end result of this weak translation, the PAAs were shaped into mere custodians of the
AKCs instead of the targeted state of enthusiastic and committed owner.
Enrollment of the Project Execution Unit (PEU)
The PEU was the main facilitator of on-going operations at the AKCs and the provider
of numerous resources and services that were essential to their survival. Examples for
such services and resources include ICT maintenance support, provision of ICT training
to AKC staff, content development and maintenance, development of ICT applications
deployed at the AKCs, co-ordination with stakeholders important for AKC continuity
and progress monitoring of AKCs. Thus, securing the support of the PEU and building a
strong relationship between the PEU and the AKC was crucial to the continuity of the
AKCs. For the most part, it was unnecessary to expend special effort on enrolling the
PEU. As the implementer of the AKC project, the PEU was already committed to the
project and in particular to supporting the operation of the AKCs. However, two
criteria exerted an impact on the enrollment of the PEU. First, successful enrollment of
the PEU was dependent upon AKC operators’ prowess in cultivating and sustaining a
positive relationship with this actor. Second, the enrollment of the PEU was also
affected by physical constraints that challenged the cultivation of a strong relationship
with the AKC such as the remote location of some AKCs that limited their accessibility.
Enrollment of the Department of Farmer Services (DFS)
Enrolling the DFS was imperative to the survival of the AKCs for several reasons. Firstly,
the AKCs were located within the Farmer Support Centres owned by the DFS. Secondly,
given the lack of DOA representatives at the village-level, the AKCs relied heavily on
the village-level agriculture officers employed by the DFS to execute the critical activity
of creating awareness about the AKCs among farmers. Thirdly, the support of senior
DFS officials was necessary to ensure the availability of an environment that was
conducive to the maintenance of AKC operations. As an example, it was not possible to
carry out building renovations needed to create a safe physical environment for
housing the ICT equipment owned by the AKC without the approval of the DFS.
Although their co-operation was vital, the DFS’s attitude towards the AKC project was
covertly negative and hostile. This state of affairs was the result of a complex
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combination of circumstances. Given the discord and enmity that had prevailed
between the two departments over the years, the DFS was not particularly pre-
disposed to supporting initiatives owned by the DOA. Further, given that the DFS
lacked the authority to deliver technical information on agriculture to the farming
community, its officers failed to see any incentive in supporting an initiative whose
very focus was the delivery of technical information. In essence, the officers perceived
the AKC project as an initiative that lay beyond the scope of responsibilities assigned to
their institution. Finally, in the case of some AKCs, DFS officers based in the Farmer
Support Centres were antagonistic and unsupportive, given their jealousy over the
prominence gained by the DOA’s AKC operator, as a result of the AKC project.
In attempting to enrol the DFS, the AKC project staff failed to address the issues
highlighted above which discouraged enrollment. The effort expended on this task
was inadequate and lacked persistency. Further, the strategies employed to obtain the
support of the DFS were ineffective. For example, the coercive strategy of issuing a
government circular which instructed the village-level agriculture officers of the DFS to
work under the AKC operator for two days of the week had limited impact in terms of
winning their genuine co-operation. Thus, in the case of most AKCs, the translation
involving the DFS was unsuccessful in shaping this institution into an actor that was
truly committed to contributing to the project. Further, the resulting relationship that
formed between the AKC and the DFS was very weak.
Enrollment of the farming community
Enrolling the farming community was critical to the continuity of an AKC as they were
its key beneficiaries. This translation process was driven by the fundamental purpose
of convincing the farming community to utilise the AKC. With regard to the strategy
adopted in locking-in the farming community towards AKC utilisation, the PEU
advocated the employment of a seduction-based approach. The approach involved
convincing the farming community that utilising the AKC was worthwhile by promoting
it as an ICT-enabled resource centre which delivers information that is invaluable to
farmers in both resolving agriculture-related problems and enhancing the productivity
and profitability of farming. However, this strategy was abjectly ineffective in enrolling
the farming community in the case of the vast majority of AKCs. The array of complex
issues which contributed to this state of affairs includes:
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The farming community’s lack of awareness of the AKC project
The farming community’s perceptions and the mind-set, information culture
and demographic aspects of the farming community that discourage utilisation
of the AKCs
Physical constraints that limit the farming community’s access to the AKC
Resource constraints that erect barriers to engaging the farming community in
utilising the AKC
Extent of the capacity possessed by the AKC operator to attract the farming
community to the AKC
Competing influences that dissuade the farming community from utilising the
AKCs
The relevance of the information delivered by the AKC to the information
needs of the farming community
The appropriateness of the technologies employed by the AKCs
The entire array of issues is addressed in detail under section 8.4 which undertakes a
detailed analysis of the local network relationships of the AKC project.
Enrollment of the technology vendors
Enrolling the technology vendors was critical as they were the actor responsible for the
provision and maintenance of ICT equipment and services essential for operating the
AKCs. The strategy adopted to lock-in the technology vendors involved a basic
economic exchange, where they were promised payment for services rendered.
However, the translation process failed to shape the technology vendors into
supportive actors who can be relied upon to provide efficient services. Issues that
contributed to this state of affairs include the lack of a robust mechanism for the
maintenance of ICTs deployed in the AKCs which made it difficult to engage the
support of technology vendors and the selection of technology providers whose
service delivery was of a low quality.
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Enrollment of the AKC operator
Successful enrollment and mobilisation of the AKC operator was important due to two
main reasons. Firstly, the AKC operator was the sole officer entrusted with managing
daily operations at the AKC. Secondly, the AKC operator was assigned the vital role of
marshalling the support of a number of local network actors (for example, the farming
community, the PAA, the DFS) whose involvement was essential for AKC operation, by
building and maintaining productive relationships with them. In essence, it was
impossible to operate an AKC in the absence of the support and commitment of the
AKC operator.
The Project Director’s approach to enrolling the AKC operators involved positioning the
AKC project as an initiative that would enable AKC operators to vastly improve the
delivery and effectiveness of their agricultural extension duties by leveraging the
capabilities of the ICT resources at the AKCs. The project was also promoted as an
initiative that placed AKC operators in the enviable position of having access to
valuable computing resources that were inaccessible to even senior officers of the DOA
at the time. However, such seduction-oriented strategies proved ineffective in locking-
in the majority of AKC operators. The unsuccessful translation was associated with the
PEU’s failure to address several issues that affected the enrollment of the AKC
operators. The issues include perceptions and mind-set of AKC operators that
limits/prevents their involvement in the AKC, the unavailability of AKC operators due
to time constraints that arose as a result of the substantial duties associated with their
main job role as the agriculture advisor to the farming community, inadequacies in IT
training and the lack of incentives for performance with regard to the AKC.
Considered overall, in the case of many AKCs, the translation involving the AKC
operators was unsuccessful in winning their strong commitment to the AKC and the
resulting relationship that was formed between the AKC and the AKC operator was
generally weak. In essence, the translation failed to shape the AKC operator into an
actor committed to AKC operation.
The reshaping of the interactive CDs
The interactive CDs encountered their projected main users (i.e. the farmers) at the
level of the AKCs. The Project Director had envisioned that the farmers would use the
interactive CDs independently to obtain agriculture-related information. However, in
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reality, this vision failed to materialise and the interactive CDs failed to fulfil their
originally anticipated role of functioning as a self-learning tool utilised by farmers.
Farmers who generally lacked IT skills were uninclined to use the CDs independently
and independent use by a farmer was a very rare occurrence. Further, the farmers
were not very receptive to the idea of the reading information presented in the CDs
and instead preferred learning by means such as watching a VCD. Furthermore, as a
result of the top-down approach to determining information needs employed in the
project, the information content within the interactive CDs despite being useful did not
address the critical information needs of farming community. As such, most farmers
failed to find them appealing. Finally, given the fact that the interactive CDs required a
computer to be viewed, farmers considered it an inappropriate medium which cannot
be used at the village-level where there was a lack of computing resources.
Given the scenario presented above, the interactive CD was shaped into a teaching
tool employed by the agriculture advisors in training the farming community. Whilst
this is a role that had been anticipated originally for the interactive CD, its main
projected role of functioning as a medium for independent learning for farmers
remained unfulfilled.
As the project progressed, the experience of the using the interactive CDs resulted in
requests for an alternative medium by both agriculture advisors and farmers. For
instance, VCDs were seen as a relatively more practical medium given ease of use and
as villages had greater access to VCD players than computers. Considering this
feedback, the Project Director acknowledged the need for a medium that does not
require a computer to be used. However, he rejected the idea of employing VCDs as a
medium on the basis of the argument that they lacked interactivity. He remained
convinced of the versatility of the original design which involved interactive search for
information, despite evidence from the field which indicated that farmers had no
special preference for this feature. Thus, the Project Director initiated a research
project within the PEU that explored the possibility of producing the interactive CDs in
DVD format, a format which was more practical as villages had more access to DVD
players. Considered overall, the fundamental design of the interactive CD remained
unaltered at the point of conducting the study in 2008, despite requests for change.
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7.4 The Connection between the Global and Local Networks
The actor that maintained the connection between the global and local networks
functioning as an Obligatory Point of Passage (OPP) was the PEU. The PEU comprised
the Project Director, the project implementation team, the content development
team, the various ICT systems utilised in carrying out PEU operations and processes
and procedures pertaining to PEU operations. The PEU was generally successful in
functioning as a single point of control for the transactions that occurred between the
global and local networks.
7.5 Conclusion
The AKC project comprised a global network constructed for the purpose of acquiring
the resources and the environment required for project execution and local networks
constructed at the level of individual AKCs for the purpose of delivering project
outputs.
The global network was formed with the enrollment of several actors who exerted
administrative authority over the AKC project (for example, the DOA, the MOA) and
numerous agencies/entities that resourced the project (for example, the ARPB, the
RRO, the RPDP, the NITA, central government politicians). During the five year period
of 2003 - 2008, the AKC project succeeded in building a fairly robust global network
which had continued to expand and strengthen through the enrollment and further
mobilisation of a range of actors. This global network was instrumental in both
improving the project’s access to resources and creating an environment that was
more conducive to project continuity and development.
The construction of the local network entailed the enrollment of a number of actors
whose cooperation was vital to execute and sustain operations at an AKC. These actors
include the farming community, the PAA, the PEU, the AKC operator, the technology
providers and the DFS. Commenting in general, the local networks that were formed at
the level of the AKCs were weak and inadequate in terms of ensuring the successful
operation and continuity of the AKC project. In particular, the relationships that were
formed between the AKC and actors such as the farming community, the PAA, the AKC
operator, the technology providers and the DFS were weak.
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The actor that maintained the connection between the global and local networks
functioning as an Obligatory Point of Passage (OPP) was the PEU. In general, the PEU
was successful in functioning as a single point of control for the transactions that
occurred between the global and local networks.
The next chapter presents an in-depth analysis of the global and local network
relationships that proved vital in terms of the sustainability of the AKC project.
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Chapter 8: An Analysis of Relationships Critical to Sustainability
8.1 Introduction
In this chapter, the focus shifts to a consideration of the AKC project’s global and local
networks in terms of project sustainability. Accordingly, the relationships within the
global and local networks that proved critical in sustaining the AKC project are
identified and analysed.
The chapter is organised as follows. Firstly, the global network relationships that
played a crucial role in project sustainability are analysed. Secondly, the local network
relationships that proved critical in terms of project sustainability are scrutinised.
Lastly, the salient findings of the ANT-based analysis of the sustainability of the AKC
project are presented.
8.2 Project Sustainability and Critical Influencing Relationships
By 2008 (i.e. the point at which the case study was conducted), the AKC project’s
entire project network had assumed the form shown in figure 8.1.
Figure 8.1 The AKC Project Network
Considering the above network in terms of project sustainability, it is possible to arrive
at two major conclusions. First, the AKC project was generally successful in
constructing and sustaining a global network that enabled project sustainability. As
evident from the narrative on the construction of the global network presented in the
previous chapter, the AKC project’s global network strengthened and expanded over
L5
L3 L2
L1
G1
G2
G3
DOA/MOA Funding agencies Central government politicians
PAA
Technology vendors
AKC operator
DFS
Farming community
L4 2
L6
PEU
AKC
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time as the project progressed. This transformation enabled greater access to
resources and created an environment conducive to project execution, which in turn
facilitated project sustainability.
Second, the AKC project was largely unsuccessful in constructing and sustaining a local
network that enabled project sustainability. As evident from the narrative on the
construction of the local network presented in the previous chapter, the translations
involving the various actors in the local network were weak and the local network
struggled to assume a form that encouraged project sustainability.
Examination of the AKC project’s global and local networks by employing an ANT-
based theoretical lens revealed the existence of relationships that proved vital in
sustaining the project. The two sections that follow (i.e. sections 8.3 and 8.4) analyse
the global network relationships (i.e. G1, G2, G3) and the local network relationships
(i.e. L1, L2, L3, L4, L5, L6) that were critical to the sustainability of the AKC project. In
exploring each relationship, the analysis addresses the question of why the
relationship was critical to sustainability, examines the influences that shaped
relationship formation, sustenance and strength and assesses the impact of
relationship formation/non-formation/strength or weakness on project sustainability.
8.3 An Analysis of the Global Network Relationships
Three global network relationships proved critical in sustaining the AKC project (figure
8.1). This includes the relationship between the PEU and the DOA/the MOA (G1), the
relationship between the PEU and the funding agencies (G2) and the relationship
between the PEU and central government politicians (G3). The relationships are
examined below.
8.3.1 The Relationship between the PEU and the DOA/the MOA (G1)
The relationship between the DOA and the MOA was critical because these actors
were the state sector agricultural institutions that exercised administrative authority
over the AKC project. As such, the endorsement of the DOA and the MOA was vital in
implementing and sustaining the AKC project. The relationships that were important in
this respect include the relationship formed between the PEU and the DOA and the
relationship formed between the PEU and the MOA. Ensuring project sustainability
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essentially necessitated forging and sustaining strong relationships with both
institutions.
Four Influences were seen to shape this relationship:
1. Strength of the project proposal submitted to the DOA/the MOA
An influence that impacted the initial formation of the relationships between the PEU
and the DOA/the MOA, was the strong project proposal submitted in seeking the
institutions’ approval for implementing the AKC project. The proposal positioned the
AKC project as a valuable initiative that offers solutions to a number of difficult issues
the DOA and the MOA were keen to resolve (for example, ailing agricultural extension
mechanism, paucity of manpower in the DOA to support agricultural extension
activities at the grass-root level). It also suggested utilising ICTs for developing the
agriculture sector which was a trend both institutions were eager to embrace. Such
relevant and attractive arguments convinced the DOA and the MOA that it was in their
own interest to endorse the project. Thus, as indicated by the comment given below
they had no hesitation in supporting the proposal and forming a relationship with the
PEU/the AKC project.
“Those days they [the DOA/the MOA] were happy [with the proposal]. They wanted to
introduce digital technology. No opposition from the hierarchy. Recognised [the value of
the project] and very supportive.” - Project Director
2. Production of project benefits valued by the DOA/the MOA
The sustenance and the strength of the relationships formed between the PEU and the
DOA/the MOA was impacted by the AKC project’s production of tangible outputs that
were valued by the DOA and the MOA. As suggested by the following statements,
these institutions employed project outputs as a means of broadcasting their
capabilities.
“....this project gives the department something to show.” - Manager, Interactive CD
Development
“They [the senior officials of the DOA/the MOA] don’t say bad things about this [the AKC
project] because as a product this project is useful to them....” - Manager, Interactive CD
Development
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Thus, the DOA and the MOA gradually began to view the AKC project as a valuable
initiative. This positive view of the project was instrumental in strengthening and
sustaining the initially weak relationships formed between the PEU and the DOA/the
MOA.
3. Degree of the PEU’s effectiveness in managing the relationship with the DOA/MOA
The strength and the sustenance of the relationships formed between the PEU and the
DOA/the MOA was also determined by the degree of the PEU’s effectiveness in
managing these relationships. As indicated by the following comment, the Project
Director used mechanisms such as internal progress review meetings to continuously
showcase the valuable outputs delivered by the project and keep senior officials
informed of its progress.
“Now the Project Director is working in one of the units that comes under the extension and
training division where I’m working. I’m a deputy director here. So in various progress
review meetings he mentioned this one [about the AKC project]. - Deputy Director,
DOA/Representative, RPDP
This approach contributed in strengthening and ensuring the sustenance of the
relationship with the DOA/the MOA.
4. Attitudes and perceptions of individual officers employed by the DOA/MOA
The relationship strength and sustenance was also affected by the attitudes and
perceptions of individual officers of the DOA and the MOA. For example, as revealed
by the following comment, some senior officials were reluctant to support the AKC
project given their jealousy over the Project Director’s accomplishments and rising
visibility and prominence.
“If you take the recent agriculture technology park the person who stood out was our
Assistant Director [the Project Director], but there are directors above us. Even the
president gave the credit to us. Now because of that there are conflicts, something like
jealousies.” - Manager, Interactive CD development
Such negative attitudes and perceptions in turn weakened the relationships formed
between the PEU and the DOA/the MOA.
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Impact of relationship formation/non-formation/strength or weakness:
The relationships that formed between the PEU and the DOA/the MOA were initially
weak. As evident from the Project Manager’s statements given below, the weak
relationships lead to difficulties in acquiring the resources required for maintaining the
operations of the PEU. Further, they resulted in difficulties in gaining the support of
actors critical for sustaining the AKC project. For instance, actors such as the PAA may
have extended greater support to the AKC project, if the MOA which possessed
authority over them, had attached more prominence to the AKC project and insisted
on their support.
“Though we created the structure [the AKC monitoring and evaluation structure] we didn’t
get any support from the head office [the head office of the DOA]. When we said we
needed vehicles for evaluation [AKC evaluation visits] also problems arose. We couldn’t
allocate from our own office. No support from head office. They wouldn’t give a separate
vote [financial allocation].” - Project Manager
“Even if they [the MOA] told to the provincial people that you should implement this [the
AKC project], so they will really support it.” - Project Manager
The subsequent strengthening of these relationships as a result of the project’s
production of outputs valued by the DOA/the MOA, opened up the possibility of
facilitating the sustainability of the AKC project in the future through acquisition of
more resources and greater support from the DOA/the MOA. The comments quoted
below attest to the enhanced support offered by the DOA/the MOA.
“We have a problem with the war situation and we have to spend money [on the war]. To
run the system, some problem with the government allocation. Even though, they [the
MOA] are providing me 100 [AKCs] now. Even with that [the limited funds available due to
the war] they are ready to give, right.” - Project Director
“They [the senior officers of the DOA and MOA] are really happy with the project and they
want to increase the number [of AKCs].” - Project Director
8.3.2 The Relationship between the PEU and the Funding Agencies (G2)
The AKC project depended on several external funding agencies (i.e. the ARPB, the
RPDP and the RRO) to meet both its capital costs and the cost of operations executed
by the PEU such as interactive CD development and monitoring the progress of the
AKCs. Thus, the funding agencies’ strong support and continued commitment to
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sponsoring the AKC project was vital in terms of project sustainability. The critical
relationship that mattered in this regard is the relationship formed between the PEU
and a funding agency. Forging and sustaining strong relationships between the PEU
and each of its funding agencies was essential in sustaining the project.
Four Influences were seen to shape this relationship:
1. Strength of the project proposal submitted to secure the support of a funding
agency
The initial formation of the relationship between the PEU and a funding agency was
influenced by the strength of the project proposal submitted in seeking the
sponsorship of the funding agency. The attractiveness of the project proposals drafted
by the Project Director compelled the funding agencies to offer their sponsorship and
form a relationship with the PEU/the AKC project.
In terms of the specific qualities that made the project proposals attractive, they met
the basic criteria evaluated by the funding agency in committing to fund a project and
were congruent with the agenda and expectations of the funding agency. This is
evident from the following comment made by the representative of the ARPB with
regard to the basic reasons behind their selection of the AKC project for sponsorship.
“So it was an IT development. And for the well-being of the country we just had the exact
objective from the project. So that objective [the proposed objective] was one of our
priority areas. And it should be at the same time the mandated function of the grantee
institution also. So…this project was quite okay - mandated function of the DOA and ARPB
priority area. So we selected.” - Representative, ARPB
Furthermore, the proposals presented strong arguments that highlighted the benefits
delivered by the AKC project including those that were particularly coveted by the
funding agencies. To cite an illustrative example, as indicated by the comment given
below, the proposal prepared towards enrolling the ARPB emphasised benefits that
were very attractive to the ARPB such as the establishment of a research repository of
local research on crops and the development of a strong linkage between research and
extension.
“Now my argument for ARPB is…now this [the project] is a support. One thing is the
research will be transferred to farmers through the AKC project. My next argument was
this..that particular interactive CD has a separate chapter for research. That was a main
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point for them, because this tool is a library. Tomato all the research papers are given. It is
a supporting tool for research work. That’s why they funded me for the project.” - Project
Director
2. Production of project outputs valued by the funding agencies
As it progressed, the AKC project produced tangible outputs that were highly valued
and coveted by the funding agencies. The delivery of such outputs resulted in the
funding agencies perceiving the AKC project as a valuable initiative worthy of their
endorsement. The assignment of value to the project in turn encouraged funding
agencies that were already enrolled to forge and sustain even stronger relationships
with the PEU/the AKC project. This state of affairs is confirmed by the following
statements made by interviewees when questioned on the reasons behind why a
specific funding agency continued to fund the AKC project.
“The reason….though they [i.e. the ARPB] fund other research there is no output. That year
they had salvaged themselves by using our output. They had used the CDs [the interactive
CDs produced by the AKC project] to get the next round of funding [funds from the state
treasury to run the ARPB].” - Project Manager
“The ARPB of course, this [the AKC project] is identified as one of their best success stories.
Whenever they want to present anything for the government, they ask for powerpoint
slides from me, the success story. Always AKC, AKC, AKC…..so they are very keen on it and
that’s why they are continuously providing funds.” - Project Director
“In our case also, we need the research implementation which should be very showing. Not
to just research, like that. His implementation was you know….in front of us. “This is a
prominent example on which the implementations are there. So this is mutually you know.”
- Representative, ARPB
“For instance, I have published forty eight electronic books [interactive CDs] now. For their
project [the ARPB] it is a huge achievement. They are also a project funded by the
government. Year by year they have to convince the government that their project has
done this much of work. So they always take these CDs [interactive CDs] and show it to the
cabinet or the higher people to get the funds for that project [for the ARPB].” - Project
Director
The assignment of value to the project given its production of valuable outputs was
also instrumental in attracting the attention and patronage of new sources of funding.
As evident from the comment made by the Project Director given below, offers of
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support from sources such as the RPDP were based on recognition of the value of the
outputs already produced by the AKC project.
“The RRO researchers…they came for another project here [in the country]….So they saw
my project. They interviewed me and they went to all these places [the AKCs that had
already been established]. So they were amazed and they wanted to increase the number
[the number of AKCs].” - Project Director
3. Degree of the PEU’s effectiveness in managing the relationship with a funding
agency
The strength and the sustenance of the relationship that existed between the PEU and
a funding agency were also determined by the PEU’s prowess in managing the
relationship. The Project Director’s talent in leveraging and showcasing project outputs
to convince the funding agencies of the worthiness of endorsing the project and his
delivery of project outputs as promised was instrumental in fortifying and sustaining
the relationships with the funding agencies. The statements made by the
representatives of the two funding agencies the RPDP and the ARPB quoted below are
explanatory of this fact.
“Now the Project Director is working in one of the units that comes under the extension and
training division where I’m working. I’m a deputy director here. So in various progress
review meetings he mentioned this one [about the AKC project]. At the same time the RRO
people they came to the country and we all visited the Media Unit [where the PEU is
located] also. Then there also he presented his plan.” - Representative, RPDP/Deputy
Director, DOA
“If we further fund on a second phase or on an extension [on a project] they have to submit
a performance report and we have to go to site. We are to mark the performance and then
we grant the next phase or next project or whatever it is. Achievements were okay on this
project, because our executive director was the project monitoring ARPB member on that
project. On the project side he was the chairman and all. So they had good comments I
think, so this was funded.” - Representative, ARPB
4. Changes in the macro environment
The sustenance of the relationship between the PEU and a funding agency was
impacted by changes that occurred in the macro environment. As an example, as
indicated by the following comments, the RPDP’s inability to fund the AKC project
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beyond 2007 was associated with macro environmental changes such as decreased
allocation of funds by the state treasury and the advent of other national-level
programmes of a higher priority that competed for government funds.
“The amount of funds we received, now in year 2004 for the Department of Agriculture we
expected over 100 million, for this type of activity [AKC type of activity], but we received
only 33 million from the treasury. Then 2005 we had only 25 million. Then again 2006, 26
million. Then 2007, 12 million. That is one reason why…limitation of funds.” -
Representative, RPDP/Deputy Director, DOA
“Even during that time, the government has some other programmes also. There was a
programme called X. And some initiative taken by the university. They had some other
programmes. These people at the top-level I mean…they like this type of thing, but since
the government is investing in some other sources, I mean they don’t want to channel
entire funds to this project.” - Representative, RPDP/Deputy Director, DOA
As indicated by the following comment made by the Project Director, the AKC project
continued on despite such macro environmental changes that impacted access to
funding, given its cultivation of relationships with multiple sources of funding.
“Investment, of course now last year I couldn’t increase the number [of AKCs], through
ARPB or through government funds. But through the RPDP....they increased the number.
That’s how I got 10 or 12 last year. So every year I have increased. This year through
government funds I am getting new 100.” - Project Director
Impact of relationship formation/non-formation/strength or weakness:
In the case of the AKC project, strong and stable relationships were formed between
the PEU and its various funding agencies. The formation of such relationships enabled
the project to secure resources for project execution thereby facilitating project
sustainability. For instance, the strong relationship that was formed with the ARPB
resulted in the institution approving grants on three separate occasions for the
implementation and further development of the AKC project. The strong relationships
also compelled the funding agencies to commit to funding the project in the future
thereby improving the chances of future project continuity. For instance, given the
strong relationship that was forged over the years, the ARPB earmarked the AKC
project as the first in line for receiving grants under a new IT-oriented sectoral funding
programme which was to be launched by the institution in the near future.
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8.3.3 The Relationship between the PEU and Central Government Politicians (G3)
The AKC project was a government sector development initiative. As such, the
acceptance of the project by the politicians of the central government and the
maintenance of a relationship with them was necessary for its continuity. Further, the
active patronage of the project by the central government politicians resulted in
greater access to government funding for sustaining the AKC project in the future. The
relationship that was critical in this respect is the relationship formed between the PEU
and the politicians of the central government. In ensuring project sustainability, it was
beneficial to forge and sustain this relationship.
Two Influences were seen to shape this relationship:
1. Production of project outputs valued by central government politicians
As indicated by the comment given below, the AKC project delivered demonstrable
outputs that could be employed by politicians of the central government as a means of
gaining political mileage with the general public.
“The advantages of AKC system is something tasty for them [politicians]. They go for
openings [opening ceremonies] and they think now we have digital technology. Every
meeting they say, the politicians [they talk about the project]. Especially the minister [of
agriculture].” - Project Director
The politicians’ attraction to these outputs encouraged the formation of a relationship
between the PEU and the central government politicians.
2. Degree of the PEU’s effectiveness in managing the relationship with central
government politicians
The strength and the sustenance of the relationship formed between the PEU and the
central government politicians were determined by the degree of the PEU’s
effectiveness in managing the relationship. The Project Director’s talent in leveraging
and showcasing project outputs at national-level events to convince influential
politicians of the worthiness of endorsing the project, contributed in strengthening and
sustaining the relationship with them. As evident from the statement quoted below,
the Project Director utilised such events to showcase his accomplishments and acquire
funding from politicians from the highest echelons of the central government.
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“The president came for the inaugural session for the opening [the recent opening of an
agriculture technology park]. So he was really happy with the project because that was one
of the best projects opened in city X [an electorate the president was involved in]. Now he’s
going to give me funds for national agriculture television and to establish a national
agriculture information and communication centre [the AKC project is included under
this].” - Project Director
Impact of relationship formation/non-formation/strength or weakness:
The non-existence of a relationship between the PEU and the politicians of the central
government in the early stages of the AKC project meant that greater effort had to be
expended on securing the resources necessary for sustaining the project by means
such as pursuing external sources of funding. The subsequent formation of a
relationship with politicians of the central government as the project progressed
resulted in greater access to government funding thereby improving the chances of
sustaining and expanding the coverage and scope of the AKC project in the future. For
instance, with the formation of the relationship, high-level central government
politicians such as the country’s President and the Minister of Agriculture pledged
funds to support the further development of the project.
8.4 An Analysis of the Local Network Relationships
Six local network relationships proved vital in sustaining the AKC project (figure 8.1).
This includes the relationship between the AKC and the farming community (L1), the
relationship between the AKC and the Provincial Agricultural Authority (PAA) (L2), the
relationship between the AKC and the Project Execution Unit (PEU) (L3), the
relationship between the AKC and its operator (L4), the relationship between the AKC
and the technology vendors (L5) and the relationship between the AKC and the
Department of Farmer Services (DFS) (L6). The identified relationships are discussed
herewith, by drawing upon the findings of the cross-case analysis of the relationships
across the five cases examined in the study, presented in appendix 8.2. Overviews of
the five cases examined in the study are given in appendix 8.1.
8.4.1 The Relationship between the AKC and the Farming Community (L1)
The target beneficiary of the AKC project was the farming community. As such, if the
farming community refrained from utilising the AKCs the project would in essence,
exist in vain. In the event of acute lack of patrons, the survival of individual AKCs and in
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turn, the continuity of the AKC project would be in question. Thus, the sustainability of
the AKC project depended heavily on the farming community’s willingness to accept
and use the AKCs. The relationship that existed between the AKC and the farming
community was vital in ensuring such farmer buy-in. In order to achieve project
sustainability it was critical to both forge a strong relationship between the AKC and
the farming community and sustain that relationship.
Ten influences were seen to shape this relationship:
1. Farming community’s lack of awareness of the AKC project
As evident from the comments quoted below, the majority of farmers were either
completely unaware of the existence of AKCs or if aware, lacked sufficient
understanding about the services and benefits delivered by them.
“We went to AKC 2 and were waiting outside seated on a bench in a small tea shop close
by. No one knew who we were. We just asked the people there, isn’t there a computer unit
here. They did not know about it. That means the people on the other side of the fence of
the AKC did not know about it.” - Project implementation team member
“Only a few individuals in this area have an understanding of the AKC. Only a limited
number of people know about the existence of the AKC - that’s a minority.” - AKC operator,
AKC 4
“There are some farmers who are unaware that facilities such as quickly identifying crop
diseases are available in these institutions [the AKCs].” - Village-level agriculture officer
(DFS), AKC 4
“Sometimes the farmers don’t know that there is a unit like this and that the unit offers
these facilities. They still don’t know.” - Project implementation team member
“I think the people in this area do not know about the AKC. Could be that they don’t even
know whether it is there or not.” - Farmer, AKC 2
Given the acute lack of project awareness highlighted above, enrolling the farming
community proved difficult. This in turn resulted in the formation of a tenuous
relationship between the AKC and the farming community.
The farming community’s lack of awareness was the outcome of several oversights in
project implementation. Firstly, the PEU did not plan the execution of the task of
awareness creation adequately. In particular, a budget dedicated to the purpose of
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awareness creation was not allocated. Further, in terms of human resources for
creating awareness, the PEU failed to ensure the availability of adequate human
resources and identify suitable personnel for executing the task. The PEU’s strategy of
utilising the village-level agriculture officers of the DFS as the key communication
channel for creating awareness about the AKC among farmers failed to deliver results.
As employees of a rival department of the DOA, the DFS officers were uninclined to
extend their support in executing the task of awareness creation. Secondly, the PEU
also failed to establish an efficient and appropriate mechanism for creating and
sustaining project awareness among farmers. While one-off awareness campaigns
were conducted in the case of several AKCs, there was a lack of arrangements for
creating awareness on a continuous and long-term basis. Further, in terms of the
approach to creating awareness, more effort should have been expended on
cultivating an understanding of the services and benefits delivered by the AKCs among
farmers and inculcating a sense of appreciation for its value from the perspective of its
capacity to contribute to the improvement of farmers’ lives. Furthermore, more
thought should have been given to the problem of how to overcome the hurdle of
attracting farmers to the AKCs for the first time.
2. Perceptions and the mind-set of the farming community that discourage utilisation
of the AKCs
A diverse range of perceptions and the mind-set of the farming community proved a
barrier to their enrollment thereby contributing to the formation of a weak
relationship between the AKC and the farming community. Examples for such
perceptions and mind-set include:
Farmers’ low receptiveness to the AKC given the burden of dealing with difficult
issues that affect their livelihood.
As evident from the following comments, examples for such difficult issues
include the lack of a profitable market for agricultural produce, unbearable cost
of material inputs essential for farming such as fertiliser, lack of water for
farming, crop damage by wild animals and debt incurred for the purpose of
farming.
“The problem that affects the most is the low price of agricultural produce, crop
damage by cattle and in recent times from wild elephants, the high price of
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fertilizer leads to reduced income in the case of farmers who cultivate crops other
than rice as they do not receive the government fertilizer subsidy.” - Village-level
agriculture officer (DFS), AKC 2
“A main problem is the lack of a market for the produce cultivated. That is the
biggest issue that is there. The inability to sell what is produced. Water is a
problem during the dry season. Other than that, damaging of crops by wild
animals.” - Village-level agriculture officer (DFS), AKC 1
“We owe money to others always. The loans taken in the wet season remains in
the case of many. No shop gives pesticides on credit. A kilo of tomatoes was
bought for 4, 5. The problem, could not sell what was produced. Regarding the
mental status… if these children [the other younger farmers who were present
when the interview was conducted] hadn’t had a bit of an education, by now they
would have drunk cabbage pesticide and died. The gold jewellery has been
pawned. Come further into the village, the deed of the house has been given in
exchange for credit.” - Farmer, AKC 1
Given the burden imposed by this complex amalgamation of issues, farmers
were not very receptive to the AKCs or the information delivered by them.
“A bag of fertilizer is 4000. So then what is to be done with what’s taken from the
computer?” - Farmer, AKC 1
“No matter what kind of place we go to and learn, even if we go to the university
or to America and learn and come, if there is no income for the precious goods we
produce…what meetings? [training sessions at the AKC]. There is no point. There
will be some result in what we are doing, therefore let’s keep going….there should
be a feeling, a freedom like that. Let’s just put the fertilizer to the tomatoes during
that time [the time they would have spent at the AKC]” - Farmer, AKC 1
“We must not think of ICT as a main thing in this country, because from this [the
AKC project/the AKC] they can get information only. But as farmers they need other
inputs such as credit as well. That too has to go parallel with this. That does not
happen now. So the farmers think what use do we have for that [the AKC/the
information provided by the AKC] if we don’t have these [other inputs required for
farming]. That does influence whether people come to the AKC” - Project
implementation team member
Farmers’ unwillingness to embrace the AKC project, given their lack of trust in
and disillusionment with the parties involved in implementing the AKC project
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such as the government and the DOA. A major issue that contributed to this
state of affairs is poor service delivery by government/DOA officials over the
years.
As indicated by the emotive statements given below, lack of trust and
disillusionment was a serious issue that prevented farmers from believing in
initiatives executed by the State, including the AKC project.
“There have been leaders. No matter how much they beat their drums sitting in
glass cages in the capital city…it did not come to the village. What is
that….agriculture sector development programme, agriculture sector
exhibition….we were waiting in fear that we will not be able to sell the snake gourd
we grew.” - Farmer, AKC 1
“We have something called the agriculture department, but we do not see an
officer even by the end of the season. Clearly, the government pays salaries to
them to do their official duties. They should come at least once in every two or
three weeks. Our rice field and chilli cultivations have diseases but the officer does
not come to our village to look into the farmers’ problems. To tell it in short, there
is no advisory section in the department.” - Farmer, AKC 4
“Don’t talk about the state service [pertaining to agriculture sector]. In this
country, it is pointless.” - Farmer, AKC 1
“Go to the Farmer Service Center every day….conference, today meetings, can’t
today uncle. I do not know what lessons they are teaching every day. Here we are
thinking that what they learn will come to our fields.” - Farmer, AKC 1
I do not adhere to the advice given by the government. What the government says
is good, I don’t adhere to that. I adhere to what is unique to me. I don’t have any
belief in this [the AKC]. - Farmer, AKC 1
Farmers’ disinterest in self-improvement, lack of ambition in terms of
improving their livelihood and acceptance of a low living standard where only
their basic needs are met, which prevents them from expending effort on AKC
use.
“There is also a crowd of farmers who are content with whatever they get.”-
Assistant Director (Provincial), AKC 4
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“Those who are reluctant to participate [in the AKCs] are those who farm just for
the sake of doing it.”- Assistant Director (Provincial), AKC 4
“Their attitude [the attitude of the farmers who do not visit the AKC] is that it is
enough if they can maintain a status where they could feed their children on a daily
basis.” - Village-level agriculture officer (DFS), AKC 3
“One [reason why farmers do not visit the AKC] is, because they are not bothered
about it, like…if we have water we will grow type of thing.” - AKC operator, AKC 1
Farmers’ lack of belief in the capacity of ICTs to benefit them in their livelihood.
“It [the computer/the AKC] is a useless thing. It is a lie. It is a false exercise. Once
there was a farming community that was engaged in traditional farming and
farming was carried out by drawing on them. Then technology came. After that,
the child who has studied up to SSC, he does not even know how to handle a
mammoty [ a type of farming equipment]. So he wants to look at a computer and
ask how to farm, what pesticides to spray.” - Farmer, AKC 1
“Computer technology [for agriculture] is not something that can be given to the
farmers at once. When you say that, it becomes a joke among farmers - how can
you do that with a computer?” - Farmer, AKC 4
“The farmers should be given more knowledge about the benefits they can get
from the AKC, about its value. No matter how much we tell people about that, it
becomes something that was just said and only listened to.” - AKC operator, AKC 2
Farmers’ exalted view and overestimation of the extent of their own
experience-based knowledge of farming which prevents them from visiting the
AKCs in search of information.
“Some have the opinion that they know more than this [more than the information
offered by the AKC]. That is because of their experience. They have cultivated that
crop for awhile. Sometimes the technical facts are not correct. There are those who
think like that.” - AKC operator, AKC 1
“Advice on agriculture is not such a big thing for the farmers. We feel that they are
of the opinion that they know everything.” - AKC operator, AKC 4
“Some people think that the Farmer Support Center is asking us to come just to tell
us how to harvest the cereal and that’s something we know anyway. There are
people who avoid like that.” - Farmer, AKC 2
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Farmers’ expectation of rewards in exchange for their participation in AKC
usage. In the absence of such rewards, some farmers were reluctant to
participate in AKC activities.
“The peoples’ participation in the AKC is limited. To take care of that the best
method is to ask all the farmers to come saying that at least a lime plant will be
given. Then the participation will be more!” - Farmer, AKC 2
“There are many [farmers] who participate expecting profit and advantages. They
come only if they are given benefits.” - Farmer, AKC 4
“If you tell farmers that they will be given some relief aid they will participate
quickly. Truly, that is what happens. If we say that something will be given, the
people will stay as long as it takes.” - Village-level agriculture officer (DFS), AKC 3
Farmers’ pervasive negativity towards any intervention that targets
development in general.
“There is also a crowd that views everything the wrong way.” - Assistant Director
(Provincial), AKC 4
“Some [farmers] have this all is negative view. That means…those are lies. There is
a crowd like that in society that hold the opinions such as that is all lies, that is
pointless.” - AKC operator, AKC 1
Farmers’ lack of assignment of value to the information offered by the AKCs as
it is given free of charge.
“People [the farmers] do not like to take what is given. What is given for free is not
valued. If they had to go by bus and spend 300, 400 to get it then it is valuable.” -
Farmer, AKC 4
In terms of oversights in project implementation that resulted in farmer perception
and mind-set related issues, the PEU failed to conduct a study of the user
community to identify perceptions and mind-set that are likely to discourage the
use of the AKCs and address them by devising and executing appropriate strategies
wherever possible.
3. The information culture of the farming community that discourages utilisation of
the AKC
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Elements of the farming community’s information culture that proved an obstacle to
their enrollment includes:
Farmers’ low propensity to pro-actively seek new information.
“The number of farmers who search for information and learn facts of their own
volition is a very small percentage.”- AKC operator, AKC 2
“No, they [the farmers] do not have anything like that [propensity to seek
information]. There is nothing like that. You are asking about whether they seek
information about crops?....about that there is no special interest.”- Village-level
agriculture officer (DFS), AKC 1
“There are a few [farmers] who search for new facts and are keen to go that way.
Their propensity to search for information is low.” - AKC operator, AKC 4
Farmers’ adherence to traditional knowledge on farming handed down over
the generations which lower their interest in the information on new
agricultural technologies delivered by the AKC.
“To get the farmers over to the AKC we will have to develop their attitude. The
majority in this area are traditional farmers. The propensity of such traditional
farmers connecting with new technology is less. It is not linked to their age. Even
the younger people follow the cultivation patterns they get from their parents.
Among them, there are a few farmers who seek and use new technology such as
micro-irrigation. Only a very small percentage such as 1% or 2% has reached such a
level.” - AKC operator, AKC 2
Farmers’ habit of seeking information only in the case of debilitating farming
issues (for example, a crop disease) or compelling need (such as when
cultivating an unfamiliar crop).
“They will visit the AKC if it is very important to them. Normally, farmers will visit in
the case of crop diseases. Otherwise, individuals who are about to start cultivating
a new crop will come in and inquire.” - AKC operator (current), AKC 3
“Normally, people come if some pest or disease comes. If diseases are there they
will bring samples and come in search of the agriculture advisor. If not, instances of
farmers coming in search of new technology and so on are less.” - Deputy Director
(Provincial), AKC 1
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“Farmers come if they have problems. Normally their participation is low.”- Deputy
Director, AKC 4
Farmers’ preference for the DOA’s former approach to information delivery
where village-level officers assigned specifically for that purpose would visit
villages frequently to deliver advice to the farmer’s doorstep. Given this
expectation of information delivery to their door step, farmers were
unreceptive to the idea of visiting the AKCs to seek required information.
“The other thing is rather than coming there [to the AKC/the Farmer Support
Center] and learning, what the people expect is to get advice in their field.” -
Deputy Director (Provincial), AKC 1
“Many [farmers] have the attitude that we should go to them and give
information. If we go somewhere they will come and say sir please come and take
a look at my field.” - AKC operator, AKC 4
“About 10 years ago when the DOA’s village level officers were around, they
visited the village all the time. They used to teach us everything. Our advisory
service has deteriorated. There are no officers to give advice.” - Farmer, AKC 4
“For us to get advice on farming the advisor must visit our fields at least once a
week. There is no point in us going over [to the Farmer Support Center].” - Farmer,
AKC 4
In terms of oversights in project implementation that resulted in information
culture related issues, the PEU failed to conduct a study of the user community to
identify elements of the existing information culture that are likely to discourage
use of the AKCs and address such elements by devising and executing appropriate
strategies wherever possible.
4. Demographic aspects of the farming community that discourage utilisation of the
AKCs
Several demographic aspects of the farming community acted as a barrier to their
enrollment thereby contributing to the formation of a weak relationship between the
AKC and the farming community. This includes:
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Low economic status of farmers
Lack of economic strength compelled farmers to engage in activities that
generate an immediate income for daily living (for example, paid manual
labour) rather than incur financial and time losses by visiting the AKC in search
of information. Further, low economic status was a factor that prevented
farmers who do value information and would like to have access to it from
visiting the AKCs, given financial constraints.
“For a farmer, travelling 30, 40 km to see this [the AKC]....he has more burning
problems than that. He faces problems of earning an income for daily living. So, he
goes to do manual labour or works on his own cultivation.” - AKC operator, AKC 2
“The problem that affects in this area to a great extent is economic difficulties.
They [farmers] have a difficulty in leaving their work to go and view the
programmes at the AKC. In houses where there are 3 or 4 small children it is
difficult to find ways to survive if you take 2, 3 days off work.” - Farmer, AKC 2
“Considering existing socio-economic problems, it is sometimes a loss to them [the
farmers] if they expend one day for the AKC. There are some farmers who do
manual labour to survive daily while doing farming.”- Assistant Director
(Provincial), AKC 4
“It’s like this we really do want to go to get information. We may not have money
in hand on that day. It is not that we think that information has no value. All
information is valuable. We have economic problems to a great extent.” - Farmer,
AKC 2
Farmers’ low level of education that influences their ability to recognise the
importance and value of the AKC.
“The farmers’ low level of knowledge and education also affects participation. They
don’t sometimes understand the importance of the AKC. Don’t understand its
value. Though we tell them that there is something like the AKC, they do not grasp
it a lot.” - AKC operator, AKC 2
“It’s like this…the crowd [the farmers] who has knowledge and an education like to
come [to the AKC]. They see a value in this. Truly, there is reluctance in some. That
is because of the lack of education. The educated person comes here quickly. -
Village-level agriculture officer (DFS), AKC 1
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Lack of IT skills that prevents farmers from utilising the ICT resources available
at the AKCs independently.
“They [farmers] know that a computer provides information. Other than that, no
special knowledge on that. Computer knowledge is very limited.” - Village-level
agriculture officer (DFS), AKC 2
“It is difficult for farmers to operate the computer on their own.” - Village-level
agriculture officer (DFS), AKC 1
“Self learning is not popular. The farmers do not have knowledge of using the
computer system up to such a level. Only one person uses the AKC that way.”- AKC
operator, AKC 2
Gender inequality that prevents female members of the farming community
from accessing the AKCs. For instance, restrictions imposed by their husbands
prevent females from travelling far to visit the AKCs.
“The majority who visit the AKC are males. This is a society where the male is the
head of the home. When we go to a village to do a training programme 95% of
those there are females. Those who attend programmes in the village are the
women, because it is close by the farmer will send her. But when they have to come
some distance by bus etc. here to the AKC…now at today’s bee keeping training
session you saw that there wasn’t a single woman. Those who do bee keeping are
women and not men. ” - AKC operator, AKC 1
With regard to weaknesses in project implementation that resulted in demographic
issues exerting an impact, the PEU failed to conduct a study of the user community
to identify and understand demographic aspects of the user community that are
likely to discourage the use of the AKCs and address such aspects by devising and
executing appropriate strategies wherever possible.
5. Physical constraints that limit the farming community’s access to the AKC
As evident from the comments given below, examples for physical constraints that
prevented the farming community from accessing the AKCs with ease include the
remote location of some AKCs which forced visiting farmers to travel a significant
distance and inadequacies in basic infrastructure (for example, derelict and unsafe
access roads, lack of public transport services). These physical constraints cultivated a
belief among farmers that visiting the AKCs was inconvenient and required too much
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effort thereby discouraging their enrollment. This in turn contributed to the formation
of a weak relationship between the AKC and the farming community.
“The farmers really do face difficulties in coming to the AKC, in that area [the area where
the AKC is located], the transport facilities are limited. The road conditions are very
difficult. They are broken and haven’t been reconstructed.” - Assistant Director (Provincial),
AKC 2
“We would like to go to the Farmer Support Center to get information. Definitely the lack of
transport facilities is a problem when it comes to getting there. The problem is that it is too
far. We go by bicycle. Even now they are constructing the road. There is no bus. This is a
remote area. Sometimes, we wait until the elephants pass by and then continue on by
bicycle. It takes about 2 hours to get by bicycle to the Farmer Support Center” - Farmer,
AKC 2
“To get information from the AKC the people have to come [from their village] in the
morning. They have to travel miles to get there. The main problem why people do not come
to get information is the travelling difficulty.”- Village-level agriculture officer (DFS), AKC 3
“If you are coming by foot it takes about one hour. The majority of farmers come by foot.
There are no buses at the time when you want to come. Some come by wheels [three
wheelers]. It costs 300 to 350. If this was close by then they would come, but because it is
difficult to come here, some of the crowd do not come.” - Farmer, AKC 1
With respect to inadequacies in project implementation that resulted in the issue of
physical constraints, such constraints arose as a result of the PEU’s failure to consider
farmers’ ease of access to the AKCs in selecting the locations for establishing the AKCs.
6. Resource constraints that erect barriers to engaging the farming community in
utilising the AKC
A number of project resource constraints erected barriers to farmer enrollment
thereby contributing to the construction of a weak relationship between the AKC and
the farming community. One such resource constraint was inadequacy of human
resources for operating the AKCs. As suggested by the following comments, this issue
prevented the execution of activities important for enrolling the farming community
such as maintaining uninterrupted delivery of AKC services.
“At the moment, the agriculture advisor [who is also the AKC operator] is the person who
has been trained [on operating the AKC]. The agriculture advisor is in the office only on
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Wednesdays. The person there is a labourer called the caretaker. If the AKC is to be actually
utilised the agriculture advisor has to be there. At the moment there is no one like that.
There has to be an active person within the AKC constantly.” - Deputy Director (Provincial),
AKC 1
“Definitely, there has to be an officer at the AKC permanently. If a farmer comes once and
an officer his unavailable, his hopes are dashed and he will not come to the AKC again.” -
AKC operator, AKC 4
Another resource constraint was inadequate physical and material resources which
prevented the delivery of high quality services which may have convinced more
farmers to visit the AKC. As evident from the quotes cited below, examples for such
resource constraints include the lack of multi-media projectors and a spacious and safe
location for housing the AKC.
“We do not have enough space or facilities to do in-house training [of farmers]. Then the
equipment that is required is equally important. We only have one computer and one multi-
media projector to work with around 40,000 farmer families.”- Assistant Director
(Provincial), AKC 4
“This room [the room within which the AKC is located) is on the verge of collapse. This room
is termite-ridden all over. It is overdue for renovation.” - AKC operator, AKC 2
“When I conduct trainings for large groups I borrow the multi-media projector from the
PEU or somewhere. At times like that when 70, 80 farmers come there is not enough space
in this room.” - AKC operator, AKC 1
“We lack a multi-media projector. Then we could show [the information/the interactive
CDs] to the farmers as groups. Now, only 3 or 4 people can view it from the computer at
one time.” - Assistant Director (Provincial), AKC 2
The problem of resource constraints was the outcome of both poor planning
pertaining to resource acquisition and the limited availability of resources for project
execution.
7. Extent of the capacity possessed by the AKC operator to attract the farming
community to the AKC
As suggested by the following comments, the AKC operator’s ability to build a close
relationship with the farming community and deliver excellent services contributed
significantly towards farmer enrollment.
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“For that [to attract farmers to the AKC], what is required is the involvement of the
agriculture advisor. When the former agriculture advisor was around he visited the area,
made the people aware and worked very closely and loyally with them. Farmer
participation [in AKC activities] would increase only if the connection that the department
of agriculture maintains with farmers increases.” - Village-level agriculture extension
officer (DFS), AKC 3
“Earlier [during the former AKC operator’s tenure] those programmes [the AKC-based
farmer training programmes] were done really well. Truly, individual AKC operators are
different. It [farmer participation] is decided based on the capabilities of the AKC
operators.” - Village-level agriculture extension officer (DFS), AKC 3
8. Competing influences that dissuade the farming community from utilising the AKCs
The formation of the relationship between the AKC and the farming community was
impacted by several competing influences that deterred the farmers from utilising the
AKCs. These competing influences which are listed below, contributed to the formation
of a weak relationship between the AKC and the farming community.
Labour-intensive farming which imposes time constraints on farmers thereby
discouraging them from visiting the AKCs.
“Farming is something that has to be done on time. When they go to the field early
in the morning they only come back for lunch. If they take food with them they only
come back in the evening. Time is a problem.” - Village-level agriculture officer
(DFS), AKC 2
“They [the farmers] go to their land around 6 in the morning. Then they engage in
cultivation activities until 4-5 in the evening. People have very little free time.” -
Village-level agriculture officer (DFS), AKC 3
“There are so many problems. So very busy. Have to do farming. If there is cattle,
you have take care of that. A lot of work to do all the time. So then, people tend to
participate in meetings [this includes sessions at the AKC] a lot less.” - Farmer, AKC
2
“That is there [the problem of not having the time to visit the AKC]. Because, most
of the crowd is involved in cattle farming for their livelihood. Then it is difficult to
come.” - Farmer, AKC 1
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Private sector agro-chemical vendors who function as an alternative source
that provides information to farmers.
A noteworthy proportion of the farming community were accustomed to
seeking advice on farming from private sector agro-chemical vendors. While
their trust in this information source was limited, several reasons compelled
them to rely on it. As illustrated by the statements quoted below, the reasons
include the greater convenience of seeking advice from an agro-chemical
vendor located closer to their homes and the difficulty of meeting government
agriculture officers to seek their advice.
“Definitely there are many farmers who get information from the pesticide shop
owners. The greater tendency is to do that.” - Farmer, AKC 2
“If a disease comes and we are unable to meet the agriculture advisor we get
advice from the merchant in the pesticide shop.” - Farmer, AKC 2
“The majority of farmers go to the merchants of pesticide shops in the case of crop
pests and diseases, because of the distance that they need to travel to meet an
agriculture advisor and the opportunity they have to do that. “- Assistant Director
(Provincial), AKC 4
“The farmers do not go to meet the agriculture advisor, because it is much easier
they have the habit of picking up pesticides when they go to the village market.
Most of the time, if some crop disease comes the people will get the information
from a pesticide shop near the village market or the place where they take their
agricultural produce to sell it.” - Assistant Director (Provincial), AKC 2
Part-time farmers’ lack of interest in utilising the AKC given their involvement in
jobs other than farming.
“There was a problem of bringing people to the AKC. The farmers did not have a
great need for the AKC. We brought them in almost by force. Over here, there are
no full-time farmers. All are part-time farmers who engage in farming while doing
other jobs. It is really difficult to orient such part-time farmers towards the AKC.” -
AKC operator, AKC 5
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9. Relevance of the information delivered by the AKC to the information needs of the
farming community
Farmers typically coveted information that addressed key current concerns such as
greater productivity and profitable marketing of agricultural produce. Examples for
specific types of information in demand among farmers include new seed varieties,
new pesticides and market forecasts for crops. As indicated by the comment quoted
below, the AKCs while delivering information of value, failed to address such
information requirements.
“I have not seen the farmers coming [to the AKCs] and asking what is the new information
available, what are the new methods available. They ask like this…are there new rice
varieties, seed types. They do not ask whether there are new cultivation methods [the type
of information typically found in the CDs].” - Deputy Director (Provincial), AKC 1
The low relevance of the information delivered by the AKC to the pressing information
needs and concerns of the farming community discouraged farmer enrollment and
resulted in the formation of a weak relationship between the AKC and the farming
community.
The AKCs' failure to deliver relevant information was associated with weaknesses in
project implementation such as the PEU’s top-down approach to determining farmers’
information needs. The information services offered by the AKCs were determined
without consulting either the farming community or field-level agriculture officers such
as the agriculture advisors who were aware of the current information needs of
farmers.
10. Appropriateness of the technologies employed by the AKCs
The farming community’s reaction to the ICTs employed by the AKCs in delivering
information services exerted an impact on the formation and sustenance of the
relationship between the AKC and the farming community. Employment of
technologies inappropriate to the constraints that afflicted the farming community
discouraged farmer enrollment and contributed to the formation of a weak
relationship that was difficult to sustain between the AKC and the farming community.
An illustrative example is the employment of interactive CDs as the main medium of
information dissemination. As evident from the following comment, farmers who
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generally lacked IT skills found it difficult to operate the interactive CDs independently.
This issue in turn contributed to the difficulty of enrolling the farming community.
“Although our Assistant Director said that the farmers can do self-learning by clicking [on
the icons on the interactive CD interface] that is not practical. The farmer loses his way
when he sees it, confused about where to click.” - AKC operator, AKC 2
Further, the interactive CDs required a computer to be viewed, a resource that was
scarce in the farmers’ villages. As indicated by the statements quoted below, this issue
was also instrumental in discouraging the enrollment of farmers who were interested
in the information offered by the AKC.
“A problem that we have is people ask...miss we do not have a computer, so how can we
take a look at the information again.” - Village-level extension officer (DFS), AKC 3
“Can view the CDs but this sir [the AKC operator] said that it cannot be viewed [without a
computer], that the sound will not come. No one in the village has a computer. The school
has but that cannot be used. Basically, no computers at village level. The economic
situation of the village is not at such a level. VCD of course is there [in the village]. Can view
that somewhere.” - Farmer, AKC 1
“Sometimes farmers ask us whether they can take CDs home. However, the interactive CDs
cannot be used without a computer. There is no point in writing a CD because only a farmer
who has a computer can view it. If it is in VCD form, then it is important for farmers.” - AKC
operator, AKC 4
In terms of weaknesses in project implementation that lead to the employment of
inappropriate technologies, this issue was the outcome of the PEU’s failure to
accurately evaluate the suitability of chosen technologies in the light of constraints
that afflicted the farming community, prior to their selection. For example, in the case
of the interactive CDs, while aspects such as the farmers’ IT skills were taken into
consideration, the conclusions drawn were inaccurate in terms of realising the severity
of the issue.
Impact of relationship formation/non-formation/strength or weakness:
The impact exerted by the generally weak relationship that existed between the AKC
and the farming community on the sustainability of the AKC project was quite
pronounced. As a consequence of this weak relationship, the number of farmers who
opted to visit the AKCs was low. Thus, the continued survival of individual AKCs and in
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turn, the sustainability of the AKC project was severely jeopardised given the lack of
users. Case data indicates that the status of the relationship between the AKC and the
farming community exerted a corresponding influence on the sustainability of the
AKCs. As an example, in the case of AKC 3, weakening of the previously strong
relationship between the AKC and the farming community contributed to eventual site
inactivity. Conversely, in the case of AKC 4, strengthening of the previously very weak
relationship between the AKC and the farming community contributed towards
recommencement of AKC operations and transformation of the site from an inactive to
an active state.
8.4.2 The Relationship between the AKC and the Provincial Agricultural Authority
(PAA) (L2)
The PAA was the maintainer of an AKC and was responsible for executing tasks
essential to its continuity such as meeting operating costs, administration and progress
monitoring. Thus, the extent of the PAA’s support, patronage and ownership of the
AKCs was a crucial determinant of the survival of individual AKCs and in turn, the
sustainability of the AKC project. The relationship that was significant in this respect
was the relationship formed between the AKC and the PAA. In enabling project
sustainability, it was vital to forge and sustain a strong relationship between these two
actors.
Five influences were seen to shape this relationship:
1. Extent of the PAA’s project ownership, support and commitment
Typically, senior PAA officials viewed the AKC project as an initiative owned by the
central government/the PEU rather than a provincial concern. As such, they were
inclined to assign the responsibility for the AKCs to the PEU. The comments made by
senior PAA officials given below attest to this fact.
“If anything goes wrong [with the ICTs in the AKC] I think that they [the PEU] should
intervene and see that it is done within a week or so. Actually it’s their property. If anything
goes wrong or it is malfunctioning or it doesn’t function, that means they are
overlooking.”- Assistant Director, AKC 3
“The two AKCs [in the district] are actually controlled by the PEU. So if they [the AKC
operators] need we contact the PEU for them. In addition to that, any facilities they need
let’s say if they want CDs or photocopy paper, then paying the telephone and internet fee
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or if they have any problems in that, those are the things we contribute to directly.” -
Deputy Director (Provincial), AKC 1
Given this lack of project ownership, the PAAs’ commitment to the AKCs was generally
low. As revealed by the following comment, more often than not, their involvement
with the AKCs was devoid of interest and active involvement in resolving issues that
affected their continuity.
“The higher officials are not very much involved or interested in this project. That is, the
Deputy Director and the Provincial Director. I can’t judge so I don’t want to give comments
on the reasons... I don’t see any interest. They don’t come here [i.e. to the AKC]. They don’t
go to evaluate. They don’t ask how this [the AKC] is running, maintenance, how many
officers.” - Assistant Director (Provincial), AKC 3
The status of affairs described above contributed in the formation of a weak
relationship between the AKC and the PAA.
In terms of the reasons behind the PAAs’ lack of project ownership, support and
commitment, the issue was the outcome of shortcomings such as the PEU’s failure to
expend sustained effort on inculcating a sense of project ownership among senior PAA
officials, the lack of permanent participatory mechanisms to ensure senior officials’
continuous engagement in project execution and the rift that already prevailed
between the provincial and central government systems.
2. Unavailability of an appropriate foundation and procedures that facilitate smooth
maintenance of the AKCs
The PEU failed to establish a solid foundation and procedures necessary for ensuring
the smooth maintenance of the AKCs by the PAA. One such major inadequacy was the
lack of a separate budget allocation at the provincial level for meeting the operating
costs of the AKC. As indicated by the statements that follow, this was a severe issue
that imposed a burden on the PAA given that they were forced to draw on funds
meant for other purposes to meet the operating costs of the AKC.
“In the case of the provincial department, they have the limitation in the funding, because
now they are running [the AKCs] with the budgets allocated for other activities.” - Project
Manager
“There are problems in relation to the payment of phone bills [of the AKC]. Up to now there
hasn’t been a separate financial vote for this programme. The allocation is for the
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telephones of the district office. So it is from that allocation that we have to give for
programmes such as this. Like that, we had to face financial problems. We give the AKC
operator limits and advice them to use the AKC in such a way so that there will not be huge
bills, because if the limit is exceeded it is a real problem for us. We cannot bear the cost.” -
Assistant Director (Provincial), AKC 2
“We need a financial allocation for the AKC for costs such as the cost of printing. The
situation we have is such that when a group [of farmers] come in for a training, we do not
have funds to give even a cup of tea.”- AKC operator, AKC 4
Another major procedure-related inadequacy was inefficient administrative
procedures that existed at the provincial level which delayed decision making
necessary for maintaining the AKCs. For instance, as evident from the comments given
below, existing procedures pertaining to activities such as payments and procurement
approval were centralised, lengthy and slow. Officers such as the Assistant Director
(provincial) and the AKC operator, who were directly involved in operating the AKCs
lacked the authority to make even basic decisions and in seeking senior officials
approval it was necessary to channel the relevant documentation through the
provincial reporting hierarchy.
“The normal procedure is if anything goes wrong [in relation to the equipment in the AKC], I
will have to get three quotations and send it to the Provincial Director’s office. If it [the
amount needed for repairing] is over 500 [A fairly small amount in local currency for a
repair] we will have to wait until we get the approval from the Provincial Director’s office.”
- Assistant Director (Provincial), AKC3
“Our present Provincial Director is telling that we are not allowed to buy anything from
your own thing [funds allocated to the Assistant Director’s office], give what you require
we’ll supply. So that will take time. And there is no authority given from the central
government to get anything especially to see that this AKC is running every day.” -
Assistant Director (Provincial), AKC3
The consequences of the inadequacies mentioned above constrained and weakened
the relationship between the AKC and the PAA. For instance, the lack of a budget
allocation which forced the PAA to expend funds meant for other purposes on
operating the AKC, was instrumental in constraining the relationship between the AKC
and the PAA.
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In terms of the cause of the inadequacies noted above, the budgeting issue was the
result of the failure to establish a well-defined mechanism for operating cost
management and the underestimation of the operating costs associated with
maintaining the AKCs. The procedure-related issues arose as a consequence of the
failure to review existing procedures of the PAA (for example, the procedure for
approval of payments) in the light of the requirements of the AKC project and
undertake either revision of existing procedures or ensure the establishment of
workarounds or new procedures.
3. Negative perceptions and mind-set of individual PAA officials
Some senior PAA officials entrusted with administering the AKCs held negative
perceptions and a mind-set that discouraged them from extending support and
commitment to the AKCs. As revealed by the following comments, examples for such
negative perceptions and mind-set include the view that senior PAA officials should
have been given access to ICT resources prior to junior officers such as the AKC
operator, resentment of the AKC operator by senior PAA officials given the prominence
and credit gained by him as a result of the AKC project and jealousy over the Project
Director’s accomplishments.
“The Assistant Director’s office should have been upgraded prior to the AKC operator’s
office.” - Assistant Director, AKC 3
“But looking at it [the success/performance of the AKC] individually and personally saying
with the name that this officer has done [the work]...I don’t agree. All this has come [to be]
not only with his [the AKC operator’s] effect but both [the AKC operator and himself]” -
Assistant Director, AKC 3
“Some personal jealousies. I’ll tell you things frankly. I’m still at Assistant Director level. All
these Provincial Directors are in the rank, they are high. But seniority-wise all these
Provincial Directors are junior to me because of the class one interview. Class one is the
barrier for the promotions in the department. Class one purely based on merit…55% is
given for merit. Seniority 30% or something. In merit, I am senior.” - Project Director
This issue of negative perceptions and mind-set contributed in the formation of a weak
and at times conflict-ridden relationship which could not be sustained, between the
AKC and the PAA.
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The state of affairs described above is the result of the approach adopted by the PEU
in implementing the AKC project. Firstly, prominence was given to AKC operators and
inadequate attention was paid to involving senior officials such as the Assistant
Directors (Provincial) in the project. This left the senior officials feeling ignored,
sidelined and unimportant and consequently unwilling to offer their support to the
AKC operator and the project. Secondly, the PEU failed to anticipate the senior
officials’ negative reaction to their juniors being given technology resources which they
lacked in advance and employ appropriate strategies to address such negativity. The
following comments made by the Project Manager and an Assistant Director
(Provincial) confirm the occurrence of these weaknesses in implementation.
“We should have had many meetings for different [administrative] levels [of the PAA]. If
not, we could have formed groups and made the Assistant Director (Provincial) the team
leader.” - Project Manager
“No relationship was created between the AKC operator and the Assistant Director in
connection with the AKC project.” - Assistant Director, AKC 3
4. Extent of the AKC operator’s capacity to attract the support, involvement of the
PAA
In the case of AKCs managed by dynamic operators, aspects such as the operator’s
excellence in executing AKC operations, enthusiasm and commitment to the AKC and
adeptness at cultivating a cordial relationship with senior PAA officers, compelled the
PAA’s involvement in the AKC and in turn the formation and sustenance of a strong
relationship between the two actors. An illustrative example is the case of AKC 1 which
was run by a committed and talented operator whose competency was instrumental in
the formation and sustenance of a strong and productive relationship with the PAA
which enabled to secure the resources and the support necessary for AKC operation.
“If repairing [of the ICT equipment in the AKC] was necessary, I will tell [the PAA] and get it
[the funds]. I can get it from them. Could be because of the personal connection I have with
them and because they are aware of the results produced through this. The Provincial
Director came last week as well. When he comes he checks out the books maintained,
photos [documentation maintained in relation to the AKC] and all that and he said, why
can’t they do what you do in other places. They have a good picture. If I have any
inadequacies I believe that they will get it done for me.”- AKC operator, AKC 1
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Conversely, inefficient operators who failed to operate the AKC at a standard expected
by the PAA contributed to the disintegration of the relationship between the AKC and
the PAA. For example, in the case of AKC 5, the PAA’s dissatisfaction with the AKC
operator’s poor performance as revealed by the comment given below was a major
factor that contributed to the disintegration of the relationship between the AKC and
the PAA and the eventual closure of the AKC.
“I asked all the time for the AKC to be run properly and that if not, it will be given to
someone who can do it. I did not feel that the AKC was active based on the activities
evaluated by the PEU.” - Deputy Director (Provincial), AKC 5
5. Physical constraints that limited the PAA’s capacity to maintain close links with the
AKC
Some AKCs (for example, AKC 2) were situated in remote locations which made it
difficult for senior PAA officers in charge of their administration to maintain close links
with them via methods such as visits. The following comment made by the Assistant
Director responsible for administering AKC 2 attests to this fact.
“The main problem we have is transport. We do have vehicles up to some extent, but the
problem is the cost of fuel. I think you know how far it is from my office to one of those
places [the AKCs in the district]. Both time and transport is a problem. - Assistant Director
(Provincial), AKC 2
Such physical constraints which limited the PAA’s capacity to maintain close links with
the AKC contributed in weakening the relationship between the two actors.
In terms of weaknesses in project implementation that resulted in this status of affairs,
in selecting a location to establish an AKC, the project implementation team failed to
consider the criterion of ease of site access by the senior officials of the PAA who were
entrusted with administering the AKC.
Impact of relationship formation/non-formation/strength or weakness:
Case evidence suggests that the status of the relationship between the AKC and the
PAA exerted an undeniable impact on the sustainability of individual AKCs and in turn
the entire AKC project. AKCs plagued by a tenuous or disintegrated relationship with
the PAA were unable to maintain operations, in the absence of the PAA’s support. As
an example, the conflict-ridden relationship between the AKC and the PAA which
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eventually disintegrated, contributed to the cessation of operations at AKC 3.
Conversely, in the case of AKC 4, the strengthening of the initially extremely weak
relationship formed between the AKC and the PAA contributed in transforming the site
from an inactive to active state. This AKC which had been inactive for around two years
was able to recommence operations as a result of access to stronger PAA support on
aspects such as securing human resources required for AKC operation, marshalled by a
dynamic Assistant Director (Provincial) who was appointed to the role of immediate
senior PAA official in charge of the AKC.
8.4.3 The Relationship between the AKC and the Project Execution Unit (PEU) (L3)
The PEU was the main actor responsible for the implementation and management of
the AKC project. On implementing the AKCs, the PEU facilitated their continuity by
providing a range of services and resources essential to their survival. Given this critical
role, the extent of the support offered by the PEU exerted a strong impact on the
survival of individual AKCs and in turn, the sustainability of the AKC project. The
relationship that was vital in this regard was the relationship formed between the AKC
and the PEU. In sustaining the AKC project it was crucial to form and sustain a strong
relationship between these two actors. Four influences were seen to shape this
relationship:
1. The PEU’s strong commitment towards supporting the AKCs
In general, the PEU was extremely willing to provide unequivocal and extensive
support to the AKCs in maintaining their operations. The quality of the support
extended to the AKCs was such that it left an overall impression of reliability,
efficiency, commitment and dedication to service with regard to the PEU’s conduct, in
the minds of officers involved in AKC operation. This status quo which is evident from
the following statements made by AKC operators from several AKCs contributed
positively to the formation and sustenance of the relationship between the AKC and
the PEU.
“There is no problem with the support provided by the PEU. They provide their support the
moment we talk to them via telephone. Even if this technology [the AKC] was not there, the
Media Unit [of which the PEU is a part of] has given a lot of support to us as agriculture
officers in various training programmes. If you make a request via phone or write a letter
you can get any support from them.” - AKC operator, AKC 2
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“From the PEU I get the guidance, trainings and advice that is needed for this [i.e. for
operating the AKC]. Like that, all that is needed is provided. I think from the PEU what is
necessary is provided without any inadequacies. There is whatsoever no problem with that.
However sometimes they are busy, but that is normally something that is common to all. I
get all the facilities from them. I’m saying this honestly, there is no doubt about that…if I
ask them to get whatever work done they do it. There is whatsoever no problem with that.
They do it with a lot of care.” - AKC operator, AKC 1
“The Media Unit [of which the PEU is a part of] is the only institution in the department
where you can go even now and get any help. I know this because I have been all over the
Department of Agriculture. It is an institution that will not say no or cannot. If you ask for
help, they will try to do it somehow.” - AKC operator, AKC 4
The PEU staff’s strong commitment to the AKC project and willingness to provide
extensive support to the AKCs was an outcome of the Project Director’s strong
leadership and the work culture cultivated by him within the PEU. The Project Director
tended to lead by example in terms of his commitment to supporting the AKCs.
Further, he demanded equal commitment to service from his staff. In terms of the
work culture that prevailed in the PEU, it was results-oriented, free of lethargy and
placed emphasis on the need for commitment to work.
2. Extent of the AKC operator’s capacity to attract the support, involvement of the
PEU
Some AKC operators were dynamic and as such able to impress the PEU given their
excellence in executing AKC operations, enthusiasm and commitment to the AKC,
capacity for innovation and skills in forming a sound relationship with the PEU staff.
Such positive impressions of the AKC operator as an officer who delivered results
compelled the PEU to offer its extensive support thereby contributing to the formation
and sustenance of a strong relationship between the AKC and the PEU. For instance, in
the case of AKC 3, the former AKC operator’s competency was instrumental in the
formation and sustenance of a very strong relationship with the PEU which enabled to
secure extensive support for AKC operation. Conversely, inefficient, disinterested AKC
operators who lacked commitment to the AKC discouraged the PEU’s involvement,
contributing to the deterioration or eventual disintegration of the relationship
between the AKC and the PEU. AKC 5 is an example for a case where the AKC
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operator’s lack of performance was a fundamental reason that resulted in the
weakening and eventual dissolution of the relationship between the AKC and the PEU.
3. Resource constraints encountered by the PEU that limit/prevent it from supporting
the AKCs
Given insufficient resources, the PEU was unable to execute certain critical
tasks/mechanisms/processes that must be executed in supporting the AKCs. This
status of affairs in turn contributed in weakening the relationship formed between the
AKC and the PEU. For example, as evident from the comments quoted below, the
inadequacy of human resources prevented the project implementation team of the
PEU from executing the critical task of visiting the AKCs to both evaluate their progress
and to offer maintenance support.
“If you are implementing a project such as this there has to be a big dedicated team.” -
Project implementation team member
The problem with the team was lack of time to do evaluation visits. If you take the
networking specialist for instance, he has to network multiple institutions as well as do
visits [to the AKCs]. If he goes away for a week those other institutions start yelling. All the
members of the project implementation team had other work.” - Project Manager
Sometimes, no matter how much we plan to go [to the AKCs] we couldn’t go because of the
work we had over here [at the Media Unit]. Even during times when we should have given
them [the AKCs] priority, we just couldn’t visit.” - Project Manager
As indicated by the AKC operator’s statement given below, this issue resulted in the
weakening of the relationship that existed between the two actors.
“The interval between the evaluation visits by the PEU has increased. At the beginning they
visited once a month, then once in every 2 months, now they visit once in every 3, 4
months. The connection with the PEU via evaluation visits or via phone is necessary for the
resolution of problems that are encountered, for the continuity.” - AKC operator, AKC 2
The problem of inadequacy of resources arose as a consequence of weak planning for
the acquisition of resources required by the PEU in supporting the AKCs. The project
implementation team failed to meticulously identify all critical
tasks/mechanisms/processes that must be executed by the PEU in relation to the AKCs
and accordingly estimate the human, financial and material resources required for
their execution at the project proposal stage. For example, the need to establish
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mechanisms for monitoring and evaluating the AKCs and creating project awareness
among the farming community was identified only at a later point in time, after the
AKCs had commenced functioning. Further, there was a need for capacity building of
the PEU in terms of both material and personnel which was not addressed.
4. Physical constraints that affected the AKC’s ability to maintain close links with the
PEU
Some AKCs (for example, AKC 1) were located in the vicinity of the PEU. Such physical
proximity enabled an AKC to form a stronger relationship with the PEU given the
enhanced possibility of maintaining contact via means such as more frequent visits by
project implementation team members.
In terms of oversights in project implementation that resulted in this status of affairs,
in selecting a location to establish an AKC, the project implementation team failed to
consider the criterion of ease of site access by the PEU.
Impact of relationship formation/non-formation/strength or weakness:
The status of the relationship between the AKC and the PEU influenced the survival of
individual AKCs. Based on case findings, the presence of a strong relationship between
these two actors characterised by mutual commitment on the part of both the PEU
staff and the AKC staff towards the AKC, facilitated the continuity of AKCs. An example
which illustrates this fact is AKC 1, where the strong relationship that existed between
the AKC and the PEU, enabled the maintenance of uninterrupted operations at the
AKC, given advantages such as greater access to the PEU’s support in issue resolution.
On the other hand, the deterioration and eventual disintegration of the relationship
between the AKC and PEU as a result of reasons such as the AKC operator’s perpetual
inefficiency and lack of commitment the AKC, contributed to the closure of AKCs. AKC
5 is an example which illustrates this fact.
8.4.4 The Relationship between the AKC and its Operator (L4)
The AKC operator was responsible for both the daily operation of the AKC and
marshalling the support of actors critical for its operation. Thus, it was impossible to
sustain an AKC in the absence of the support and commitment of the AKC operator.
The relationship that was vital in this regard was the relationship formed between the
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AKC and its operator. Forming and sustaining a strong relationship between these two
actors, was crucial in terms of sustaining the AKC project.
Four influences were seen to shape this relationship:
1. Perceptions, mind-set of the operator that limits/prevents their involvement in the
AKC
A major influence that impacted the formation, sustenance and strength of the
relationship between the AKC and its operator was perceptions and mind-set of
individual AKC operators that limited their willingness to be involved in the AKCs.
Examples for such perceptions and mindset include:
A lethargic attitude to work in general
“The other barrier is now…some [AKC operators] are lethargic. Basically lethargic,
government service people. Even though it’s an assignment they don’t do”- Project
Director
Perception of the AKC as a burden that leads to additional work
“Some of the agriculture advisors [AKC operators] feel that this is an additional
work for them. In some of the units, they didn’t even switch on the computer for
some period. It’s about 2-3 months they didn’t switch on” - Project Manager
Perception of the AKC project as a restricting initiative that forces agriculture
advisors to be present at the Farmer Service Center thereby eliminating their
chances of work avoidance by claiming to be on field visits.
“Normally agriculture advisor office is open only for Wednesdays. After
implementing this project they had to open for all five working days. The other
days are normally known as the field days. So what they are doing is, they say they
are going to the field but really……so that is another big problem with this project
for them.” - Project Manager
Lack of affinity for ICTs
“The agriculture advisor of AKC 5 [the AKC which was eventually closed] was not
that interested in computers. Although training was given, there has to be a liking
and the attitude to run the AKC. I felt that she did not have that feeling.” - Deputy
Director (Provincial), AKC 5
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Belief that the AKC is suited for the younger operators and not the older
generation.
“The AKC is good for the younger generation. Such a person should be assigned to
the AKC. They have the basic knowledge needed and there is no need to teach
them anew. We are an old crowd.” - AKC operator, AKC 5
A sense of grandiosity given their role as officials of the DOA
“If the farmer is the beneficiary [of the AKC] then he is our customer. In the state
sector there is no tendency to respect the customer. The customer is the one who
has to respect. If they come to us and call us sir, that’s when we are happy. The
problem of not considering farmers or people [who visit the AKCs] as important is
there.” - Project implementation team member
“Even their normal activities some of the people [AKC operators] think that they are
some kind of officers from the government. That attitude also affected this
particular activity.”- Project Manager
Lack of receptivity to new approaches
“Then there are those [AKC operators] who think we don’t need new things, we will
continue the way we have done so far, we gave this much information to farmers,
those days we used to get this much profit and production. If you give a unit [an
AKC] to such a person it will deteriorate.” - Project implementation team member
The perceptions and mindset identified above contributed in the formation of a weak
relationship between the AKC and its operator.
2. Availability of the AKC operator
The AKC operator’s main job role was to function as an advisor on agriculture to the
farming community. As indicated by the comments made by interviewees given below,
the execution of this demanding role which involved substantial field duties, severely
limited the time and effort that an AKC operator could devote on the AKC.
“If you take a coconut development officer he is responsible for one crop, but an agriculture
advisor [AKC operator] is responsible for hundreds of crops. He has to resolve problems
related to all. We also do extension programmes for all these crops. So it is a very difficult
job.” - Assistant Director, AKC 2
“I engage in AKC duties whilst engaging in field duties, mostly on Wednesdays. On other
days, I cannot stay within the AKC. - AKC operator, AKC 2
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Given this genuine issue of time constraints, some AKC operators were reluctant to
commit to the AKCs fully. Thus, the issue of AKC operator unavailability played a part in
the formation of a weak relationship that was difficult to sustain, between the AKC and
its operator.
In terms of shortcomings in project execution that resulted in the issue of operator
unavailability, firstly, the PEU appointed unsuitable operators who could not devote
sufficient time and effort on the AKCs. Secondly, once the officers were appointed and
the issue of officer unavailability emerged, the PEU failed to find a solution to the
genuine issue of time constraints faced by the operators.
3. Inadequacies in IT training with reference to AKC operators with a weak personal
capacity to master IT skills
The majority of AKC operators lacked any prior exposure to IT. Further, as evident from
the statements quoted below, some AKC operators found it difficult to master the IT
skills necessary to operate the ICT systems at the AKC through the training
programmes conducted by the project implementation team.
“The one or two day training I received in relation to the AKC…I cannot be satisfied with
that because I am an individual who had never touched a computer. I had that problem. I
got the basic knowledge needed to conduct farmer training classes. However, if there had
been better training….that training involved covering it all in just one or two days. When,
people like us who do not know anything are put through a training such as that, cannot
grasp it.” - AKC operator, AKC 5
Such difficulties in mastering IT skills which in turn lead to difficulties in operating the
AKCs discouraged operators’ involvement with the AKCs and resulted in the formation
of a weak relationship between the AKC and its operator.
Oversights in project execution that lead to the issue of lack of sufficient IT skills
include the lack of long-term, extensive training programmes. The need for IT skills
training was identified by the project implementation team in advance and
accordingly, multiple short-term training programmes which included both basic and
advanced IT skills training were conducted. Training sessions were also conducted
based on specific user needs identified as the project progressed. However, such
intensive training programmes may have proven inadequate in the case of less
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technology-savvy AKC operators who required a more sustained and slower paced
approach to training.
4. Lack of incentives for performance with regard to the AKC
As evident from the comments given below the lack of incentives that encourage the
AKC operators to perform in relation to the AKCs resulted in their low commitment to
the AKCs.
“There are no incentives for performing well with regard to the AKC. Sometimes if you pay
attention to the AKC you many end up neglecting exams [i.e. promotion related exams].
We ignore our personal life to do this, but there are no incentives for doing that.
Performance in terms of the AKC does not affect job promotions.” - AKC operator, AKC 4
“A clear reason why officers lack commitment [to the AKC] is that we must appreciate work
done. Based on the situation in our country, if we are unable to give monetary incentives
we could at least give them a letter of appreciation.” - Assistant Director (Provincial), AKC 4
Such low commitment contributed to the formation of a weak relationship between
the AKC and the AKC operator.
Impact of relationship formation/non-formation/strength or weakness:
In the absence of a strong relationship between the AKC and its operator, the AKCs
either functioned poorly or were unable maintain operations. An example that
demonstrates this fact is AKC 5, where the AKC operator’s extremely weak relationship
with the AKC was a major reason that contributed to site closure.
8.4.5 The Relationship between the AKC and the Technology Vendors (L5)
The technology vendors were responsible for the provision and maintenance of ICTs
essential for operating the AKCs. Thus, the extent of their support influenced the AKCs’
capacity to maintain uninterrupted operations and therefore inevitably, the
sustainability of the AKC project. The relationship that was crucial in this regard was
the relationship formed between the AKC and the technology vendors. In order to
sustain the AKCs it was imperative to form and maintain a strong relationship between
these two actors.
Three influences were seen to shape this relationship:
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1. Lack of a robust mechanism for ICT maintenance
The AKC project lacked an appropriate, well-defined, efficient mechanism for
maintaining the ICTs in the AKCs. The approach to ICT systems maintenance adopted in
the project was ad hoc. In particular, there was a lack of clearly articulated procedures
and responsibilities pertaining to maintenance. ICT systems maintenance support was
partly provided by the project implementation team of the PEU during visits made to
evaluate the AKCs. In other instances, ICT systems were transported to the Media Unit
where the PEU was located, by the AKC staff. Yet another approach adopted was
seeking the support of the technology vendors or private sector ICT maintenance
service providers located in the locality of the AKC. Further, as evident from the
following comments, the maintenance mechanism was insufficiently de-centralised
and practically unviable in terms of serving AKCs such as AKC 4 located in
remote/disadvantaged areas. Furthermore, there was a lack of provisions for periodic
maintenance of ICT systems in the AKCs.
“We cannot rely on the quality of the technicians in this area. We have limited diesel. If we
come across a problem that cannot be resolved at all we manage with the available diesel
and take it to the PEU for repairs or we use private vehicles. If the equipment breaks down,
getting it repaired is an issue.”- AKC operator, AKC 4
“Some company has to visit every 2 months or so and look into technical problems and
equipment maintenance.” - AKC operator, AKC 4
In the absence of a robust mechanism for ICT maintenance that would serve as a
foundation for engaging the support of the technology providers, it was difficult to
cultivate and maintain a strong relationship between the AKC and the technology
vendors that facilitated project sustainability.
2. Degree of quality of the technology vendors
The provision of less than satisfactory services by low quality technology vendors
chosen by the project implementation team constrained and weakened the
relationship formed between the AKC and a technology vendor. An example for such a
technology vendor is the internet and telecommunications service provider. As
suggested by the statements given below, the service provider’s atrocious
performance characterised by inefficiency in service delivery, lack of responsibility and
commitment in serving clients and violation of agreed service levels, constrained and
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weakened the relationship formed with the AKC to the extent of the PEU considering
relationship termination.
“The internet and telecommunications service provider of course….their service is
absolutely horrendous! If you ask them about a bill arrears three places will give you 3
arrears. Absolutely pointless!” - Project Manager
“If we consider about our service provider they are not doing…still they are like a typical
government office…they are handling very slowly and everything. If we ask anything they
didn’t know. There is no responsibility in their response.” - Project Manager
“.....even though we have given the CDMA facility they [the AKCs] said that they can’t
access internet. Some technical problems are there. Telecom people were telling me we
have already provided. Our technicians went there and they found that the facility is not
there. In that cases, they send bills…. even though we use or not they have to pay the bill,
the internet rental.” - Project Director
“When we purchase they agree to go anywhere in the country and provide service but
when it comes to going to a faraway unit there is a tendency to ask can you bring it over.” -
Project implementation team member
“Now we cannot change this facility [the internet and telecommunications service] because
we paid nearly about 18500 per CDMA facility per unit. Now we cannot go for another
company or something. So that’s a big problem for now.” - Project Manager
3. Physical elements that determine the ease with which an AKC can gain access to
the services of the technology vendors
A physical element that determined the ease with which an AKC can gain access to
technology vendors is the location of the AKC. AKCs that were situated in
remote/disadvantaged areas found it difficult to form a relationship with technology
vendors, given difficulties associated with accessing them. For instance, as indicated by
the statements that follow, AKC 2 which was situated in a remote area, found it
difficult to access the closest technology vendors, given issues such as significant
distance. Such physical constraints which limited an AKC’s capacity to access
technology vendors contributed in weakening the relationship between the two
actors.
“It has been about a month since the computer broke down. We can get it repaired and can
get the approval for the repairing, but we must take it to either city X or city Y for repairing.
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Then we must wait for a vehicle to arrive from the district office to take the computer for
repairing. There are no facilities close to the AKC for getting repairs done.”- AKC operator,
AKC 2
In terms of weaknesses in project implementation that resulted in this status of affairs,
in selecting a location to establish an AKC, the project implementation team failed to
specifically consider the criterion of ease of site access to ICT systems maintenance
support.
Impact of relationship formation/non-formation/strength or weakness:
The status of the relationship between the AKC and the technology vendors exerted a
noteworthy impact on the sustainability of the AKCs. In the absence of a strong
relationship between these two actors, the AKCs struggled to gain quick access to the
ICT maintenance services vital for maintaining uninterrupted operations at the AKCs.
8.4.6 The Relationship between the AKC and the Department of Farmer Services
(DFS) (L6)
The DFS was a crucial local actor in terms of securing essential human resources and a
suitable environment for maintaining operations at the AKCs. Given this reality, the
DFS’s willingness to endorse the AKC project had a significant impact on the survival of
individual AKCs and in turn, the sustainability of the AKC project. The relationship that
was important in this regard was the relationship formed between the AKC and the
DFS. Formation and sustenance of a strong relationship between these two actors was
essential in sustaining the AKC project.
Three influences were seen to shape this relationship:
1. Extent of the rapport that existed between the DOA and the DFS
At the point of implementing the AKC project, the relationship that existed between
the DOA and the DFS was weak given a history of rivalry, conflict and enmity that had
prevailed between the two departments. The following comment made by the Project
Director attests to the existence of a rift between the two departments.
“There is a problem with these departments [the DOA and the DFS]. Not because of the
AKC… there is a problem between them.” - Project Director
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Therefore, as evident from the comments that follow, the DFS was not particularly
predisposed to supporting the AKC project which was an initiative implemented by the
DOA.
“…that department [the DFS] does not place much weight on the AKC.” - AKC operator, AKC
2
“The message about the AKC does not reach the farmers adequately. The village-level
agriculture officer of the DFS is the officer at the village-level. They don’t take the need of
taking the benefits of this project to the farmers into their minds.”- AKC operator, AKC 2
“What we were expecting was that they [the village-level agriculture officers of the DFS]
will say at least that there is a system such as this [to the farmers] and that if you go to this
office you can get the information.” - Assistant Director (Provincial), AKC 3
“To tell the truth, this office was not in a state that was suitable for keeping a computer.
After bringing the computer, I made a request to the Farmer Service Centre [which is
owned by the DFS] to build the ceiling. I took it a bit far, up to the deputy agrarian services
commissioner [of the DFS], but they did not support it. They said it is a big expense and
therefore they cannot do it.” - AKC operator, AKC 1
The lack of support by the DFS highlighted above resulted in the formation of a weak
relationship between the AKC and the DFS.
Several oversights contributed to the formation of a weak relationship between the
AKC and the DFS. Despite acknowledging the rift that existed between the DOA and
the DFS, the project implementation team failed to assess the extent of the likely
impact of this issue on the AKCs, in advance. They also failed to adopt measures to
minimise the impact exerted by the DFS on the sustainability of the AKC project by
avoiding reliance on the DFS for resources critical for project operation. As an example,
the PEU relied on the DFS to provide personnel to execute the critical activity of
creating awareness about the AKC project among farmers. Further, the project
implementation team failed to improve the chances of securing the support of the DFS
by devising and implementing appropriate strategies. In particular, there was a lack of
adequate effort at engaging the support of the DFS through mechanisms that
encouraged their participation.
2. Extent of alignment between the agenda of the AKC project and the agenda of the
DFS
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The agenda of the AKC project was not in line with the agenda of the DFS. As indicated
by the following comment, the AKC project focused on delivering technical information
on agriculture to the farming community, an area that clearly lay beyond the scope of
responsibilities assigned to the DFS.
“…they [DFS officers] haven’t the authority to give any technical instructions. They are not
technical officers. So they are not allowed to give technical information to farmers.” -
Assistant Director, AKC 3
Thus, the DFS officers failed to see any incentive in supporting the AKC project. This
status quo contributed to the formation of a weak relationship between the AKC and
the DFS.
In terms of oversights that contributed to the formation of a weak relationship,
although the project implementation team was aware of the divergence in the
agendas, there was a lack of concentrated effort to find a common ground or a uniting
purpose that would secure the support of the DFS. Alternatively, the project
implementation team also failed to adopt approaches, strategies that ensured
minimum reliance on the DFS for maintaining operations at the AKCs.
3. Perceptions and mind-set of individual officers employed by the DFS which results
in lack of support for the AKC
An example for a negative perception/mind-set which resulted in the lack of support
for the AKC on the part of DFS officers is jealousy over the prominence and visibility
gained by the AKC operator as a result of the AKC project. The following comment
made by the operator of AKC1 attests to the existence of such personal issues.
“I trained the village-level agriculture officers of the DFS and gave them the knowledge
required for that [for operating the AKC]. Though I have completely opened this [the AKC]
up to them, because of practical….that means, the DFS officer in charge does not like that a
lot. Now it is like this, co-operation is something that should be given honestly. Not falsely
to show the external world. Not like that, it should come from the inside. Externally, though
it looks like we are talking, helping…but it is different inside. I think it might be jealousy.” -
AKC operator, AKC 1
Negative perceptions/mind-set such as the one highlighted above contributed to the
formation of a weak relationship between the AKC and the DFS.
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Impact of relationship formation/non-formation/strength or weakness:
The status of the relationship between the AKC and the DFS had a significant impact on
the sustainability of the AKC project. In the absence of a strong relationship between
these two actors, the AKCs were unable secure the support required from the DFS in
executing activities critical to their survival. Examples for such activities include
awareness creation among farmers towards promoting AKC usage and building
renovation towards creating a physical environment that ensured the safety of the ICT
equipment owned by the AKC.
8.5 Salient Findings of the ANT-based Analysis of Sustainability
The analysis revealed that the sustainability of the AKC project was associated with
two actor-networks, namely, a global network and a local network. Both these
networks emerged as being equally important in terms of sustaining the AKC project.
Exploration of the global and local networks revealed the existence of critical
relationships that influenced project sustainability. Specifically, the analysis identified
three global network relationships and six local network relationships that exerted an
influence. The successful formation, strengthening and sustenance of these
relationships emerged as being crucial in sustaining the project.
The analysis also revealed that the critical relationships that influenced project
sustainability were not static and were subjected to shaping and re-shaping or
transformation over time as the project progressed. An illustrative example is the
transformation of the global network relationship formed between the PEU and the
AKC project’s primary funding agency the ARPB. As explained earlier in the chapter,
this relationship transformed into an extremely strong and stable relationship as the
project progressed.
Another salient finding is that the transformation of the critical relationships exerted
an impact on project sustainability. As the relationships transformed and assumed a
form that was either conducive or detrimental to project sustainability, they exerted a
corresponding impact that subsequently either facilitated or impeded project
sustainability. In particular, the non-formation, deterioration or disintegration of
relationships impeded project sustainability. Conversely, the later formation of
relationships that initially failed to form and the strengthening of relationships that
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were previously weak, facilitated project sustainability. This status of affairs can be
explained further by referring to specific examples of relationships from the cases
examined. In terms of negative relationship transformations that impeded project
sustainability, in the case of AKC 5, the failure to form crucial relationships between
actors such as the AKC and the AKC operator, the AKC and the farming community and
the AKC and the PEU resulted in the eventual demise and closure of the site. Further,
the cessation of operations at AKC 3 is attributed to issues such as the deterioration
and eventual disintegration of the weak relationship formed between the AKC and the
PAA responsible for site maintenance. In terms of positive relationship transformations
that facilitated project sustainability, in the case of AKC 4, the later formation of the
previously non-existent relationship between the AKC and the farming community and
the strengthening of the initially extremely weak relationship that existed between the
AKC and the PAA were instrumental in transforming the site from an inactive to active
state.
The transformation of the relationships critical to project sustainability occurred as a
result of various influences that exerted an impact on them. Inquiry into the influences
that were instrumental in shaping and re-shaping the critical relationships revealed
that a diverse range of influences exerted an impact. The formation, sustenance and
strength of the relationships were determined by influences pertaining to human
actors, technology, organisations, information, processes and procedures and physical
elements. To cite an illustrative example, the relationship between the AKC and the
farming community was impacted by influences such as the socio-cultural features of
the farming community, appropriateness of the ICTs utilised by the AKCs, support of
external institutions such as the DFS, relevance of the information delivered by the
AKCs, inadequacies in project processes and procedures and the physical location of
the AKC.
The ANT-based analysis also revealed that the failure to identify and effectively
address influences that exert an impact not surprisingly affected the well-being of the
critical relationships and consequently, the sustainability of the AKC project. For
instance, the failure to address the influences that impacted the relationship between
the AKC and the farming community weakened the relationship to such an extent that
the majority of farmers refrained from visiting the AKCs to utilise the services on offer.
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This absence of patrons to utilise AKC services contributed to the lack of sustainability
of the AKCs and in turn the AKC project.
8.6 Conclusion
The global and local networks of the AKC project comprised relationships that were
crucial in terms of project sustainability. Critical global network relationships that
played a defining role in terms of project sustainability include the relationship
between the PEU and the DOA/MOA, the relationship between the PEU and the
funding agencies, and the relationship between the PEU and central government
politicians. Critical local network relationships that impacted project sustainability
include the relationship between the AKC and the farming community, the relationship
between the AKC and the Provincial Agricultural Authority (PAA), the relationship
between the AKC and the Project Execution Unit (PEU), the relationship between the
AKC and its operator, the relationship between the AKC and the technology vendors
and the relationship between the AKC and the Department of Farmer Services (DFS).
The successful formation, strengthening and sustenance of the critical relationships
identified above proved vital in sustaining the AKC project. Further, the critical
relationships were not static and were subjected to shaping and re-shaping or
transformation over time as the project progressed. Furthermore, the transformation
of the critical relationships exerted an impact on project sustainability. As the
relationships transformed and assumed a form that was either conducive or
detrimental to project sustainability, they exerted a corresponding impact that
subsequently either facilitated or impeded project sustainability. In particular, the non-
formation, deterioration or disintegration of relationships impeded project
sustainability. Conversely, the later formation of relationships that initially failed to
form and the strengthening of relationships that were previously weak, facilitated
project sustainability.
The transformation of the relationships critical to project sustainability occurred as a
result influences that exerted an impact on them. These influences were diverse in
nature. Specifically, the formation, sustenance and strength of the critical relationships
were determined by influences pertaining to human actors, technology, organisations,
information, processes and procedures and physical elements. Finally, the failure to
identify and effectively address influences that exert an impact not surprisingly
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affected the well-being of the critical relationships and consequently, the sustainability
of the AKC project.
The next chapter introduces and describes a framework for sustaining ICT4D projects
implemented in developing nations, which was developed by drawing on the findings
of the data analysis.
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Chapter 9: A Framework for Sustaining ICT4D Projects
9.1 Introduction
This chapter presents a framework for sustaining ICT4D projects implemented in
developing nations, developed based on the results of the data analysis. The chapter
comprises two sections. The first section explains the approach adopted in developing
the framework and introduces the framework. The second section comments on the
application of the framework.
9.2 The Framework and its Development
As discussed in chapter 8, the study of the AKC project revealed the existence of
critical global and local network relationships that influence project sustainability.
Further, the successful formation and sustenance of these relationships emerged as
being crucial in sustaining the project. It was also apparent that a diverse range of
shaping influences must be addressed in order to form and sustain the critical
relationships. Considered overall, the findings from the data analysis suggested that in
practice, enabling project sustainability may be approached in terms of forming and
sustaining critical relationships by addressing the various influences that impact their
shaping. Thus, a decision was made to propose a framework that focuses on the
critical relationships as the basic element that needs to be managed in achieving
project sustainability. The resulting framework is presented in Table 9.1.
In terms of its development, the framework was developed by drawing upon the
results of the data analysis presented in sections 8.3 and 8.4 of chapter 8. These
sections present an analysis of the critical global and local network relationships that
influenced the sustainability of the AKC project, identifying the numerous influences
that shaped the relationships.
The framework that was developed elaborates nine relationships i.e. three global
network relationships and six local network relationships critical to project
sustainability, identified through the data analysis. In terms of its structure, the
framework is tabular in form and comprises four columns. The first column lists the
critical relationships. These critical relationships which are generic in form were
identified by considering the specific critical relationships identified in the case of the
AKC project. As a means of further explanation, appendix 9.1 shows the mapping of
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each of the critical influencing relationships specific to the AKC project to its equivalent
generic form elaborated in the framework. The second column in the framework
presents the various influences that impact the formation, sustenance and strength of
each critical relationship, as identified in sections 8.3 and 8.4 of chapter 8. The third
column provides recommendations on addressing the influences that impact the
formation, sustenance and strength of the critical relationships. The recommendations
were developed by drawing upon two sources. The main source was inappropriate and
appropriate approaches/strategies employed in executing the AKC project, that
determined the impact exerted by the influences on the critical relationships. In
addition, approaches/strategies that can be employed in addressing the influences,
identified in the extant literature were also considered in developing the
recommendations. The fourth and final column identifies the project stage/s during
which the recommendations proposed in relation to a particular influence should be
executed. The project stage division adopted comprises the stages of project initiation,
project planning, project execution, project closure (MPMM, n.d.) and live operations.
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Relationships critical to project sustainability
Influences that impact relationship formation, sustenance & strength
Recommendations on addressing the influences to form and sustain a strong relationship Project stage
Glo
bal
Ne
two
rk R
ela
tio
nsh
ips
Relationship between the project implementer & the project owner/s
Strength of the project proposal presented to the project owner/s
Employ the following guidelines to formulate a strong project proposal that has a greater likelihood of convincing the project owner/s to support the project. The project proposal should present strong arguments that highlight the benefits/outcomes that will be accrued by the project owner/s if they opt to support the project. If applicable, it is useful to emphasise on how the project could contribute in addressing specific issues that the project owner/s are keen to resolve. It is also important to identify in advance any key concerns/constraints that may discourage the project owner/s from viewing the project idea in a positive light and being open to supporting the project, and craft the project proposal in a manner that overcomes such reservations.
Project initiation
Extent of the value assigned to the project by the project owner/s
In order to gain and retain the support, interest and commitment of the project owner/s, ensure that the project produces benefits/outcomes that are valued by the project owner/s. Further, it is important to establish and employ mechanisms such as periodic progress review meetings to highlight the valuable benefits/outcomes delivered by the project and re-iterate the advantages to be gained by the project owner/s in continuing to endorse the project. Showcasing and leveraging project outputs in this manner would assist in convincing the project owner/s of the value of the project and in turn the worthiness of continuing to endorse it.
Project execution, Live operations
Degree of the project implementer’s effectiveness in managing the relationship with the project owner/s
Establish well-defined mechanisms for engaging the active participation of the project owner/s in project execution. The mechanisms should extend well beyond initial meetings held to secure the support of the project owner/s and provide avenues for their on-going involvement in project execution throughout the lifetime of a project. Further, use mechanisms such as periodic progress review meetings to highlight the valuable benefits/outcomes delivered by the project and re-iterate the advantages to be gained by the project owner/s in continuing to endorse it. Showcasing and leveraging project outputs in this manner would assist in strengthening the relationship with the project owner/s.
Project initiation, Project execution
Attitudes and perceptions of individual officers employed by the project owner/s
Identify any negative attitudes and perceptions of individuals employed by the project owner that are likely to result in limited or lack of support for the project. On identification of such barriers, devise and execute appropriate strategies to either overcome or circumvent such issues.
Project initiation, Project planning, Project execution
Relationship between the project implementer & the funding agencies
Strength of the project proposal submitted to secure the support of a funding agency
Employ the following guidelines to formulate a strong project proposal that has a greater likelihood of convincing a potential funding agency to support the project. It is important to understand the agenda and expectations of a funding agency and craft a project proposal that is congruent with these aspects. The project proposal should meet any basic criteria designated by the funding agency as a pre-requisite to securing their patronage. It should present strong arguments that highlight the benefits/outcomes to be accrued by the funding agency if they opt to support the project. It is useful to emphasise the delivery of any benefits/outcomes that are particularly coveted by a funding agency.
During any project stage at the point of recruiting a new funding agency
Extent of the value assigned to the project by the funding agency
In order to retain the support, interest and continued commitment of a funding agency, ensure that the project produces the promised benefits/outcomes in a sustained manner and within the stipulated timeframes. Further, it is important to establish and employ mechanisms such as periodic progress review meetings to highlight the valuable benefits/outcomes delivered by the project and re-iterate the advantages to be gained by the funding agency in continuing to endorse the project. Showcasing and leveraging project outputs in this manner would assist in convincing the funding agency of the value of the project and in turn the worthiness of continuing to endorse it.
Project execution, Live operations
Degree of the project implementer’s effectiveness in managing the relationship with a funding agency
A critical aspect of managing the relationship with a funding agency involves convincing the funding agency of the worthiness of being a part of the project. Towards this end, establish and employ mechanisms such as periodic progress review meetings to continuously highlight the achievements of the project and the valuable benefits/outcomes delivered by the project to the funding agency. Further, re-iterate the advantages to be gained by the funding agency in continuing to endorse the project in the future. Showcasing and leveraging project outputs in this manner would assist in both strengthening the relationships with existing funding agencies and forming relationships with new funding agencies. Other critical aspects of managing the relationship with a funding agency involves building trust in the project implementer’s performance and ensuring the project implementer’s commitment to delivering outcomes valued by the funding agency.
Project execution, Live operations
Changes in the macro environment that impact the relationship with a funding agency
It is important to recognise emerging changes in the macro environment that are likely to have an impact on the relationships with funding agencies and devise and execute appropriate strategies. Cultivating relationships with multiple funding agencies would assist in minimising the impact on the project, in the event of changes in the macro environment either weakening or resulting in the termination of a relationship with a key funding agency.
Throughout the period of association with a funding agency
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Relationships critical to project sustainability
Influences that impact relationship formation, sustenance & strength
Recommendations on addressing the influences to form and sustain a strong relationship Project stage
Relationship between the project implementer & global-level external entities/agencies that influence project sustainability (for example, the government)
Extent of the value assigned to the project by a global-level external entity/agency
Project outputs that could be employed in demonstrating the government’s achievements and gaining political mileage are likely to be attractive to a global-level external entity/agency such as the government. Production of such outputs by a project and effective, on-going promotion of the project’s achievements will aid in gaining and retaining the support, interest and commitment of politicians and enable to form and strengthen a beneficial relationship with them.
Project execution, Live operations
Degree of the project implementer’s effectiveness in managing the relationship with a global-level external entity/agency
In the case of a global-level external entity/agency such as the government, utilise any available forums/opportunities to create awareness and promote the project. Demonstrated capacity of the project to deliver results plays a role in securing the support of government politicians. As the project progresses, highlight its achievements and the benefits delivered, towards gaining and retaining their support. If applicable, emphasising on the project’s contribution to resolving nationally-significant issues that are of interest to government politicians may help in securing their sponsorship. Further, in promoting the project, target influential politicians who have the capacity to contribute to the project.
Project execution, Live operations
Loca
l Ne
two
rk R
ela
tio
nsh
ips Relationship
between the local facility for project delivery & the user community
User community’s awareness of the local facility for project delivery
Establish a mechanism to create and sustain awareness about the local facility for project delivery among the user community. Community awareness is an important requirement that has been highlighted in the extant literature as well (for example see, Dossani et al., 2005; Cecchini, 2003). Grounded in the findings of the study, the awareness creation mechanism should aspire to attract the user community to the local facility for project delivery and retain their interest in utilising it, in the long-term. Further, advance planning is required to execute the awareness creation mechanism successfully. It is critical to allocate a sufficient budget, ensure availability of adequate human resources and devise a detailed plan for creating awareness. The plan should identify viable channels for creating awareness, the approach to awareness creation, a schedule for awareness creation, means of assessing the extent of success achieved in awareness creation and strategies to motivate parties assigned with the responsibility of creating awareness to excel in that role. With regard to the approach to creating awareness, it should extend beyond one-off awareness campaigns. Instead, awareness creation should be an on-going activity undertaken on a consistent and long-term basis throughout the existence of the local facility for project delivery. In communicating with the user community to create awareness, it is important to inform them about the existence of the local facility for project delivery, cultivate a sound understanding about the services and benefits delivered by it and inculcate a sense of appreciation for its value from the perspective of its capacity to contribute to the improvement of users’ lives. The objective should be to ultimately position the local facility for project delivery as an indispensable resource in the minds of users. Practical demonstration of its services and benefits is preferable to verbal explanations as rural user communities are likely to lack prior exposure to ICTs and ICT projects for development. Further, ingenuity is important in overcoming the hurdle of attracting the user community to the local facility for project delivery for the first time. As an example, initial provision of attractive incentives to encourage its use although not an ideal long-term solution may become a practical necessity.
Project planning, Project execution, Live operations
Perceptions and mind-set, information culture and demographic aspects of the user community that discourage utilisation of the local facility for project delivery
Conduct a study of the user community to identify and understand user perceptions and mind-set, elements of the existing information culture and demographic aspects of the user community that are likely to discourage use of the local facility for project delivery. While these would change depending upon the project, user perceptions and mind-set that could possibly be investigated include trust in project implementers, perceived importance of the local facility for project delivery, value placed on self-improvement and beliefs pertaining to ICTs. Information culture elements that can potentially be investigated include the user community’s information seeking behaviour and habits. Demographic aspects of the user community that may be applicable include users’ economic status, education level, IT skills level and gender. On identification of the barriers to the utilisation of the local facility for project delivery, devise and execute strategies to overcome them wherever possible. Some barriers (for example, perceived importance of the local facility for project delivery, beliefs pertaining to ICTs) may be addressed as a part of creating awareness about the project in the user community.
Project initiation, Project planning, Project execution
Physical constraints that limit the user community’s access to the local facility for project delivery
Establish the local facility for project delivery in a location that is easily accessed by the majority of the user community. In selecting the location, avoid locations that are remote or inaccessible due to difficult road conditions and the lack of adequate public transport services.
Project planning, Project execution
148
Relationships critical to project sustainability
Influences that impact relationship formation, sustenance & strength
Recommendations on addressing the influences to form and sustain a strong relationship Project stage
Resource constraints that erect barriers to engaging the user community in utilising the local facility for project delivery
Inadequacy of human resources prevents the execution of activities important for attracting the user community to the local facility for project delivery such as building a close relationship with the user community and maintaining uninterrupted delivery of services offered to the user community. Therefore, ensure availability of adequate human resources for operating the local facility for project delivery by planning for human resources. Such planning should involve accurate estimation of human resources required for operating a local facility for project delivery, accurate assessment of local availability of appropriate human resources, devising and executing strategies to bridge identified human resource gaps (for example, recruitment, training), establishing criteria for selecting an operator to manage the local facility for project delivery. Further, it is essential to appoint a permanent operator who can devote himself/herself to managing the local facility for project delivery and be available on-site to serve the user community.
It is also important to undertake advance planning to ensure availability of adequate physical/material resources necessary to deliver high quality services that may contribute in attracting the user community to the local facility for project delivery. This should involve accurate identification of physical/material resource requirements, identification of essential resources through prioritising in the case of budget constraints and allocation of a sufficient budget for resource acquisition.
Project planning
Extent of the capacity possessed by its operator to attract the user community to the local facility for project delivery
Appoint operators who possess a mind-set, skills and capabilities useful in attracting the user community to the local facility for project delivery. Preferred operator characteristics include capacity to build and maintain a close relationship with the user community, a strong motivation and commitment to serving the user community and ability to deliver excellent services. While skills and capabilities are important, it is even more vital to select operators who possess a mind-set that contributes to user community engagement.
Project planning, Project execution
Competing influences that dissuade the user community from utilising the local facility for project delivery
Engage the user community and other knowledgeable parties in discussions to identify and understand significant competing influences that dissuade the user community from utilising the local facility for project delivery. A guideline for identifying such influences is to search for any constraints or pressures, alternative interests, commitments and alternative sources of information that may deter the user community from utilising the local facility for project delivery. Once identified, devise and execute strategies to counter the competing influences wherever possible. Towards this end, it may prove useful to address the reasons that have contributed in making a competing influence a force to be reckoned with (for example, the reasons behind the user community’s reliance on or preference for an alternative source of information).
Project initiation, Project execution, Live operations
Relevance of the information delivered by the local facility for project delivery to the information needs of the user community
Avoid a top-down approach (Keniston, 2002) where the information and services to be delivered by the local facility for project delivery is determined by parties other than the user community. Instead, ensure the involvement of the user community and elicit their information needs. Such community involvement in information needs assessment and local ownership has been identified as important factors in terms of sustaining ICT4D projects in developing nations (for example see, Cecchini, 2003). Based on study findings, information needs assessment should aspire to identify the information deemed critical or valuable by users and most likely to benefit them. The objective should be to arrive at a portfolio of useful information services that would compel the user community to utilise the local facility for project delivery and derive benefits out of it. It is also important to ensure that the information delivered by the local facility for project delivery continues to remain relevant to the needs of the user community with the passage of time, through content maintenance (Caspary et al., 2003) grounded in emerging information needs.
Project execution, Live operations
Appropriateness of the technologies employed by the local facility for project delivery
In selecting technologies for service delivery, they should be evaluated on their appropriateness in terms of constraints that afflict the user community. Aspects that may be considered in determining technology appropriateness include the suitability of the technology in relation to local resource constraints and the IT skills levels of the user community.
Project planning, Project execution
149
Relationships critical to project sustainability
Influences that impact relationship formation, sustenance & strength
Recommendations on addressing the influences to form and sustain a strong relationship Project stage
Relationship between the local facility for project delivery & its maintainer
Extent of the maintainer’s ownership of and commitment to the local facility for project delivery
Create an environment that fosters ownership and commitment on the part of the maintainer, towards the local facility for project delivery. In accomplishing this objective, identify any issues/concerns/prevailing conditions that have the potential to deter the maintainer from owning and supporting the local facility for project delivery and employ appropriate strategies to address them wherever possible. Establish well-defined mechanisms for engaging the active participation of the maintainers in project execution. The mechanisms should extend well beyond initial meetings held to secure the support of the maintainer and provide avenues for their on-going involvement in the operation of the local facility for project delivery throughout its lifetime. In the case of a project where there are significant barriers to engaging the support of the maintainer, sustained effort may be necessary to inculcate a sense of project ownership.
Project initiation, Project execution, Live operations
Availability of an appropriate foundation and procedures that facilitate smooth maintenance of the local facility for project delivery
Ensuring the existence of an appropriate foundation and procedures that facilitate smooth maintenance of the local facility for project delivery by its maintainer includes paying attention to aspects such as operating cost estimation and management, procedures pertaining to administration and revenue generation. It is critical to accurately anticipate and estimate all costs associated with operating the local facility for project delivery and establish a well-defined mechanism for addressing these costs. This should include clear agreement on how the various operating costs would be met. It is also necessary to ensure that the administrative procedures and decision-making processes pertaining to the local facility for project delivery that involve the maintainer are efficient and not too lengthy or time consuming as to prevent the effective maintenance of the facility. In the case of projects where the local facility for project delivery must generate its own revenue in order to sustain its operations, it is important to establish an efficient mechanism for this activity.
Project planning, Project execution
Perceptions and mind-set of individual officers employed by the maintainer that prevents them from extending their support and commitment to the local facility for project delivery
Identify any negative perceptions and mind-set of the individual officers employed by the maintainer that are likely to result in limited or lack of support. On identification of such barriers, devise and execute appropriate strategies to address them wherever possible.
Project initiation, Project planning, Project execution, Live operations
Extent of the capacity possessed by the operator of the local facility for project delivery to attract the support and involvement of the maintainer
In selecting an operator for a local facility for project delivery, employ criteria such as the individual’s degree of enthusiasm, excellence in work performance, commitment to work and skills in building and maintaining relationships, as evidenced by prior work records/reputation. Individuals who possess such characteristics are likely to have a greater capacity to attract the support and involvement of the maintainer.
Project planning, Project execution
Physical constraints that limit the maintainer’s capacity to maintain sufficient contact/a close relationship with the local facility for project delivery
Establish a local facility for project delivery in a location that is accessible to the maintainer. Avoid locations that are remote and time consuming to access due to issues such as distance.
Project planning, Project execution
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Relationships critical to project sustainability
Influences that impact relationship formation, sustenance & strength
Recommendations on addressing the influences to form and sustain a strong relationship Project stage
Relationship between the local facility for project delivery & the project implementer
Strength of the project leadership
The leadership of the project implementer can play a crucial role in building a strong commitment towards supporting the operation and continuity of the local facilities for project delivery. Thus, it is critical to appoint appropriate leaders. Leaders should assign a high degree of importance to the provision of unequivocal and extensive support to the local facilities for project delivery and insist on their staff’s adherence to that agenda. The staff should be held responsible for delivering high quality support that cultivates an impression of reliability, efficiency, commitment and dedication to service.
Project initiation
Extent of the capacity possessed by the operator of the local facility for project delivery to attract the support and involvement of the project implementer
In selecting an operator for the local facility for project delivery, employ criteria such as the individual’s excellence in work performance, degree of enthusiasm, commitment to work, capacity for innovation and skills in building relationships, as evidenced by prior work records/reputation. Individuals who possess such characteristics are likely to have a greater capacity to attract the support and involvement of the project implementer.
Project planning, Project execution
Resource constraints that limit/prevent the project implementer from supporting the local facilities for project delivery
It is essential to plan for the acquisition of resources required by the project implementer in supporting the local facilities for project delivery. Identify all tasks/mechanisms/processes that must be executed by the project implementer in relation to the local facilities for project delivery. Accordingly estimate the human, financial and material resources required for their execution. Develop a detailed plan for acquiring the resources and if necessary undertake capacity building of the project implementer. In terms of ensuring the availability of adequate human resources, appointing a team that can dedicate itself exclusively to the purpose of supporting the local facilities for project delivery is preferable.
Project planning
Physical elements that limit the capacity of the local facility for project delivery to maintain sufficient contact/a close relationship with the project implementer
Establish a local facility for project delivery in a location that is accessible to the project implementer. Avoid locations that are remote and time consuming to access due to distance or difficult road conditions.
Project planning, Project execution
Relationship between the local facility for project delivery & its operator
Perceptions, mind-set of the operator that limits/prevents their involvement in the local facility for project delivery
In selecting an operator for a local facility for project delivery, avoid appointing individuals with characteristics such as lack of a strong commitment to serving the user community, low motivation and disinterest in performing at work, a lethargic attitude towards work, a negative attitude towards the local facility for project delivery, lack of willingness to learn new skills and lack of affinity for ICTs. Such Individuals are less likely to commit to and involve themselves enthusiastically in the operation of the local facility for project delivery.
Project planning, Project execution
Availability of the operator
The operator plays the crucial role of both maintaining operations at the local facility for project delivery and forming and sustaining relationships with parties essential for ensuring its continuity. Therefore, ensure that the operator chosen has the ability to devote sufficient time and effort on the local facility for project delivery. Avoid selecting individuals who are over-burdened with competing responsibilities, for this role. Appointment of an operator who can dedicate himself/herself solely to the task of operating the local facility for project delivery is preferable.
Project planning, Project execution
Inadequacies in IT training
Insufficient IT skills that lead to difficulties in operating the ICT systems may discourage an operator’s involvement in the local facility for project delivery. It is important to anticipate that operators who lack adequate prior exposure to ICTs may experience difficulties in quickly mastering the IT skills required for operating the local facility for project delivery. Such operators require extensive training and accommodating them necessitates developing and implementing sustained, long-term IT skills training programmes.
Project planning, Project execution
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Lack of incentives for operator performance
Establish incentive schemes that reward operators’ performance with regard to the AKCs. Project planning, Project execution
Relationship between the local facility for project delivery & technology vendors
Lack of an appropriate, well-defined, efficient mechanism for the maintenance of ICT systems in the local facility for project delivery
Establish a well-defined mechanism for the maintenance of ICT systems in the local facility for project delivery, with clearly articulated procedures and responsibilities. The mechanism should target quickest possible rectification of ICT systems maintenance issues encountered. It should incorporate adequate arrangements for efficiently supporting a local facility for project delivery located in a remote/disadvantaged area, provisions for periodic maintenance of ICT systems and the means of ensuring that any decision-making/approval processes pertaining to the maintenance of ICT systems are speedy.
Project planning, Project execution
Strength of the service contracts formulated with respect to the technology vendors
In procuring the services of the technology vendors, formulate service contracts that clearly define the service levels expected of them and the penalties associated with the failure to deliver agreed service levels. Such definition is particularly important with regard to the provision of ICT systems maintenance services to a local facility for project delivery situated in a remote location. However, formulation of strong service contracts alone is insufficient. It is equally important to ensure that the project implementer has the capacity/power to enforce the service contracts, in the event of violation of agreed service levels by the technology vendors.
Project execution
Degree of quality of the technology vendors
In selecting a technology vendor, it is important to consider criteria such as efficiency of service delivery to clients, extent of responsiveness to client needs, degree of responsibility and commitment and dedication in serving clients.
Project execution
Physical elements that determine the ease with which the local facility for project delivery can gain access to the services of the technology vendors
In selecting a location to establish a local facility for project delivery, consider ease of access to ICT systems maintenance services/support. Avoid locations that are remote and time consuming to access due to distance or difficult road conditions.
Project planning, Project execution
Relationship between the local facility for project delivery & local-level external entities/agencies that influence project sustainability
Extent of the rapport that exists between the project owner and the local-level external entity/agency
Identify local-level external entities/agencies capable of influencing the sustainability of the local facility for project delivery/the ICT project and envisage the nature and extent of their likely impact. Assess the current status of the project owner’s relationship with each such entity/agency, identifying any rivalry, conflict, enmity, issues between the two parties that could result in inadequate support and commitment. Improve the chances of securing the support of the entity/agency by devising and implementing strategies to address the identified concerns, wherever possible. This may include sustained efforts at creating awareness and engaging the support of the entity/agency through mechanisms that encourage their participation. In the event of insurmountable issues that are unlikely to be resolved, adopt measures to minimise the impact exerted by the entity/agency on sustainability (for instance, avoid relying on such entities/agencies for resources critical for project operation and develop alternative strategies for ensuring the operation and continuity of the project in the event of lack of support from the entities/agencies).
Project initiation, Project planning, Project execution
Extent of alignment between the agenda of the local facility for project delivery/ the ICT project and the agenda of the local-level external entity/agency
Determine the extent to which the agenda of the local facility for project delivery/ the ICT project is in line with the agenda of the local-level external entity/agency capable of influencing project sustainability. In the event of a noteworthy divergence between the agendas, explore the possibility of constructing an attractive argument that could be employed in securing the support of the local-level external entity/agency. Highlighting any benefits that may be accrued by them is a possible avenue for achieving their buy-in.
Project initiation, Project planning, Project execution
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Relationships critical to project sustainability
Influences that impact relationship formation, sustenance & strength
Recommendations on addressing the influences to form and sustain a strong relationship Project stage
Perceptions and mind-set of individual officers employed by the local-level external entity/agency, which results in limited or lack of support for the local facility for project delivery
Identify perceptions and mind-set of individual officers employed by the local-level external entity/agency capable of influencing project sustainability, that are likely to lead to limited or lack of support for the local facility for project delivery. On identification of such barriers, devise and execute appropriate strategies to address them, wherever possible.
Project initiation, Project planning, Project execution, Live operations
Table 9.1 - A Framework for Sustaining ICT4D Projects in Developing Nations
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9.3 Application of the Framework
In essence, the framework advocates facilitating project sustainability in the context of
ICT4D projects implemented in developing nations via the effective formation and
sustenance of a set of critical influencing relationships. Given that the framework was
developed by drawing on the findings from the AKC project, it is deemed specific to
projects with a similar architecture that comprise locally-maintained multiple
implementation sites that are geographically distributed. However, it is worthwhile to
comment on the extent to which the framework might prove generic in terms of its
applicability. The project on the basis of which it was developed possessed a number
of features common to many ICT4D projects implemented in the developing-world. For
instance, the project was funded by external funding agencies, comprised
geographically dispersed entities in terms of its organization, involved multiple
stakeholders, multiple levels of governance/jurisdiction and comprised complex
relationships among project entities that determined project outcomes. Thus, it is
prudent to posit that the framework may potentially have fairly extensive applicability
in sustaining a range of ICT4D projects.
The application and validation of the framework lies beyond the scope of the current
study and as such is proposed as an opportunity for future research in the following
chapter. Notwithstanding, applying the framework to a project of interest should
logically involve the basic steps of identifying the relevant critical influencing
relationships and associated entities, identifying and understanding the various
influences that shape these relationships, implementing recommendations to address
the influences and periodic re-assessment of the status of the critical influencing
relationships throughout the lifetime of a project in order to adopt any measures
necessary to sustain them.
9.4 Conclusion
The chapter presented a framework for sustaining ICT4D projects in developing
nations. The fundamental thinking that underpinned its development is the view that
enabling project sustainability necessitates forming and sustaining relationships critical
to project sustainability by addressing the various influences that impact their shaping.
Accordingly, the framework proposed offers recommendations on addressing a diverse
range of influences that impact the formation, sustenance and strength of nine critical
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influencing relationships. Further, it suggests the project stages during which these
recommendations should be executed. The framework should be applied and
validated as a part of future research as those tasks are beyond the scope of the
current study.
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Chapter 10: Discussion
10.1 Introduction
This chapter discusses the findings of the study. It comprises the following sections.
The first section presents and explores the essence of study findings, culminating in
the proposal of an approach for enabling project sustainability. The next section
highlights the contributions made by the study towards enhancing the knowledge base
on the chosen problem domain. The final section of the chapter states the limitations
associated with the study.
10.2 An Exploration of Key Study Findings
The study aspired to answer the research question of “How can ICT projects for
development (ICT4D projects) in developing nations achieve sustainability?” The
research question was investigated via an interpretivist, embedded case study of a
large-scale, national level, government sector ICT project for agricultural development
implemented in a developing nation in South Asia, namely, the AKC project. In
examining project sustainability, the study extended its analysis beyond an influencing
factor or sustainability dimension-based interpretation which is inherently static and
limited in terms of the extent to which the dynamics of project sustainability can be
analysed. Towards this end, an ANT-based theoretical lens was employed to
conceptualise and explore project sustainability as a dynamic phenomenon comprising
complex interactions in actor-networks. The results of the ANT-based data analysis
were then drawn upon to develop a framework and propose an approach for
sustaining ICT4D projects in developing nations.
The purpose of this section is to examine and critically review the key findings of the
study. It compares the findings with the extant literature wherever applicable and
highlights where the findings reconfirm, refute or add to the existing knowledge base
on the sustainability of ICT4D projects in developing nations. The discussion is
structured under four subtopics identified as relevant and worth addressing. It
commences with the following examination of the findings of the analysis of factors
that influenced the sustainability of the AKC project.
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10.2.1 Sustaining ICT4D projects: Influencing Factors and Dimensions
The study included identification and broad analysis of the various factors that
influenced the sustainability of the AKC project (chapter 6). The analysis lead to the
discovery of a diverse assortment of influencing factors which were classified under six
distinct dimensions of project sustainability, namely, the socio-cultural dimension, the
project execution dimension, the financial dimension, the technology dimension, the
macro environment dimension and the information dimension (figure 6.1). Thus, the
study revealed that project sustainability in the case of the AKC project was a multi-
dimensional phenomenon. This finding is not at all unexpected given similar claims
made in previous studies that describe project sustainability in the context of ICT4D
projects as a multi-dimensional phenomenon (for example see, Keniston, 2003a; Stoll
et al., 2003; Pade et al., 2006).
It is also worthwhile to comment on whether the dimensions of project sustainability
identified in the study, differ from those mentioned in the literature. As is the case in
the study, previous research identifies dimensions pertaining to technology, finances,
social and cultural aspects and macro environmental aspects such as the political
environment (for example see, Keniston, 2003a; Stoll et al., 2003; Pade et al., 2006). In
addition, the study identified two dimensions of project sustainability (i.e. the project
execution dimension and the information dimension) on the basis of the influencing
factors isolated in the case of the AKC project.
Based on study findings, several observations are made with respect to the individual
dimensions of project sustainability. Firstly, existing studies often emphasise the
financial dimension (for example see, UNESCAP, 2002; Munyua, 2000). This dimension
was also recognised as being of critical importance in the case of the AKC project. It
was evident that the finance-related factors proved pivotal in determining the
sustainability of both the overall project and in particular, the grass root level AKCs.
Thus, the findings of the study affirm the importance of the financial dimension as
proclaimed in previous studies.
The extant literature also emphasises the importance of paying attention to wider
dimensions of project sustainability other than the financial (for example see, Stoll et
al., 2003; Keniston, 2003a; Pade et al., 2006). In the case of the AKC project, project
sustainability was undoubtedly affiliated with dimensions that extended well-beyond
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financial considerations such as the socio-cultural dimension, the information
dimension and the project execution dimension. For example, sufficient usage of the
AKCs by project beneficiaries (i.e. the farming community) was essential to ensure the
continuity of both individual AKCs and the overall AKC project. The socio-cultural
dimension and the information dimension proved critical to project sustainability as
they were salient dimensions that determined AKC usage. Further, the project
execution dimension played a defining role in terms of project sustainability as it
encompassed a range of processes, procedures and mechanisms (for example, project
planning, project awareness creation, information needs assessment, project
maintenance) that were vital to the continued survival of both the AKCs and the entire
AKC project.
Considering the findings of the analysis of factors overall, it is apparent that project
sustainability in the context of ICT4D projects in developing nations involves a diverse
array of influencing factors and different dimensions. It is in essence, a phenomenon
that involves many angles, aspects and considerations.
10.2.2 Sustaining ICT4D Projects: An ANT-based Approach
In this section, the findings of the ANT-based analysis of project sustainability
undertaken in the study (chapters 7, 8) is drawn upon to present some key
observations on sustaining ICT4D projects in developing nations. The discussion
commences by highlighting the salient findings of the ANT-based analysis.
The sustainability of the AKC project was associated with two actor-networks, namely,
a global network and a local network. These networks comprised critical relationships
that influenced project sustainability (figure 8.1). Both these networks and the
connection between them emerged as being significant in sustaining the project. The
equal importance of the networks was evident as the project’s sustainability was
severely jeopardised given its failure to construct and sustain an enabling local
network, despite the existence of a fairly strong and stable global network.
The key element within the global and local networks that contributed toward the
project’s sustainability was seen to be the critical relationships identified among
actors. The successful formation, strengthening and sustenance of these relationships
emerged as being crucial in sustaining the project. It was also evident that the
relationships were not static and were subjected to shaping and re-shaping during the
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course of the project. As the relationships transformed and assumed a form that was
either conducive or detrimental to project sustainability, they exerted a corresponding
impact that subsequently either facilitated or impeded project sustainability. Stated
more specifically, the non-formation, deterioration or disintegration of critical
influencing relationships impeded project sustainability. For instance, in the case of
AKC 5, the failure to form crucial relationships between actors such as the AKC and the
AKC operator, the AKC and the farming community and the AKC and the Project
Execution Unit resulted in the eventual demise and closure of the site. Further, the
cessation of operations at AKC 3 is attributed to issues such as the deterioration of the
once strong relationship that existed between the AKC and the farming community it
served and the disintegration of the weak relationship that existed between the AKC
and the Provincial Agriculture Authority responsible for site maintenance. Conversely,
the later formation of relationships that initially failed to form and the strengthening
of relationships that were previously weak facilitated project sustainability. For
example, in the case of AKC 4, the later formation of the previously non-existent
relationship between the AKC and the farming community and the strengthening of
the initially extremely weak relationship that existed between the AKC and the
Provincial Agriculture Authority were instrumental in transforming the site from an
inactive to active state.
Inquiry into the forces that were instrumental in shaping and re-shaping the critical
influencing relationships revealed that a diverse range of influences exerted an impact
(chapter 8). The formation, sustenance and strength of the relationships were
determined by influences associated with elements such as human actors, technology,
organisations, information, processes and procedures and physical artifacts. To cite an
illustrative example, the relationship between the AKC and the farming community
was impacted by influences such as socio-cultural features of the farming community,
appropriateness of the ICTs utilised by the AKCs in terms of the constraints that afflict
the farming community, relevance and accuracy of the information delivered by the
AKCs, inadequacies in processes and procedures pertaining to project activities such as
project awareness creation, information needs assessment and the physical location of
the AKC. Further, it emerged that the failure to identify and effectively address
influences that exert an impact not surprisingly affected the well-being of the critical
influencing relationships and consequently, the sustainability of the project.
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The findings of the ANT-based analysis lead to the following proposal of an alternative
approach to sustaining ICT4D projects in developing nations. Project sustainability in
the context of such a project can be visualised, interpreted and addressed on the basis
of critical influencing relationships in actor-networks. This view essentially advocates
treating the critical influencing relationships as the fundamental element of interest
that needs to be managed in achieving project sustainability. In adopting this view to
sustain a project, it is necessary to identify and ensure the successful formation and
sustenance of the critical influencing relationships. Project implementers should aspire
to form strong critical influencing relationships conducive to project sustainability and
ensure that they remain so for as long as necessary.
The objective of forming and sustaining strong critical influencing relationships that
enable project sustainability may be achieved as follows. In forming a critical
influencing relationship, it is important to contemplate on and envision in advance the
form it should assume in order to facilitate project sustainability and actively pursue its
attainment. This implies that a critical influencing relationship should be constructed
with project sustainability in mind at the very outset. It is also important to pay
attention to the actors to be engaged in a relationship and the translation process
involving their enrollment. This includes easing the course of translation by developing
an understanding of each actor’s role in the relationship, identifying vested interests,
expectations and motivations of actors and the criteria/conditions likely to facilitate or
impede their enrollment. The most critical activity involving the formation and
sustenance of strong critical influencing relationships that enable project sustainability
is identifying and addressing the influences that exert an impact on the relationships.
As revealed by the study, these influences are diverse in nature and as such require
appropriate strategies to address. A tool such as the framework proposed in the study
(table 9.2) may be used for the purpose of addressing the influences. Finally, it is
important to note that sustaining a critical influencing relationship is an on-going
activity rather than a one-off effort. Once a relationship has been formed, it is vital to
monitor its progress over time, undertake periodic re-assessment of its status, and
intervene with appropriate measures to address both existing and emerging influences
that affect its survival.
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It is worthwhile to compare the findings and observations presented above with the
output of previous studies. The literature review presented in chapter two did not
identify any similar studies that employ ANT to explore the phenomenon of project
sustainability. Hence, the study findings and observations are considered in the light of
the wider literature, specifically, studies which employ ANT to examine other
phenomena associated with technology/IT projects such as technology project failure
(Law et al., 1992), IT implementation (Stanforth, 2006) and IT project escalation
(Mahring et al., 2004). The afore-mentioned studies despite focusing on different
phenomena corroborate the validity of the general approach to enabling project
sustainability proposed in the study. To elaborate further, the approach proposed in
the study suggests the construction and sustenance of appropriate global and local
networks and the maintenance of an effective connection between the two networks,
as a means of enabling project sustainability. A similar approach is promoted by
previous researchers such as Law et al. (1992) and Stanforth (2006) in relation to the
phenomena investigated in their studies. Focusing on a failed technology design
project, namely, the construction of the TSR2 military aircraft, Law et al. (1992)
proposed that the trajectory and success of technological projects depends upon a
project’s capacity to: construct and sustain an enabling global network, construct and
sustain an enabling local network and maintain an effective connection between the
two networks. Similarly, studying project implementation in relation to an e-
government project implemented in a developing nation, Stanforth (2006) contended
that the support of both the global network and the local network was necessary to
realise project goals and emphasised the importance of maintaining an effective
connection between the two networks in achieving such an outcome.
The approach proposed in the study also advocates treating the critical network
relationships that influence project sustainability as the fundamental element of
interest that needs to be managed in sustaining a project. The evidence from previous
studies affirms the validity of adopting such an approach. For example, perusal of
studies by Stanforth (2006) and Law et al. (1992) revealed that the transformation of
the relationships within the global and local networks was essentially instrumental in
defining the course of the phenomena investigated in those studies as well.
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Finally, the approach proposed in the study advocates enabling project sustainability
through advance envisioning of the form that should be assumed by the critical
influencing relationships and by paying attention to the translation processes involved
in constructing these relationships. The validity of this proposal is re-confirmed by
researchers such as Stanforth (2006, p.52), who suggested that the designers of e-
government projects should “carefully consider how the translation process might
occur”.
10.2.3 Suitability of an ANT-based Theoretical Lens
This section discusses the extent to which an ANT-based theoretical lens is suitable for
addressing the problem domain of project sustainability in the context of ICT4D
projects in developing nations. The experience of applying ANT concepts and its
resulting output indicate that this theoretical position is not only a viable but useful
approach in understanding and addressing project sustainability. Further, it is a
theoretical position that fits the inherent nature of project sustainability. The ensuing
discussion presents the case for the suitability of an ANT-based theoretical lens.
The first consideration is whether an ANT-based theoretical lens is in fact a viable
theoretical position that can be applied with a fair degree of ease to produce
acceptable results. It appears to meet these criteria due to the following reasons.
Firstly, the study demonstrated that ANT concepts can be applied successfully, to
understand project sustainability from the perspective of influencing networks and
relationships as an alternative to the traditional approach of interpretation on the
basis of influencing factors or dimensions. Secondly, the adoption of an ANT-based
theoretical lens produced results that were as coherent and meaningful as those
produced by adopting the traditional approach to exploring project sustainability. In
fact, comparison of the results of the ANT-based analysis against the results obtained
through the analysis of factors that influenced the sustainability of the AKC project
reveals that an ANT-based theoretical lens is indeed capable of uncovering the same
key concerns/issues isolated via the traditional approach. As an illustrative example,
socio-cultural factors that influenced the sustainability of the AKC project such as lack
of community trust in project implementers, low community economic status and
community information seeking behaviour that discourages AKC usage were captured
by the ANT-based analysis in the alternative form of influences that impacted the
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formation, sustenance and strength of the relationship between the AKC and the
farming community. Thirdly, as evident from the framework produced by the study,
the employment of ANT concepts facilitates the delivery of results that are of practical
value. Finally, while requiring fairly extensive and time consuming analysis, applying
ANT concepts to the chosen problem domain did not prove difficult to the extent of
rendering the approach practically unviable.
The second consideration is whether an ANT-based theoretical lens is a truly useful
theoretical position in exploring the sustainability of ICT4D projects in developing
nations. The experience of conducting the study indicates that this is indeed the case.
Firstly, the employment of ANT concepts facilitates a richer, deeper understanding of
project sustainability. For example, in the study, the ANT concept of “the four
moments of translation” (Callon, 1986, p.203) was employed to unravel the complex
inner mechanics of project sustainability by focusing on the critical influencing
relationships. As evident from the analysis presented in chapters 7 and 8, this concept
was utilised to understand the initial formation and subsequent transformation of
various global and local network relationships critical to project sustainability over
time and to ascertain the impact of such shaping and reshaping of relationships on
project sustainability. Further, the use of ANT concepts enabled a more encompassing
interpretation of project sustainability given that it is a theoretical position that gives
equal consideration to both the social and technical elements involved in a
phenomenon (Callon, 1986; Law et al., 1992; Stanforth, 2006; Lea et al., 1995). In the
case of the study, this feature was especially useful in uncovering the role played by
technology in project sustainability. Secondly, an ANT-based theoretical lens is
advantageous given its enabling of “telling stories and tracing histories” (Stanforth,
2006, p. 39) which in the case of the study facilitated retrospective inquiry into project
sustainability. In the study, ANT concepts were employed to understand the
sustainability of the AKC project over a past period of five years. Thirdly, an ANT-based
theoretical lens is useful as its employment facilitates the isolation of a concrete set of
entities and elements that should be addressed in sustaining an ICT4D project in
developing nations. In the study, the adoption of this theoretical lens revealed the
actors that matter, the influencing relationships that deserve attention and the
influences that should be managed, in enabling project sustainability.
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In addition to being both viable and useful, an ANT-based theoretical lens fits the
inherent nature of project sustainability. It permits inquiry into project sustainability
whilst staying true to its ‘natural state’ or intrinsic form as a dynamic, ever-evolving
phenomenon. In the study, such inquiry was accomplished by examining project
sustainability via the tracing of the evolution of an identified set of critical influencing
relationships over time.
10.2.4 Project Sustainability: Observations on Its Intrinsic Nature
This section comments on the intrinsic nature of project sustainability with reference
to ICT4D projects in developing nations. Given that the observations presented below
are based on the findings from a single project, they are proposed as tentative ideas
that require further investigation as opposed to confirmed views.
Based on the findings from the AKC project, project sustainability in the context of
ICT4D projects in developing nations gives every indication of being a complex and
challenging phenomenon. The diverse array of influencing factors, different
dimensions, numerous critical influencing relationships and the many influences that
shape the relationships identified during the course of the study, all hint at a high
degree of complexity and challenges in terms of management. This complexity
inherent to project sustainability with reference to ICT-enabled development
interventions has been acknowledged in previous studies as well (for example see,
Batchelor et al., 2003).
Another inherent feature of project sustainability in the context of ICT4D projects in
developing nations, recognised in studying the AKC project is its dynamic nature. This
was particularly evident from the ever-evolving status of both the individual AKCs and
the AKC project as a whole. Drawing upon the findings from the AKC project, it appears
that project sustainability in the context of ICT4D projects in developing nations is far
from being a one-time state that could be achieved and then left unattended. Instead,
project sustainability should be actively pursued and constantly monitored and
addressed throughout the existence of such projects. The dynamic nature of project
sustainability has been mentioned by researchers from other domains. As an example,
in examining the sustainability of community-based health programmes, Shediac-
Rizkallah et al. (1998) opted to view sustainability as a dynamic phenomenon.
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The findings from the AKC project also suggest that project sustainability is a
phenomenon that should be planned for in advance at the very outset of
implementing an ICT4D project in a developing nation. An example from the AKC
project that illustrates this fact is the need to plan in advance for the financial
sustainability of a project.
10.3 Contributions of the Study
The study which explored the sustainability of ICT4D projects in developing nations
aimed to attain the following four research objectives:
1. Identify factors that influence the sustainability of ICT4D projects in developing
nations, as highlighted in literature.
2. Explore factors that influenced the sustainability of the ICT4D project examined
in the research.
3. Identify and explore heterogeneous networks pertaining to the sustainability of
the ICT4D project examined in the research.
4. Develop a framework for sustaining ICT4D projects in developing nations.
The first research objective was achieved by undertaking an extensive review of the
relevant literature, which resulted in the identification and categorisation of a
multitude of influencing factors that determine the sustainability of ICT4D projects in
developing nations. In realising the second research objective, the data from five
embedded cases was analysed to identify a diverse range of influencing factors that
impacted the sustainability of the AKC project. The third research objective was
attained by employing ANT concepts to analyse the sustainability of the AKC project in
terms of critical influencing relationships in global and local networks. The fourth and
final research objective was achieved by drawing upon the results of the ANT-based
analysis to propose a framework for sustaining ICT4D projects in developing nations.
Thus, all four research objectives defined in the study were achieved successfully as
intended.
In achieving the research objectives stated above, the study has made the following
contributions. The sustainability of ICT projects implemented in developing nations is
identified as a significant but neglected topic worthy of attention (for example see,
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Walsham et al., 2006). Thus, the study has answered previous researchers’ call for
more studies on this important topic, focusing on ICT4D projects.
A major theoretical contribution of the study is associated with the theoretical lens
employed to visualise, interpret and address project sustainability. Typically, studies
that examine the sustainability of ICT4D projects in developing nations view the
phenomenon as being an outcome influenced by a range of factors or as involving
multiple dimensions. While valuable, an intrinsic element that is difficult to capture via
this traditional theoretical approach is the consideration of project sustainability in its
true form as a dynamic, ever-evolving phenomenon that unfolds over time. The
alternative ANT-based approach proposed in the study addresses this limitation by
enabling to examine project sustainability as a dynamic phenomenon. In this approach,
the objective of examining project sustainability as a dynamic phenomenon is
accomplished via the continuous monitoring and management of a set of network
relationships identified as being critical to project sustainability, over time. Thus, a
major theoretical contribution of the study is the provision of an avenue to incorporate
the essential but currently missing temporal dimension into the examination of project
sustainability.
Another theoretical contribution made by the study is the proposal of a comparatively
more manageable approach that can be employed in facilitating project sustainability.
Adoption of the traditional approach invariably forces practitioners to deal with the
complexity of addressing a plethora of diverse factors and numerous dimensions.
Contrastingly, the adoption of an ANT-based approach reduces this complexity into a
distinct set of critical influencing relationships which can then be monitored and
maintained on an on-going basis towards enabling project sustainability. While
addressing the varied influences that impact the formation, sustenance and strength of
the relationships is still a complex affair, having a specific set of relationships to focus
upon is likely to prove useful.
In the existing body of literature, there is a dearth of studies that propose
comprehensive normative guidelines or frameworks for sustaining ICT4D projects
implemented in a developing country context. The current study has addressed this
knowledge gap by drawing on the ANT-based analysis of project sustainability to
propose a suitable framework (table 9.2). The framework provides recommendations
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for addressing a range of influences that impact the formation, sustenance and
strength of nine global and local network relationships identified as critical to project
sustainability. It contributes to IS practice by being a point of reference that parties
such as governments, funding/international development agencies, project executing
agencies and ICT implementation teams can draw on to improve the chances of
sustaining ICT4D projects deployed in the developing-world.
Another contribution made by the study towards extending knowledge on the topic of
interest is the depth and the scope of the investigation undertaken. In-depth studies
founded on a strong theoretical basis that explore project sustainability in the context
of ICT4D projects in developing nations are a rare find. Furthermore, many studies
place strong emphasis on the financial dimension of project sustainability (for example
see, Harris et al., 2003), without devoting attention to other equally critical
dimensions. The current study has contributed in bridging these knowledge gaps by
undertaking an in-depth and more encompassing exploration that extends beyond the
dimension of financial sustainability. By assigning equal importance to the many
dimensions of project sustainability, the study has identified a diverse range of factors
that influenced the sustainability of the ICT project investigated. Further, the use of
ANT concepts as a theoretical lens has enabled a wider exploration of project
sustainability given the theory’s equal consideration of both technical and social
elements.
The study has also addressed the prevailing paucity of definitions of project
sustainability in the context of ICT4D projects in developing nations. Amalgamating
definitions coined in relation to both development projects and ICT projects for
development in developing nations, the study defined project sustainability in the
context of ICT4D projects in developing nations as a phenomenon characterised by:
Project continuity and longevity in the sense of maintenance of uninterrupted
project operations for a significant period of time
Project adaptation in the sense of project survival through a persistent process of
adjustment to emerging needs and situations
Productive project existence in the sense of sustained delivery of anticipated
project benefits at an acceptable level over an extended period of time
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Ability of a project to prevail from the perspective of multiple dimensions such as
socio-cultural, financial, technological, political and environmental dimensions.
Finally, in the existing body of literature, there is a lack of detailed studies that
examine the sustainability of ICT4D projects implemented within the South Asian
country chosen as the research context. Thus, the study has made a contribution
towards extending the present knowledge base by focusing on a research context that
has hitherto received little attention.
10.4 Limitations of the Study
The study was not without its limitations. One such limitation was associated with the
choice of methodology. The study employed a single case design given its facilitation of
the requirement of exploring the sustainability of ICT4D projects in developing nations
in depth (Cavaye, 1996). Further, the ICT project investigated despite being a pervasive
type of project was one of several types of ICT4D projects implemented in developing
nations. As such, while the choice of a single case design did enable in-depth inquiry, it
limits the extent to which the research findings can be generalised (Cavaye, 1996, Yin,
1994). In particular, the choice of methodology may have reduced the generalisability
of the proposed framework for sustaining ICT4D projects in developing nations.
In the study, the sustainability of the ICT project examined was analysed in retrospect.
Thus, the analysis relied heavily on the recalled experiences articulated by the
interviewees. Therefore, the research findings are subject to the limitation of any
inaccuracies, fuzziness and bias in the respondents’ recollection of past experiences.
The impact of this limitation was minimised by employing additional data collection
methods such as document analysis to substantiate the interview findings.
Finally, the research findings may have been influenced by researcher bias that crept in
despite the conscious effort made to avoid this negative impact. In particular, the
researcher’s increasing identification with and empathy for the plight of the target
beneficiaries of the ICT project examined (i.e. the rural farmers) as data collection
progressed, may have introduced unwanted bias.
10.5 Conclusion
The study employed ANT concepts as a theoretical lens to explore project
sustainability in the context of an ICT4D project implemented in a developing nation,
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as a dynamic phenomenon comprising complex interactions in actor-networks. Its
findings suggest that project sustainability with reference to such projects can be
visualised, interpreted and addressed on the basis of critical influencing relationships
in actor-networks. In employing this view to sustain a project, it is necessary to identify
and ensure the successful formation and sustenance of the critical influencing
relationships over time. Achieving this objective necessitates addressing the diverse
range of influences that affect their formation, sustenance and strength.
In terms of the suitability of an ANT-based theoretical lens for exploring the chosen
problem domain, study findings indicate that this theoretical position is a viable and
useful approach that fits the inherent nature of project sustainability. It is a viable
theoretical position as it can be applied both successfully and without too much
difficulty and given its ability to produce coherent and meaningful results of practical
value. An ANT-based theoretical lens is a useful theoretical position as its employment
facilitates a richer, deeper understanding of project sustainability, retrospective inquiry
and the isolation of a concrete set of entities/elements that require attention in
sustaining a project. Finally, an ANT-based theoretical lens is a theoretical position that
fits the inherent nature of project sustainability as it permits inquiry into project
sustainability whilst staying true to its ‘natural state’ or intrinsic form as a dynamic,
ever-evolving phenomenon.
The findings of the study also lead to some tentative observations on the intrinsic
nature of project sustainability in the context of ICT4D projects implemented in the
developing-world. Project sustainability in relation to such projects appears a complex,
challenging and dynamic phenomenon. Further, it is a state that should be planned for
in advance at the very outset of a project and actively pursued, monitored and
addressed throughout the period of existence of a project.
In terms of the contributions made by the study, it has addressed a highly significant
but neglected research area worthy of attention. A major theoretical contribution of
the study is the provision of an avenue to incorporate the essential but currently
missing temporal dimension into the examination of project sustainability. Another
theoretical contribution is the proposal of a comparatively more manageable approach
for enabling project sustainability, which involves addressing a distinct set of critical
influencing relationships which can be monitored and maintained on an on-going
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basis. In terms of informing practice, the study has proposed a framework that
addresses the knowledge gap of dearth of studies that propose comprehensive
normative guidelines or frameworks for sustaining ICT4D projects in developing
nations. Another contribution made by the study is addressing the prevailing paucity of
definitions of project sustainability with reference to such projects. Drawing upon the
relevant literature, the study has proposed a definition that describes project
sustainability as a phenomenon that involves the salient aspects of project continuity
and longevity, project adaptation, productive project existence and project prevalence
in terms of multiple dimensions of sustainability. The study has also contributed in
overcoming the limitations noted in some previous studies with regard to the depth
and scope of investigation of project sustainability. By undertaking an in-depth
exploration founded on a strong theoretical basis, it has made an effort to move
beyond a cursory and anecdotal approach to investigation. Further, it has undertaken a
wider exploration that extends beyond the often-emphasised finance dimension of
sustainability and considered both the social and technical elements involved. Finally,
the study has extended the existing knowledge base by focusing on a research context
that has hitherto received little attention.
In terms of the limitations of the study, the employment of a single case design limits
the extent to which the research findings can be generalised. Further, given the study’s
reliance on the recalled experiences articulated by interviewees in exploring project
sustainability, the findings are subject to the limitation of any inadequacies in the
respondents’ recollection of past events and experiences. Finally, the research findings
may have been influenced by researcher bias.
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Chapter 11: Conclusions
The study presented in this thesis examined the problem of sustaining ICT4D projects
in developing nations, a pressing and challenging issue (Heeks, 2008; Marais, 2011;
Keniston, 2003a; Keniston, 2003b; UNESCAP, 2002; Braa et al., 2004; Badsar et al.,
2011) worthy of investigation. The choice of topic was motivated by the consequences
of the failure to resolve this issue for developing nations. Addressing the issue is clearly
vital to such nations given reasons such as the “opportunity costs” of IT investment
failure in developing-world contexts (Heeks, 1999, p.16; Heeks, 2002b) and its impact
of discouraging donor support for ICT-enabled development interventions (Bell, 2006).
The specific research question addressed by the study was “How can ICT projects for
development (ICT4D projects) in developing nations achieve sustainability?” Typically,
studies that focus on this research area examine project sustainability in terms of
influencing factors or dimensions (for example see, Stoll et al., 2003; Pade et al., 2006;
Kumar et al., 2006; Best et al., 2008; Gordon et al., 2007; Pade-Khene et al., 2011).
While useful, the approach results in static and flat analyses which are limited in terms
exploring the dynamics of project sustainability. The study is distinctive and valuable
by virtue of its employment of ANT as an alternative theoretical approach to address
this limitation and undertake a rich and more comprehensive exploration of project
sustainability visualising it as a dynamic phenomenon. In line with the adoption of the
theoretical view chosen, four research objectives were formulated and achieved in the
study. The research objectives were: identify factors that influence the sustainability of
ICT4D projects in developing nations, as highlighted in the literature; explore factors
that influenced the sustainability of the ICT4D project examined in the research;
identify and explore heterogeneous networks pertaining to the sustainability of the
ICT4D project examined in the research; and develop a framework for sustaining ICT4D
projects in developing nations.
In terms of the methodology employed in executing the study, the research question
was examined via an interpretivist, embedded case study. The case chosen for
investigation which was named the Agriculture Knowledge Centre (AKC) project for the
purposes of the study is a government sector ICT4D project that targets agricultural
development in a developing nation in South Asia. The project, a large-scale and
nationally visible ICT4D initiative, had established an information network which
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comprised fifty one Agriculture Knowledge Centres (AKCs) that utilise ICTs to deliver
agriculture-related information required by the country’s farming community. In
exploring the sustainability of this project, five AKCs, each of which was treated as an
embedded case, were studied. The AKCs investigated represented the five different
statuses pertaining to sustainability observed in the AKC project. In terms of data
collection techniques, the case data was collected over a period of six months,
employing the multiple techniques of semi-structured interviews, document analysis
and technology artefact evaluation. The data analysis was completed over a period of
seventeen months supported by the qualitative data analysis tool NVivo 1.0. The
process of data analysis comprised two stages. Stage one involved identification and
broad analysis of the various factors that influenced the sustainability of the AKC
project. Stage two extended the initial analysis by employing an ANT view to
conceptualise and explore project sustainability as a dynamic phenomenon involving
critical influencing relationships in actor-networks. This stage constituted the core
analysis undertaken in the study. Finally, the results of the ANT-based data analysis
were drawn upon to develop a framework for sustaining ICT4D projects in developing
nations and propose an approach for sustaining such projects.
With regard to research results, the study has realised its original aspiration of
undertaking an in-depth and comprehensive exploration of project sustainability in
relation to ICT4D projects in developing nations. It has met all four research objectives
formulated towards that end and produced the key output envisaged, namely, a
framework that could assist developing nations in sustaining ICT projects implemented
for the purpose of development.
In accomplishing the outcome stated above, the following specific research outputs
were produced. An assortment of factors that influence the sustainability of ICT4D
projects in developing nations were identified and categorised, through an extensive
review of the relevant literature. Analysis of the data from the five embedded cases
examined isolated a diverse range of factors and six distinct dimensions (i.e. the socio-
cultural dimension, the project execution dimension, the financial dimension, the
technology dimension, the macro environment dimension and the information
dimension) that influenced the sustainability of the AKC project. The application of
ANT concepts to the case data in exploring the sustainability of the AKC project
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resulted in the discovery of two key types of actor-networks (i.e. global and local
networks) and the identification of nine critical influencing relationships within the
networks that played a crucial role in project sustainability. The analysis also identified
a diverse array of influences that were instrumental in shaping the critical influencing
relationships. Further, it revealed the implications of the formation or non-formation
and the strength or weakness of those relationships for project sustainability. Finally,
by drawing upon the ANT-based analysis, the study produced a framework that
provides recommendations for addressing the numerous influences that shape the
relationships considered critical to project sustainability in the context of ICT4D
projects in developing nations.
The findings of the ANT-based analysis suggest an alternative approach that could be
employed by practitioners in sustaining ICT4D projects in the developing world. Project
sustainability in the context of such a project can be visualised, interpreted and
addressed on the basis of critical influencing relationships in actor-networks. This
approach subscribes to the basic notion that the critical influencing relationships as
they transform and assume a form that is either conducive or detrimental to project
sustainability, exert a corresponding impact that either facilitates or impedes project
sustainability. Thus, in adopting the approach to sustain a project, practitioners should
first identify the critical influencing relationships involved and treat them as the
fundamental element of interest that needs to be managed in achieving project
sustainability. The basic strategy should be to form strong critical influencing
relationships conducive to project sustainability and thereafter ensure their
sustenance for as long as is necessary. This outcome could be accomplished as follows.
Firstly, the form that should be assumed by a critical influencing relationship in order
to facilitate project sustainability should be envisioned in advance. This implies that a
critical influencing relationship should be constructed with project sustainability in
mind at the very outset. Towards forming such a relationship, practitioners should
develop an understanding of the actors or entities to be engaged in the relationship,
their role in the relationship and the criteria or conditions likely to facilitate their
enrollment. As highlighted above, the study revealed that the formation, sustenance
and strength of the critical influencing relationships were impacted by a diverse array
of influences. Hence, the most critical activity involved in ensuring the existence of
critical influencing relationships that are conducive to project sustainability is to
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identify and address the influences that exert an impact on them. Practitioners should
also note that sustaining a critical influencing relationship is an on-going activity rather
than a one-off effort. Thus, it is vital to monitor the progress of a critical influencing
relationship over time, undertake periodic re-assessment of its status, and intervene
with appropriate measures to address both existing and emerging influences that
affect it.
Based on the findings of the first stage of data analysis, the following conclusions are
drawn on the factors and dimensions associated with the sustainability of ICT4D
projects in developing nations. It is evident that a diverse array of factors exerts an
influence on the sustainability of such projects (figure 6.1). Further, as claimed in the
literature (for example see, Keniston, 2003a; Stoll et al., 2003; Pade et al., 2006),
project sustainability in the context of ICT4D projects in developing nations is clearly a
multi-dimensional phenomenon. According to the study, six distinct dimensions,
namely, the socio-cultural dimension, the project execution dimension, the financial
dimension, the technology dimension, the macro environment dimension and the
information dimension, deserve the attention of practitioners. Among the various
dimensions identified, the financial dimension emerged as being extremely critical
thereby affirming the emphasis placed on the dimension in previous studies (for
example see, Harris et al., 2003; UNESCAP, 2002; Munyua, 2000). Hence, the
importance of addressing the financial dimension in achieving project sustainability
cannot be overstated. Furthermore, as advocated in previous studies (for example see,
Stoll et al., 2003; Keniston, 2003a; Pade et al., 2006), it is also important to address
dimensions other than the financial dimension. Considered overall, these findings in
essence implies the requirement for considering the many dimensions pertaining to
project sustainability, in sustaining ICT4D projects in developing nations.
The findings from the AKC project also compel suggestion of several tentative
observations on the intrinsic nature of project sustainability in the context of ICT4D
projects in developing nations that should be noted by practitioners. Project
sustainability in the case of such projects appears to be a complex phenomenon that is
challenging to deal with. Moreover, it is an inherently dynamic phenomenon that
should not be viewed in terms of a one-time state that could be achieved and then left
unattended. Instead, project sustainability should be consciously pursued and
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constantly monitored, reassessed and addressed throughout the existence of a
project. It also appears that learning from past project experiences and evaluating the
approaches and strategies adopted in a project in terms of whether they have worked
or failed in enabling project sustainability, should be considered as an essential
requirement. Finally, project sustainability is a phenomenon that should be planned
for in advance at the very outset of implementing an ICT4D project in a developing
nation.
The study has also demonstrated that an ANT view is a viable, useful and befitting
theoretical approach for exploring project sustainability in the context of ICT4D
projects in developing nations. It is a viable theoretical position as it can be applied
successfully and with an acceptable degree of ease to produce coherent and
meaningful results of practical value. To elaborate further, as evidenced by the study,
ANT concepts can be applied successfully and without too much difficulty, to
understand project sustainability from the perspective of influencing networks and
relationships. Further, the results produced are as coherent and meaningful and
comparable to those produced by adopting the traditional approach to exploring
project sustainability, namely, interpretation on the basis of influencing factors or
dimensions. Furthermore, as evident from the framework produced by the study, the
employment of an ANT-based theoretical lens produces results that are of practical
value. In terms of its usefulness, an ANT view is advantageous given several reasons.
Firstly, its employment enables a richer and deeper understanding of project
sustainability. For instance, as demonstrated by the study, ANT concepts such as “the
four moments of translation” (Callon, 1986, p.203) can be employed to unravel the
complex inner mechanics of project sustainability in terms of critical influencing
relationships. Further, the ANT position of equal treatment of technical and social
elements (Stanforth, 2006; Callon, 1986; Law et al., 1992) and the concept of
inscription (Akrich, 1992) can be employed in gaining a richer understanding of project
sustainability through uncovering the role played by technology in the phenomenon.
Secondly, an ANT view is useful given its capacity for facilitation of “telling stories and
tracing histories” (Stanforth, 2006, p. 39) which enables retrospective inquiry into
project sustainability. Thirdly, an ANT view is useful as its adoption enables the
isolation of entities and elements that require attention in sustaining an ICT4D project
in developing nations. For instance, in the case of the study, the adoption of this
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theoretical lens revealed the actors, the critical influencing relationships and the
influences that are of importance in enabling project sustainability. Finally, an ANT-
based theoretical lens is a befitting theoretical position as it permits the study of
project sustainability whilst staying true to its ‘natural state’ or intrinsic form as a
dynamic phenomenon.
The study has enhanced current understanding on project sustainability with reference
to ICT4D projects in developing nations, through several noteworthy contributions that
extend theory and inform IS practice. A major theoretical contribution of the study is
the proposal of an approach that incorporates the essential but missing temporal
dimension, into the examination of project sustainability. The ANT-based approach
proposed in the study enables to examine project sustainability as a dynamic, ever-
evolving phenomenon that unfolds over time. In this approach, the objective of
examining project sustainability as a dynamic phenomenon is accomplished via the
continuous monitoring and management of a set of network relationships identified as
being critical to project sustainability, over time.
Another theoretical contribution made by the study is the proposal of a comparatively
more manageable approach that can be employed in enabling project sustainability.
Adoption of the traditional approach of addressing project sustainability in terms of
influencing factors or dimensions forces practitioners to deal with a complex
amalgamation of diverse factors and numerous dimensions. The ANT-based approach
proposed by the study reduces this complexity into a distinct set of critical influencing
relationships which can then be monitored and maintained on an on-going basis
towards enabling project sustainability.
A main contribution made by the study in terms of IS practice is the proposed
framework for sustaining ICT4D projects in developing nations. Its proposal contributes
to bridging the knowledge gap of lack of comprehensive normative guidelines or
frameworks that can be employed in enabling the achievement of project
sustainability. The framework provides practitioners (for example, governments,
funding agencies, project executing agencies and ICT implementation teams) with a
much needed foundation for improving the chances of sustaining ICT4D projects in
developing nations via the effective management of critical influencing relationships.
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The sustainability of ICT4D projects in developing nations has remained relatively
unexplored in terms of the depth and the scope of investigation. The study has
contributed in transcending this limitation by undertaking an in-depth and wider
exploration founded on a strong theoretical basis. In particular, it has addressed the
dearth of studies that progress beyond the often-emphasised financial dimension of
project sustainability and undertaken a wider exploration which considered both the
social and technical elements involved. Furthermore, the study has contributed in
bridging the existing knowledge gap of studies that focus on the chosen country
context.
Finally, the study has addressed the prevailing paucity of definitions of project
sustainability in relation to ICT4D projects in developing nations (Keniston, 2003a).
Amalgamating definitions from the literature coined in relation to both development
projects and ICT4D projects in developing nations, the study has proposed that project
sustainability in the context of ICT4D projects in developing nations is a phenomenon
that is characterised by: project continuity and longevity in the sense of maintenance
of uninterrupted project operations for a significant period of time; project adaptation
in the sense of project survival through a persistent process of adjustment to emerging
needs and situations; productive project existence in the sense of sustained delivery of
anticipated project benefits at an acceptable level over an extended period of time;
and the ability of a project to prevail from the perspective of multiple dimensions such
as socio-cultural, financial, technological, political and environmental dimensions.
The findings of the study provide insights for future research on the topic of
sustainability of ICT4D projects in developing nations. The following opportunities for
further work are proposed on considering specific findings from the study, the
limitations of the study, challenges encountered during study execution and overall
impressions formed about the extent of the existing knowledge base on the domain of
interest.
A clear opportunity for further work lies in validating the framework produced by the
study. The framework could be validated through application to a new phase of the ICT
project investigated in the study or other ICT4D projects from the same developing
country context or ICT4D projects implemented in different developing countries.
Furthermore, it will be useful if the framework is validated with respect to ICT4D
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projects in different stages in terms of the project life cycle (for example, ICT4D
projects where the final outcome pertaining to project sustainability is already known,
ICT4D projects that have just been initiated and ICT4D projects which are currently in
progress). In validating the framework, effort should be made to establish its degree
of accuracy, practical viability and effectiveness as a generic tool that facilitates the
achievement of project sustainability. In particular, it could be worthwhile to examine
whether the critical influencing relationships and the influences that impact
relationship formation, sustenance and strength identified in the framework, hold true
across different developing country contexts and different types of ICT4D projects.
Another opportunity for further research exists in extending and improving the
proposed framework. Future studies could enhance or restructure the framework by
introducing new elements (for example, elements such as the various dimensions of
project sustainability).
An important but currently neglected avenue for research is building theories in
relation to the sustainability of ICT4D projects in developing nations. The study
uncovered a multitude of influencing factors that were associated with specific
dimensions of project sustainability. For instance, in the case of the AKC project,
project sustainability in terms of the target user community was hindered by the
combined impact of influencing factors such as low community awareness, weak
community socio-economic status, low community trust, unsupportive information
culture and information seeking behaviour, low relevance of information delivered by
the project to community needs and low efficiency of service delivery. These findings
suggest the possibility of building theories that expound on how the various
influencing factors interact and converge in determining the outcome in relation to a
particular dimension of project sustainability relevant to ICT4D projects in developing
nations. Future studies could make a worthy contribution by delving into the interplay
between influencing factors and their role and relative importance with respect to a
particular dimension of project sustainability. Development of such theories is a vital
requirement in terms of enabling informed management of the influencing factors and
dimensions that play a defining role in project sustainability.
The results of the study revealed that certain dimensions of project sustainability could
prove particularly challenging (for example, project sustainability from a socio-cultural
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viewpoint, project sustainability from a financial viewpoint). Thus, there is a worthy
opportunity for further work in exploring such dimensions in greater depth, across
multiple cases.
The limitations of the study also compel suggestion of opportunities for further work.
The study employed a single case design which while enabling in-depth inquiry, limits
the extent to which the research findings can be generalised (Cavaye, 1996, Yin, 1994).
Thus, future studies can make a useful contribution by adopting a multiple case design
to investigate the sustainability of ICT4D projects in developing nations, towards
enhancing the generalisability of findings (Yin, 1994). Potential multiple case design
options that may be employed include the analysis of contrasting cases (i.e.
sustainable and unsustainable projects) from the same developing country context,
the analysis of similar cases (i.e. sustainable or unsustainable projects) across different
developing country contexts and the analysis of similar cases from the same research
setting where the ICT4D projects considered differ in terms of aspects such as their
type, organisation and application area. Another limitation of the study is its use of
cherry-picked ANT concepts in exploring project sustainability as opposed to the entire
theory. While this approach is an acceptable approach that has been employed in
previous ANT-based studies in the field of IS (for example see, Stanforth, 2006; Braa et
al., 2004; Lea et al., 1995), future studies could address the limitation by employing
ANT in its entirety.
Several avenues for future research are proposed on the basis of the specific
challenges encountered in executing the study. One such challenge was the lack of
well-established, comprehensive and realistic definitions of project sustainability in the
context of ICT4D projects in developing nations. Furthermore, there was an absence of
well-articulated definitions on the different dimensions of project sustainability.
Hence, future studies could address these fundamental needs by inquiring into what
constitutes project sustainability and undertake analysis of its many dimensions in
greater depth, to propose more precise and realistic definitions. Another challenge
encountered was the difficulty of finding comprehensive criteria specific to ICT4D
projects in developing nations, for ascertaining the degree of project sustainability
achieved. Therefore, an opportunity exists for further research in developing such
criteria and approaches for assessment. Moreover, the experiences gained through the
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study suggest the need for re-evaluating the current approaches to ascertaining the
sustainability of projects which are organised in the form of a global and local level of
implementation. As evident from the case of the AKC project, implementation sites at
the local level may have differing status pertaining to sustainability. Further, a project
which appears to be moving towards sustainability at a global level may very well be
disintegrating at the grass-root level of local implementation sites. Thus, future studies
could make a worthwhile contribution by exploring in depth, the issue of how to
accurately ascertain project sustainability in the case of ICT4D projects in developing
nations which comprise multiple levels of organisation. It may even be valid to pose
the question of whether it is logical and realistic to declare such projects as sustainable
or unsustainable in their entirety or whether a more micro view is preferable.
Commenting on a more general level on contributions that may enhance
understanding on the research topic, there is a need for more studies that delve into
the dynamics or ‘inner workings’ of project sustainability in the context of ICT4D
projects in developing nations. Further, studies that employ widely-accepted theories
in examining the research topic and in building frameworks for enabling sustainability
are likely to make a significant contribution in enhancing the existing knowledge base.
Considered overall, it is evident that ample opportunities for future research exist in
areas such as defining, measuring, interpreting and developing tools for facilitating the
sustainability of ICT4D projects in developing nations.
In conclusion, it is important to re-iterate that the study has succeeded in answering
the research question posed and made contributions that are both theoretically and
practically useful in addressing the problem of sustaining ICT4D projects in developing
nations. In opting to recommend solutions such as a framework for sustaining such
projects, it has subscribed to the basic premise that project sustainability is in fact an
accomplishable goal. Success stories of sustainable projects cited in previous studies
(for example see, Krishna et al., 2005) certainly suggest that it is prudent to adopt such
a position. Notwithstanding, the study would be incomplete if it fails to draw attention
to the ‘on the ground’ reality of the magnitude of the challenge faced by developing
nations in sustaining ICT4D projects, which was corroborated by the case of the AKC
project as well.
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The overarching impression formed by the researcher during the course of executing
the study is that sustaining ICT4D projects in developing nations is a monumentally
difficult task and an ambitious undertaking that should not be taken lightly. This
difficulty has been highlighted in the extant literature (for example see, Braa et al.,
2004). Even in the case of a project such as the AKC project which was implemented
under relatively favourable conditions (for example, a conducive macro environment,
strong support from funding agencies, devoted and well-informed leadership, a
committed project implementation team, political patronage), achieving project
sustainability has proven an elusive goal. As indicated by the multitude of diverse
influencing factors, multiple dimensions and numerous critical relationships uncovered
in the case of the AKC project, sustaining ICT4D projects in less developed country
contexts appears to involve a fine balancing act. Articulated in colloquial terms,
achieving project sustainability literally requires “many things to go right and continue
to go right in the long term”. Somewhat similar views have been expressed by previous
researchers. For example, Pade et al. (2006) has highlighted the need for harmonious
development of the various different categories of sustainability associated with rural
ICT projects in developing countries. Thus, while frameworks and theoretical
approaches such as those proposed in the study would assist developing nations in
improving the chances of sustaining ICT4D projects, the ultimate impression formed
through the study is that project sustainability in the context of such projects is likely
to remain an elusive and coveted goal that is extremely challenging to achieve.
It is felt that the final concluding comment of the study must focus on the target
beneficiaries of ICT4D projects implemented in developing nations. For the researcher,
the most memorable experience and the highlight of the study was the time spent in
remote rural regions interviewing farmers who were the beneficiaries of the AKC
project. Improving the lives of such deserving and often socio-economically
disadvantaged beneficiaries, lies at the very heart of the importance of sustaining
ICT4D projects implemented in developing nations. In the case of the AKC project, a
plethora of crippling wider issues and constraints (for instance, poverty, lack of access
to markets, disillusion with state institutions involved in project implementation)
discouraged its beneficiaries from embracing the project and reaping benefits from it.
This observation essentially suggests the criticality of addressing wider concerns in
ensuring that beneficiaries possess both the necessary capacities and the mind frame
181
required to benefit from ICT4D projects. Irrespective of the strength of any enabling
theoretical approaches, tools and strategies employed at the project level, achieving
the goal of sustaining an ICT4D project implemented in a developing nation is likely to
remain a distant dream in the absence of interventions that address wider issues that
impact project beneficiaries.
182
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Appendices
Appendix 2.1 - Indicators of Project Sustainability
A. Continued Delivery of Services and Production of Benefits
A-1 Comparison of actual and intended benefits and services and their stability over time
A-2 Efficiency of service delivery
A-3 Quality of services (benefits)
A-4 Satisfaction of beneficiaries
A-5 Distribution of benefits among different economic and social groups
B. Maintenance of Physical Infrastructure
B-1 Condition of physical infrastructure
B-2 Condition of plant and equipment
B-3 Adequacy of maintenance procedures
B-4 Efficiency of cost-recovery and adequacy of operating budget
B-5 Beneficiary involvement in maintenance procedures
C. Long-term Institutional Capacity
C-1 Capacity and mandate of the principal operating agencies
C-2 Stability of staff and budget of operational agency
C-3 Adequacy of interagency coordination
C-4 Adequacy of coordination with community organizations and beneficiaries
C-5 Flexibility and capacity to adapt project design and operation to changing circumstances
D. Political Support
D-1 Strength and stability of support from international agencies
D-2 Strength and stability of support from the national government
D-3 Strength and stability of support from provincial and local government agencies
D-4 Strength and stability of support at the community level
D-5 Extent to which the project has been able to build a broad base of support and to avoid
becoming politically controversial
Source: Bamberger & Cheema (1990)
196
Appendix 3.1 - Law et al.’s (1992) Two-Dimensional Graph
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Appendix 4.1 - Information Sheet and Consent Form
UWA Business School
The University of Western
Australia 35 Stirling Highway M252
Crawley WA 6009 Australia
CRICOS Provider No. 00126G
www.biz.uwa.edu.au
Research Project “Sustaining ICT Projects for Development in Developing Nations:
An Actor-Network Theory Analysis”
Research Information Sheet You are invited to participate in a research project that seeks to find out how Information Technology (IT) projects that target development within developing countries can be sustained in the long run. You have been selected as a potential participant because of your involvement and experience with the IT project to be investigated (i.e. project name) as a part of this study. The project has the potential to contribute to the long-term survival and success of IT projects that hope to improve the social and economic situation of poor people in rural areas in developing countries. As such, your participation in this project would be greatly appreciated.
Research Aim and Purpose The main aim of the project is to determine how IT projects that target development within developing countries can be sustained. As its final outcome, the study will suggest ways and means of sustaining ICT projects that target development within developing countries.
Benefits of the Project To society: To deliver real benefits to poor people in developing countries, IT projects that target development must be sustained in the long term. Currently, this is a challenging problem and there is little information on how this objective can be accomplished. The research project will contribute to society by suggesting how to sustain IT projects that target development in developing countries. The findings of the study may be of use to the governments of developing nations, those who execute development-oriented IT projects, funding agencies that finance such IT projects and those who use the IT systems.
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To you as an individual: (Please note: The contents of this section will differ based upon the type of interviewee) If the interviewee is a member of the technical team or executing agencies responsible for the IT project - The research findings will help you to gain knowledge on what could be done during the various stages of an IT project’s life cycle to ensure sustainability. If the interviewee is a member of a funding agency involved in the IT project - You will benefit from a greater understanding on how funding should be managed in order to facilitate IT project sustainability. If the interviewee is a manager or employee of the site that houses the IT system - You will gain knowledge on what could be done within your site to sustain an IT project. If the interviewee is an IT system user - Participating in this project will not bring any immediate benefits to you. However, it may benefit you in the future, as the study aims to propose how accessible, easily used, more relevant and reliable rural ICT systems could be developed and maintained in the long term.
Researchers The research will be conducted by the following individuals from the UWA Business School at The University of Western Australia. Chief investigator: Dr. Nicholas .S. Letch School: UWA Business School Tel: +618 6488 3741 Email: [email protected] Student investigator: Mananga Ranjula Charm De Zoysa School: UWA Business School Tel: +618 6488 3716 Email: [email protected]
Your Involvement in the Research Project If you agree to take part in this project, you will be asked to participate in an interview which will last 1 - 1.5 hours. In addition, you may be asked to participate in a single, 30 minute follow-up interview, if it is required to further clarify the information gathered during the initial interview. The interviews will be conducted in either English or the local language. You have the freedom to choose the language you prefer. In order to comprehensively capture the information you choose to share, the researcher will prefer to audio record your interview, with your permission. Your Participation is Voluntary Your involvement in this research project is entirely voluntary. This means that you have unrestricted freedom to decide whether or not to take part in it. Further, you may withdraw your consent to participate at any stage in the project. If you decide to withdraw, there will be no penalties or prejudice against you. Further, you will not be under any obligation to justify or explain your decision to withdraw.
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The Privacy of Your Responses Several measures will be taken to ensure your anonymity and the confidentiality of the information you provide during the interviews. When writing up the contents of your recorded interview, the researcher will ensure that your name is not mentioned on the resulting document. Instead, your name will be replaced by a code (for example, respondent 1). The reference to this code will be stored in a separate file kept in a secure location which can only be accessed by the researcher. When examining the data, this code will be used to refer to any data gathered from you. Further, the researcher will guarantee that any other data (for example, IT project names, names of organizations) that may compromise your identity in an indirect way is excluded from any publication or reporting resulting from the research. The information collected via the interviews will be treated as strictly confidential and will not be disclosed to others without your consent, except to meet government, legal or other regulatory authority requirements. With regard to your interview recordings, only the researcher will have access to the information contained within them. The recordings will not be used for any other purpose beyond the purposes of the research project. On completion of the research, the recordings from your interviews will be offered to you or erased, depending upon your preference. The researcher will not retain any copies of these recordings. Reporting of Research Results The results obtained by analysing the collected data will be reported in a thesis which will be submitted to academic supervisors and examiners appointed by The University of Western Australia. Additionally, the results may be reported in publicly accessible sources such conferences, journals and other scholarly publications.
Your Questions about the Research If you have any questions regarding this research project or prefer to discuss any aspect of the project in more detail, please contact: Dr. Nicholas Letch Tel: +618 6488 3741 Email: [email protected] or Ranjula De Zoysa Tel: +618 6488 3716 Email: [email protected]
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UWA Business School
The University of Western
Australia 35 Stirling Highway M252
Crawley WA 6009 Australia
CRICOS Provider No. 00126G
www.biz.uwa.edu.au
Research Project: “Sustaining ICT projects for Development in Developing Nations:
An Actor-Network Theory Analysis”
HREC Approval xxxxxxx Consent Form
I _____________________________ have read the information provided and any questions I have asked have been answered to my satisfaction. I agree to participate in this activity, realizing that I may withdraw at any time without reason and without prejudice. I understand that all information provided is treated as strictly confidential and will not be released by the investigator. The only exception to this principle of confidentiality is if a court subpoenas documentation. I have been advised as to what data is being collected, what the purpose is, and what will be done with the data upon completion of the research. I agree that research data gathered for the study may be published provided my name or other identifying information is not used.
________________________ _______________________ Participant Date I grant permission to record my interview in audio form. ________________________ _______________________ Participant Date
The Human Research Ethics Committee at the University of Western Australia requires that all participants are informed that, if they have any complaint regarding the manner, in which a research project is conducted, it may be given to the researcher or, alternatively to the Secretary, Human Research Ethics Committee, Registrar’s Office, University of Western Australia, 35 Stirling Highway, Crawley, WA 6009 (telephone number 6488 3703). All study participants will be provided with a copy of the Information Sheet and Consent Form for their personal records.
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Appendix 4.2 - Examples for Interview Protocols
Interview Protocol - Project Director (1st and 2
nd Interviews)
1. Can you tell me about the AKC project?
Potential lines of inquiry - Project history, its conception and inception, project
purpose/vision/mission/aims and objectives, expected outcomes, target
beneficiaries, project implementation sites, project operations, project time scales
e.g. start date, timescales pertaining to site replication, key project
stakeholders/parties involved in the project, the role of ICTs in the project and about
the ICT solutions utilised in the project, the current status of the project
2. How did you go about implementing the project?
Potential lines of inquiry - Approach to project implementation and the reasoning
behind it, steps in the implementation process/the main phases and stages, about the
pilot implementation, about site replication beyond the pilot stage/expansion of
project coverage and scope.
3. Can you describe about how the project is managed?
Potential lines of inquiry - Project organisation and the management structure,
operations management, project monitoring and progress evaluation
4. How do you fund the project?
Potential lines of inquiry - Approach to funding/funding model and the reasoning
behind it, sources of funding, meeting operating costs, meeting capital costs, degree
of financial self sufficiency
5. Were there any issues that made it difficult to keep the project going? If so, could
you tell me about them?
6. In your opinion, what are the factors that contributed to the continued survival of the
project?
7. What are the benefits gained so far through the project?
Potential lines of inquiry - quantifiable economic returns, social improvement
8. Can you tell me about the key project stakeholders’ response to the project?
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Potential lines of inquiry - degree of stakeholder enthusiasm in the past and at
present, degree of active stakeholder involvement and support, stakeholder attitudes
and views about the project
9. Let’s go back in time to the very beginning of the AKC project, to the point where
you were defining this project and writing the proposal for it…
Can you tell me about the key expectations you had regarding the project? In
your mind what did you envisage this project to be?
Can you tell me about the factors or aspects taken into consideration when
defining the project?
Was any thought given to project sustainability at the point of project definit ion?
If so, could you tell me about measures taken or strategies adopted to facilitate
project sustainability?
Could you share with me, the reasoning behind the selection of interactive CD
technology as the means of agriculture information dissemination?
10. So, the proposal was written. Now if we could recall the point at which the project
proposal was submitted to the senior officials from the DOA and the MOA for their
approval...
Who were the individuals or parties involved in granting approval for the
project proposal?
Can you tell me about their response or reaction to the submitted proposal?
Can you tell me about the senior officials’ key expectations regarding the
proposed project?
How did you go about selling the project to the senior officials from the
DOA, the MOA and securing their support for it? What were the key
strategies adopted and the arguments presented for the purpose of securing
support?
Were any amendments made to the project proposal to meet the expectations
of senior officials from the DOA, MOA?
11. So, the project was approved internally. Let’s go back to the point at which the
project proposal was submitted to the funding agencies to acquire the required
funding. If were to consider ARPB/RPDP/RRO
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Can you tell me about the funding agency’s response or reaction to the
submitted proposal?
Can you tell me about the funding agency’s expectations regarding the
proposed project?
How did you go about selling the project to the funding agency and securing
their support for it? What were the key strategies adopted and the key
arguments presented for the purpose of securing support?
Were any amendments made to the project proposal to meet the funding
agency’s expectations? If so, what were the amendments?
How did you go about securing continued support from the funding agency
for subsequent proposals? What were the key strategies adopted and the key
arguments presented for the purpose of securing support?
Can you tell me about the approach adopted to secure funds for meeting the
operating costs of the AKCs?
12. Let’s go back in time to the implementation stage of the AKC project…
Can you tell me about the role played by the Provincial Agriculture
Authorities in implementing the project?
Can you tell me about the role played by the DOA/the MOA in
implementing the project?
Can you tell me about the role played by the Department of Farmer Services
in implementing the project?
Can you tell me about the role played by the farming community in
implementing the project?
13. Were there any individuals or parties who opposed the project? If so, could you
name the individuals or parties?
Can you tell me about the reasons or motivations behind such opposition or
hostility?
Can you tell me about how their hostility or opposition was expressed and
the resulting impact on the project?
How did you go about addressing such opposition/hostility?
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14. In your opinion, are there any measures that should be taken or any changes that
should be made in order to facilitate project sustainability?
Interview Protocol - Funding Agency Representative
1. Can you tell me about the funding agency?
2. How did the agency get involved in funding the AKC project?
3. Can you tell me about the reasons behind the agency’s decision to fund the AKC
project? What advantages did the AKC project bring you in particular, as an
institution?
4. How did the agency go about funding the AKC project?
Potential lines of inquiry - funding strategy/phasing, timeline, what the funding was
utilised for, number of AKCs funded
5. Why did the agency continue to fund the AKC project?
6. Can you tell me about any issues/problems encountered by the agency when funding
the project?
7. Did the agency evaluate project progress? If so, could you describe the approach
to/method of progress evaluation?
8. What expectations did the agency have in choosing to fund the AKC project? Could
you tell me about the extent to which those expectations have been realised?
9. Does the agency have any future plans with regard to the AKC project? If so, could
you tell me about those plans?
If the agency has no future plans with regard to the AKC project - Could you tell me
about the reasons why the agency has decided not to continue funding the AKC
project?
Interview Protocol - AKC Operator
1. Can you tell me briefly about your educational and professional background?
2. Can you tell me your age?
3. How long have you functioned as the AKC operator?
4. Can you tell me about your role and responsibilities in relation to the AKC?
5. Can you tell me about any training received in relation to the AKC?
6. Can you tell me about the AKC you are in charge of?
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7. Can you tell me about the area where the AKC is located?
8. Can you tell me about the operations carried out at the AKC?
9. Can you tell me about the benefits delivered by the AKC?
10. Can you tell me about the farmers who reside in this area?
11. Can you tell me about the local farming community’s response and reaction to the
AKC?
12. If there are farmers who do not visit the AKC, can you tell me the reasons behind
their failure to visit?
13. Out of the services offered by the AKC, what are the services that are most/least
popular among farmers?
14. If the farmers who visit the AKC engage in self-learning, could you tell me about
that?
15. If there are any issues that affect the uninterrupted continuity of the AKC, could you
tell me about them?
16. If there are any issues you face in a personal capacity when managing the AKC,
could you tell me about them?
17. Can you tell me about the factors that contributed to the continued
survival/inactivity/closure of this AKC?
18. Can you tell me about the things that need to be done in order to ensure the
successful continuity of this AKC?
19. In your opinion, is computer technology necessary to develop the agriculture sector?
20. What are your views and opinions regarding the AKC project?
21. Do you benefit personally by being involved in operating the AKC? If so, how?
22. Can you explain the process of evaluating the AKC?
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Appendix 4.3 - Final Data Organising System
NVivo revision 1.0.118 Licensee: Ranju Project: Cyber Agricultural Extension Project User: Administrator Date: 9/04/2012 - 12:42:26 PM NODE LISTING Nodes in Set: All Tree Nodes Created: 10/10/2008 - 3:17:52 PM Modified: 10/10/2008 - 3:17:52 PM Number of Nodes: 159 1 (3) /Financial Dimension 2 (3 1) /Financial Dimension/Business model 3 (3 5) /Financial Dimension/Capital cost mgt 4 (3 3) /Financial Dimension/Funding agency support 5 (3 4) /Financial Dimension/Funding focus 6 (3 6) /Financial Dimension/Operating cost mgt 7 (3 6 4) /Financial Dimension/Operating cost mgt/Adhoc approaches & fund manipulation 8 (3 6 5) /Financial Dimension/Operating cost mgt/Control over funding source 9 (3 6 3) /Financial Dimension/Operating cost mgt/Cost absorption strategy clarity 10 (3 6 1) /Financial Dimension/Operating cost mgt/Cost estimation accuracy 11 (3 6 2) /Financial Dimension/Operating cost mgt/Funds allocation & availability 12 (3 8) /Financial Dimension/Revenue generation 13 (6) /Information Dimension 14 (6 4) /Information Dimension/Content & service accessibility 15 (6 1) /Information Dimension/Content & service design 16 (6 1 9) /Information Dimension/Content & service design/Accuracy 17 (6 1 7) /Information Dimension/Content & service design/Comprehensiveness 18 (6 1 1) /Information Dimension/Content & service design/Information sources 19 (6 1 2) /Information Dimension/Content & service design/Local relevance 20 (6 1 2 4) /Information Dimension/Content & service design/Local relevance/Community IT literacy & skills 21 (6 1 2 1) /Information Dimension/Content & service design/Local relevance/Info & service needs fulfillment 22 (6 1 2 2) /Information Dimension/Content & service design/Local relevance/Local language content
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23 (6 1 4) /Information Dimension/Content & service design/Presentation 24 (6 2) /Information Dimension/Content & service maintenance 25 (6 3) /Information Dimension/Delivery efficiency 26 (1) /Macro environment Dimension 27 (1 4) /Macro environment Dimension/Administrative environment 28 (1 1) /Macro environment Dimension/Economic environment 29 (1 3) /Macro environment Dimension/Policy environment 30 (1 3 3) /Macro environment Dimension/Policy environment/Financial 31 (1 3 1) /Macro environment Dimension/Policy environment/HR 32 (1 3 4) /Macro environment Dimension/Policy environment/Legal & regulatory 33 (1 3 5) /Macro environment Dimension/Policy environment/Sector 34 (1 2) /Macro environment Dimension/Political environment 35 (1 5) /Macro environment Dimension/Sector environment 36 (2) /Project Execution Dimension 37 (2 1) /Project Execution Dimension/Prj design & organization 38 (2 1 9) /Project Execution Dimension/Prj design & organization/Executing agency capacity building 39 (2 1 5) /Project Execution Dimension/Prj design & organization/Prj HR capacity planning 40 (2 1 3) /Project Execution Dimension/Prj design & organization/Prj location 41 (2 1 4) /Project Execution Dimension/Prj design & organization/Prj mgt structure definition 42 (2 1 4 1) /Project Execution Dimension/Prj design & organization/Prj mgt structure definition/Administrative control 43 (2 1 4 2) /Project Execution Dimension/Prj design & organization/Prj mgt structure definition/Decentralization 44 (2 1 4 3) /Project Execution Dimension/Prj design & organization/Prj mgt structure definition/Leadership decisions 45 (2 1 11) /Project Execution Dimension/Prj design & organization/Prj proposal definition 46 (2 1 10) /Project Execution Dimension/Prj design & organization/Prj re-design 47 (2 1 1) /Project Execution Dimension/Prj design & organization/Prj selection 48 (2 3) /Project Execution Dimension/Prj execution-related entities 49 (2 3 2) /Project Execution Dimension/Prj execution-related entities/Executing agency 50 (2 3 2 1) /Project Execution Dimension/Prj execution-related entities/Executing agency/Human resource profile
208
51 (2 3 2 1 1) /Project Execution Dimension/Prj execution-related entities/Executing agency/Human resource profile/Availability 52 (2 3 2 1 3) /Project Execution Dimension/Prj execution-related entities/Executing agency/Human resource profile/Experience & understanding 53 (2 3 2 1 2) /Project Execution Dimension/Prj execution-related entities/Executing agency/Human resource profile/ICTexpertise 54 (2 3 2 1 1) /Project Execution Dimension/Prj execution-related entities/Executing agency/Human resource profile/Work ethic 55 (2 3 2 1) /Project Execution Dimension/Prj execution-related entities/Executing agency/Material resource capacity 56 (2 3 2 3) /Project Execution Dimension/Prj execution-related entities/Executing agency/Status & reputation 57 (2 3 2 2) /Project Execution Dimension/Prj execution-related entities/Executing agency/Work environment 58 (2 3 1) /Project Execution Dimension/Prj execution-related entities/Grass-root level project element 59 (2 3 1 1) /Project Execution Dimension/Prj execution-related entities/Grass-root level project element/Material resources & infrastructure 60 (2 3 1 1) /Project Execution Dimension/Prj execution-related entities/Grass-root level project element/Rural IS operator profile 61 (2 3 1 1 3) /Project Execution Dimension/Prj execution-related entities/Grass-root level project element/Rural IS operator profile/Age 62 (2 3 1 1 12) /Project Execution Dimension/Prj execution-related entities/Grass-root level project element/Rural IS operator profile/Attitude towards the community
209
63 (2 3 1 1 7) /Project Execution Dimension/Prj execution-related entities/Grass-root level project element/Rural IS operator profile/Attitude towards the project 64 (2 3 1 1 1) /Project Execution Dimension/Prj execution-related entities/Grass-root level project element/Rural IS operator profile/Availability 65 (2 3 1 1 4) /Project Execution Dimension/Prj execution-related entities/Grass-root level project element/Rural IS operator profile/Gender 66 (2 3 1 1 2) /Project Execution Dimension/Prj execution-related entities/Grass-root level project element/Rural IS operator profile/Individual ability & talent 67 (2 3 1 1 5) /Project Execution Dimension/Prj execution-related entities/Grass-root level project element/Rural IS operator profile/Interest & committment 68 (2 3 1 1 1) /Project Execution Dimension/Prj execution-related entities/Grass-root level project element/Rural IS operator profile/Knowledge & skills 69 (2 3 1 1 1 4) /Project Execution Dimension/Prj execution-related entities/Grass-root level project element/Rural IS operator profile/Knowledge & skills/Attitude & approach towards learning 70 (2 3 1 1 1 1) /Project Execution Dimension/Prj execution-related entities/Grass-root level project element/Rural IS operator profile/Knowledge & skills/General knowledge 71 (2 3 1 1 1 1) /Project Execution Dimension/Prj execution-related entities/Grass-root level project element/Rural IS operator profile/Knowledge & skills/ICT knowledge & skills 72 (2 3 1 1 1 3) /Project Execution Dimension/Prj execution-related entities/Grass-root level project element/Rural IS operator profile/Knowledge & skills/Knowledge about community 73 (2 3 1 1 1 2) /Project Execution Dimension/Prj execution-related entities/Grass-root level project element/Rural IS operator profile/Knowledge & skills/Relationship skills 74 (2 3 1 1 10) /Project Execution Dimension/Prj execution-related entities/Grass-root level project element/Rural IS operator profile/Monopolization
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75 (2 3 1 1 9) /Project Execution Dimension/Prj execution-related entities/Grass-root level project element/Rural IS operator profile/Motivation 76 (2 3 1 1 6) /Project Execution Dimension/Prj execution-related entities/Grass-root level project element/Rural IS operator profile/Work ethic 77 (2 3 1 2) /Project Execution Dimension/Prj execution-related entities/Grass-root level project element/Strength of critical relationships 78 (2 3 1 2 1) /Project Execution Dimension/Prj execution-related entities/Grass-root level project element/Strength of critical relationships/With community 79 (2 3 1 2 4) /Project Execution Dimension/Prj execution-related entities/Grass-root level project element/Strength of critical relationships/With executing agency 80 (2 3 1 2 3) /Project Execution Dimension/Prj execution-related entities/Grass-root level project element/Strength of critical relationships/With grass-root level officers 81 (2 3 1 2 2) /Project Execution Dimension/Prj execution-related entities/Grass-root level project element/Strength of critical relationships/With senior mgt 82 (2 3 4) /Project Execution Dimension/Prj execution-related entities/Stakeholder Institutions 83 (2 3 4 1) /Project Execution Dimension/Prj execution-related entities/Stakeholder Institutions/Efficiency 84 (2 3 4 2) /Project Execution Dimension/Prj execution-related entities/Stakeholder Institutions/Project ownership 85 (2 3 4 1) /Project Execution Dimension/Prj execution-related entities/Stakeholder Institutions/Project prioritization 86 (2 3 4 1) /Project Execution Dimension/Prj execution-related entities/Stakeholder Institutions/Senior mgt changes 87 (2 3 4 1) /Project Execution Dimension/Prj execution-related entities/Stakeholder
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Institutions/Support 88 (2 2) /Project Execution Dimension/Prj implementation 89 (2 2 2) /Project Execution Dimension/Prj implementation/Frameworks for participation 90 (2 2 3) /Project Execution Dimension/Prj implementation/Implementation phasing 91 (2 2 4) /Project Execution Dimension/Prj implementation/Local capacity building 92 (2 2 1) /Project Execution Dimension/Prj implementation/Marketing & awareness creation 93 (2 2 7) /Project Execution Dimension/Prj implementation/Monitoring & evaluation 94 (2 2 5) /Project Execution Dimension/Prj implementation/Replication strategy 95 (2 4) /Project Execution Dimension/Project leadership 96 (2 4 5) /Project Execution Dimension/Project leadership/Ability & prominence 97 (2 4 8) /Project Execution Dimension/Project leadership/Approach to technology 98 (2 4 4) /Project Execution Dimension/Project leadership/Commitment & dedication 99 (2 4 2) /Project Execution Dimension/Project leadership/Domain knowledge 100 (2 4 3) /Project Execution Dimension/Project leadership/Interpersonal skills 101 (2 4 1) /Project Execution Dimension/Project leadership/Management style 102 (2 4 10) /Project Execution Dimension/Project leadership/Popularity 103 (2 4 6) /Project Execution Dimension/Project leadership/Protectiveness & issue denial 104 (2 4 7) /Project Execution Dimension/Project leadership/Responsiveness & strategizing 105 (2 4 9) /Project Execution Dimension/Project leadership/Willingness to learn 106 (7) /Search Results 107 (7 1) /Search Results/Single Node Lookup 108 (7 2) /Search Results/Single Node Lookup 2 109 (7 3) /Search Results/Single Node Lookup 3 110 (5) /Socio-cultural Dimension 111 (5 4) /Socio-cultural Dimension/Community ownership of the project 112 (5 4 2) /Socio-cultural Dimension/Community ownership of the project/Involvement in project execution 113 (5 7) /Socio-cultural Dimension/Community psyche 114 (5 7 5) /Socio-cultural Dimension/Community psyche/General disillusionment 115 (5 7 3) /Socio-cultural Dimension/Community psyche/Info delivery approach expectation
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116 (5 7 13) /Socio-cultural Dimension/Community psyche/IT phobia 117 (5 7 1) /Socio-cultural Dimension/Community psyche/Low expectations 118 (5 7 11) /Socio-cultural Dimension/Community psyche/Material reward expectation 119 (5 7 12) /Socio-cultural Dimension/Community psyche/Pervasive negativity 120 (5 7 7) /Socio-cultural Dimension/Community psyche/Prcvd need for info 121 (5 7 2) /Socio-cultural Dimension/Community psyche/Prcvd relative importance of info 122 (5 7 4) /Socio-cultural Dimension/Community psyche/Prcvd val of experiential knowledge 123 (5 7 9) /Socio-cultural Dimension/Community psyche/Prcvd val of IS & info delivered 124 (5 7 8) /Socio-cultural Dimension/Community psyche/Trust in alternative info sources 125 (5 7 6) /Socio-cultural Dimension/Community psyche/Trust in rural IS project executors 126 (5 1) /Socio-cultural Dimension/Demographic & cultural features 127 (5 1 5) /Socio-cultural Dimension/Demographic & cultural features/Age 128 (5 1 2) /Socio-cultural Dimension/Demographic & cultural features/Caste 129 (5 1 1) /Socio-cultural Dimension/Demographic & cultural features/Economic strength 130 (5 1 4) /Socio-cultural Dimension/Demographic & cultural features/Gender 131 (5 2) /Socio-cultural Dimension/Governance structures 132 (5 2 3) /Socio-cultural Dimension/Governance structures/Political affiliations 133 (5 6) /Socio-cultural Dimension/Individual community member features 134 (5 5) /Socio-cultural Dimension/Information culture & habits 135 (5 3) /Socio-cultural Dimension/Knowledge & awareness 136 (5 3 4) /Socio-cultural Dimension/Knowledge & awareness/Basic literacy & education 137 (5 3 3) /Socio-cultural Dimension/Knowledge & awareness/Info needs awareness 138 (5 3 5) /Socio-cultural Dimension/Knowledge & awareness/IT awareness, literacy & skills 139 (5 3 2) /Socio-cultural Dimension/Knowledge & awareness/Project awareness 140 (4) /Technology Dimension 141 (4 1) /Technology Dimension/Technology choice 142 (4 1 3) /Technology Dimension/Technology choice/Appropriateness 143 (4 1 4) /Technology Dimension/Technology choice/Originator familiarity & preference 144 (4 1 1) /Technology Dimension/Technology choice/Technology cost 145 (4 1 5) /Technology Dimension/Technology choice/Technology option unavailability 146 (4 2) /Technology Dimension/Technology infrastructure
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147 (4 2 2) /Technology Dimension/Technology infrastructure/Extensiveness & reach 148 (4 2 2 2) /Technology Dimension/Technology infrastructure/Extensiveness & reach/ICT infrastructure 149 (4 2 2 1) /Technology Dimension/Technology infrastructure/Extensiveness & reach/Power infrastructure 150 (4 2 3) /Technology Dimension/Technology infrastructure/Quality & reliability 151 (4 3) /Technology Dimension/Technology maintenance 152 (4 3 1) /Technology Dimension/Technology maintenance/Access to maintenance 153 (4 3 4) /Technology Dimension/Technology maintenance/Technology maintenance procedures 154 (4 3 3) /Technology Dimension/Technology maintenance/Technology provider service quality 155 (4 5) /Technology Dimension/Technology procurement 156 (4 5 1) /Technology Dimension/Technology procurement/ICTequipment selection 157 (4 5 3) /Technology Dimension/Technology procurement/Service contract definition 158 (4 5 2) /Technology Dimension/Technology procurement/Technology provider selection 159 (4 4) /Technology Dimension/Technology scarcity
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Appendix 8.1 - Overviews of the Five Embedded Cases Examined
Case Overview - AKC 1 (An AKC that had maintained uninterrupted operations
throughout its existence)
AKC 1 was established in 2004 and had been in existence for 4 years at the point of
conducting the case study. It was situated in a mountainous region where there was
intense agricultural activity. The region was home to 4600 full-time farmer families.
Agriculture-related problems faced by the local farming community include the lack of
a market for agricultural produce, the high cost of material inputs required for farming
such as fertilizer and pesticides, lack of water for farming during the dry season and
crop damage by wild animals.
In terms of site sustainability, AKC 1 had maintained uninterrupted operations
throughout its period of existence. Further, the site was identified by the PEU as one of
the top ten AKCs implemented under the AKC project, on the basis of the efficiency of
site activity performance. In essence, AKC 1 was recognised by the project
implementation team members as one of the more successful AKCs in operation.
Despite its reputation as a ‘successful’ site, the operational efficiency of AKC 1
although far superior to other sites in the AKC network was still limited. Key issues that
affected this AKC include low usage by the farming community, the difficulty of
meeting operating costs and the inadequacy of human resources for maintaining AKC
operations.
In terms of its management, the AKC was managed by a dynamic, talented and
committed AKC operator. The operator contributed strongly to site survival given his
excellence in both service delivery to farmers and the cultivation of relationships with
parties critical to the sustainability of the AKC such as the PAA.
Case Overview - AKC 2 (An AKC that had struggled to maintain uninterrupted
operations throughout its existence)
AKC 2 was established in 2005 and had been in existence for 3 years at the point of
conducting the case study. This AKC was situated in a disadvantaged district which had
a low socio-economic development standing compared to other districts in the
country. AKC 2 was one of the most remotely situated AKCs implemented under the
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AKC project. Accessing the site was difficult given issues such as derelict access roads
and inadequate public transport facilities.
AKC 2 served a semi-arid area populated by approximately 5000 farmer families. The
majority of these farmers were engaged in agriculture on a full-time basis. While the
implementation of a major irrigation project by the government had improved the
economic status of the local farmers, the area served by AKC 2 was home to many
poor farmers. Agriculture-related problems faced by the local farming community
include the lack of a profitable market for agricultural produce, inadequate water for
farming, the high price of agro-chemicals essential for farming such as pesticides and
crop damage by cattle and wild elephants.
In terms of site sustainability, AKC 2 had struggled to maintain operations throughout
its period of existence. Based on the progress reports generated, the site had recorded
very low levels of activity throughout its period of existence. In fact, AKC 2 was ranked
among the ten lowest performing AKCs in the country identified by the PEU. At the
point of conducting the case study, AKC 2 had been temporarily inactive for
approximately one month due to delays in repairing the computer used to deliver
information to farmers.
Key issues that affected AKC 2 include low usage of the AKC by the farming community,
site accessibility issues associated with the remote location of the AKC, inadequate
physical infrastructure and material resources, inadequacy of human resources for
operating the AKC, difficulty of meeting the operating costs of the AKC and lack of an
efficient mechanism for technology maintenance.
Case Overview - AKC 3 (A previously operational AKC that is currently inactive)
AKC 3 was established in 2005 and had been in existence for 3 years at the point of
conducting the case study. This site was located in a region populated by around 4,000
- 5,000 farmer families. The majority of farmers in the area were subsistence farmers.
Agriculture-related problems faced by the local farming community include the lack of
avenues for directly issuing agricultural produce to the market without the
involvement of intermediaries, limited access to subsidised fertilizer, crop damage by
wild boar, inadequacy of water given the lack of major irrigation systems in the area
and the lack of funds to purchase inputs essential for farming such as fertilizer and
pesticides.
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In terms of site sustainability, AKC 3 recorded a high level of activity from site inception
up to December 2006. During this period, the site was selected as the top AKC in the
country by the PEU on consecutive occasions, based on an evaluation of site activity
performance. This success is largely attributed to the capabilities of the dynamic AKC
operator who was in charge of the AKC at the time. During the second half of 2007,
AKC 3 recorded reducing levels of activity. This deterioration in site activity is
associated with the transfer of the dynamic AKC operator who played a crucial role in
the development and continuity of the site. His replacement, an inexperienced new
recruit, was unable to maintain the previous momentum. At the point of conducting
the case study in 2008, the AKC had been inactive for a period of approximately 6
months. By this time, the computer assigned to the AKC was used by the Assistant
Director and his subordinates as an office tool, rather than for its intended purpose of
dissemination of information on agriculture to the farming community.
Key issues that affected AKC 3 include conflict between the AKC operator and the
immediate senior PAA official in charge of administering the AKC, inadequate support
by the PAA, low community usage of the AKC, inadequacy of material resources and
limitations in physical infrastructure, difficulty in meeting the operating costs of the
AKC and inadequacy of human resources to maintain AKC operations.
Case Overview - AKC 4 (A previously inactive AKC that is currently operational)
AKC 4 was established in 2004 and had been in existence for 4 years at the point of
conducting the case study. This AKC was located in one of the most disadvantaged
districts in the country populated by very poor farmers. The region served by AKC 4
was occupied by 40,000 farmer families and was a region where there was intense
agricultural activity. Part of this region was irrigated by an unsuccessful state irrigation
system that had failed to provide adequate water to the farming community. In areas
unfed by this irrigation system, the lack of water for farming was a very severe issue.
When there was no water for farming, local farmers engaged in manual labour to
make a living. Other problems faced by farmers include the high cost of inputs
required for farming such as pesticides and weedicide, the lack of a good price for their
harvest, crop damage by wild elephants and limited availability of high quality seeds.
In terms of site sustainability, AKC 4 although not declared as closed officially, was
inactive during the first two years of its existence (i.e. 2004 - 2006). The main factor
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that contributed to site inactivity was the lack of human resources for maintaining AKC
operations. During the period of 2006 - 2007, the site recorded low levels of activity.
The main event that paved the way for the recommencement of site operations was
the appointment of a committed and pro-active officer as the immediate senior PAA
official responsible for administering the AKC. The new Assistant Director who was
deeply interested in the project played a significant and pro-active role in securing the
human and material resources required for AKC operation. Thus, by February 2008,
AKC 3 had recommenced its operations with a great sense of urgency. At the point of
conducting the case study, the site had been operational for a period of 5 months.
Key issues that affected AKC 4 include severe shortage of human resources necessary
for maintaining AKC operations, low community usage of the AKC, inadequacy of
material resources and limitations in physical infrastructure, difficulty in meeting the
operating costs of the AKC and lack of an efficient mechanism for technology
maintenance.
Case Overview - AKC 5 (An AKC that was closed given its inability to maintain
operations)
AKC 5 was established in 2006. It served a region populated by more than 15,000
farmer families. The site was situated in a location that was accessible to the farming
community given the availability of transport facilities. The majority of farmers in the
region served by the AKC were part-time farmers who also engaged in other jobs.
Given farmers’ access to such alternative sources of income and their cultivation of
profitable export crops, the economic status of the farmers in the region was generally
high and the number of very poor farmers was limited.
In terms of site sustainability, AKC 5 operated for approximately one year prior to
being closed due to poor performance. This site recorded very low levels of activity
during its period of existence and was ranked among the ten lowest performing AKCs
in the country. The AKC operator’s poor performance was identified as the
fundamental reason that contributed to site inactivity. This officer lacked both IT skills
and an affinity for ICTs, experienced difficulty in mastering IT skills and was generally
uninterested and unenthusiastic about operating the AKC. The PAA attempted to
rectify this situation by taking steps such as issuing warnings to the AKC operator to
improve performance. However, such interventions failed and the AKC was ultimately
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relocated to another Farmer Support Center on the grounds of low activity. This
decision was endorsed by both senior PAA officials and the PEU.
Key issues that affected AKC 5 include human resource inadequacies, the strained
relationship that existed between the AKC operator and parties critical to site
continuity such as the PEU and senior PAA officials and low usage of the AKCs by the
farming community.
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Appendix 8.2 - Cross-case Analysis of Critical Local Network Relationships
CASES EXAMINED
AKC 1 (Marassana)
AKC 2 (Meegahajandura)
AKC 3 (Rassagala)
AKC 4 (Inginimitiya)
AKC 5 (Yatiwawala)
LOC
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Relationship between the AKC and the farming community
Status of the relationship
Although not very strong, a relationship existed between the AKC and the farming community throughout the lifetime of the AKC. Low but mentionable levels of AKC use by farmers recorded during the period of site existence attests to this fact.
The relationship that existed between the AKC and the farming community was extremely weak throughout the life time of the AKC. Extremely low levels of AKC use by farmers recorded during the period of site existence attests to this fact.
During the period in which the AKC was active (i.e. 2005 - 2006), although not very strong, a relationship existed between the AKC and the farming community. Low but mentionable levels of AKC use by farmers recorded during this period attest to this fact. Subsequent deterioration of the relationship during the course of 2007 - 2008 contributed to a drastic reduction in AKC use by farmers and eventual site inactivity.
During the period 2004 - 2006 the relationship between the AKC and the farming community was virtually non-existent. There is no record of AKC use by farmers during this timeframe and the site was inactive. Gradual strengthening of the relationship during the period 2007 - 2008 (particularly after 2008) resulted in farmers visiting the AKC, thereby contributing in moving the site towards an active state.
The site failed to forge at least a tenuous relationship between the AKC and the farming community. Extremely low levels of AKC use by farmers recorded until the eventual closure of the AKC a year after its inception attests to this fact.
Influences that impacted relationship formation, sustenance and strength
Farming community’s lack of awareness of the AKC project. Enrolling the farming community proved difficult given their lack of knowledge of the existence of the AKC and lack of awareness about its services and benefits.
Perceptions and mind-set of the farming community that discourage utilisation of the AKC. This includes: farmers’ lack of trust in project implementers which limits their willingness to embrace the AKC, farmers’ low receptiveness to the AKC given the burden of dealing with difficult issues related to farming (examples for such issues that require resolution include lack of a profitable market for agricultural produce, unbearable cost of material inputs essential for farming and farming-related debt).
The information culture of the farming community that discourages utilisation of the AKC. Information culture elements that proved an obstacle to farmer enrollment include: farmers’ low propensity to pro-actively seek new information, farmers’ preference for the approach to information delivery they are accustomed to where agricultural extension officers of the
Farming community’s lack of awareness of the AKC project.
Perceptions and mind-set of the farming community that discourage utilisation of the AKC. This includes: farmers’ expectation of rewards in exchange for their participation in AKC usage.
The information culture of the farming community that discourages utilisation of the AKC. Information culture elements that proved an obstacle to farmer enrollment include: farmers’ low propensity to pro-actively seek new information, farmers’ adherence to traditional knowledge on farming handed down over the generations which lowers their interest in the information on new agricultural technologies delivered by the AKC.
Demographic aspects of the farming community that discourage utilisation of the AKC. This includes: low economic status of farmers which compelled them to engage in activities that generated an immediate income for daily living versus visiting the AKC in search of information, low level of education that prevents farmers from recognising the value of the AKC, lack of IT skills
Farming community’s lack of awareness of the AKC project.
Perceptions and mind-set of the farming community that discourage utilisation of the AKC. This includes: farmers’ unwillingness to embrace a state-lead initiative such as the AKC project given their established lack of trust in and disillusionment with the government/state politicians, farmers’ expectation of rewards in exchange for their participation in AKC usage, farmers’ acceptance of a low living standard where only basic human needs are met which prevents them expending effort on AKC use towards self improvement.
The information culture of the farming community that discourages utilisation of the AKC. Information culture elements that proved an obstacle to farmer enrollment include: Farmers’ habit of seeking information only in the case of compelling need such as when confronted with a crop disease or when cultivating an unfamiliar crop.
Demographic aspects of the farming community that discourage utilisation of the AKC. This includes: low economic status of farmers which makes activities
Farming community’s lack of awareness of the AKC project. The majority of farmers were unaware that the AKC existed.
Perceptions and mind-set of the farming community that discourage utilisation of the AKC. This includes: farmers’ lack of trust in project implementers which limits their willingness to embrace the AKC, farmers’ lack of belief in computers in terms of their capacity for livelihood improvement, farmers’ overestimation of the extent of their experiential knowledge of agriculture which prevents them from visiting the AKC, farmers’ expectation of rewards in exchange for their participation in AKC usage, farmers’ disinterest and lack of ambition in terms of improving their livelihood which prevents them from expending effort on AKC use, Some farmers’ pervasive negativity towards any development intervention, farmers’ lack of assignment of value to the information offered by the AKCs as it is given free of charge.
The information culture of the farming community that discourages utilisation of the AKC. Information culture elements that proved an obstacle to farmer
Farming community’s lack of awareness of the AKC project. The majority of farmers were unaware of the AKC project.
Resource constraints that erect barriers to engaging the farming community in utilising the AKC. This includes inadequacy of human resources for operating the AKC which prevented execution of activities important for enrolling the farming community such as maintaining uninterrupted delivery of AKC services. The AKC operator was overburdened with field duties associated with her main job role as the agriculture advisor responsible for advising the farming community of a large and challenging agricultural range. The substantial workload restricted her presence at the AKC to only two days per week.
Competing influences that dissuade the farming community from utilising the AKC. This includes: Part-time farmers’ lack of interest in utilising the AKC given their involvement in jobs other than farming.
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Department of Agriculture would visit villages in person to deliver advice to their doorstep, farmers’ habit of seeking information only when faced with debilitating farming problems that demand resolution.
Demographic aspects of the farming community that discourage utilisation of the AKC. This includes: the struggle associated with resolving immediate issues that arise as a result of low economic strength which prevents poor farmers from expending time and effort on AKC use, gender inequality that prevents female members of the farming community from gaining access to the AKC (for instance, restrictions imposed by their husbands prevent females from travelling far to visit the AKC), education level of farmers which influences their ability to recognise the value of the AKC.
Resource constraints that erect barriers to engaging the farming community in utilising the AKC. This includes inadequacy of human resources for operating the AKC which prevented execution of activities important for enrolling the farming community such as maintaining uninterrupted delivery of AKC services. The AKC operator was over-burdened with duties associated with his main job role as the agriculture advisor responsible for advising the farming community. Given that this role involved frequent field visits across a large agricultural range, the operator was available on-site at the AKC only one day per week, inadequate physical/material resources (e.g. lack of a multi-media projector, a photocopy machine and a spacious location for housing the AKC) which prevented the delivery of high quality services which may have convinced more farmers to visit the AKC.
that prevents farmers from utilising the ICT resources available at the AKC on their own.
Resource constraints that erect barriers to engaging the farming community in utilising the AKC. This includes inadequacy of human resources for operating the AKC which prevented execution of activities important for enrolling the farming community such as maintaining uninterrupted delivery of AKC services. The AKC operator was available on-site only one day per week given substantial field duties associated with his main job role as the agriculture advisor responsible for advising the farming community. The paucity of such officers in the province forced him to handle multiple agricultural areas, thereby limiting the time and effort he can expend on the AKC, inadequate physical/material resources (e.g. lack of a multi-media projector, lack of a spacious location for housing the AKC, deplorable state of the building where the AKC is located which makes it an inhospitable environment for housing ICT equipment) which prevented the delivery of high quality services which may have convinced more farmers to visit the AKC.
Physical constraints that limit the farming community’s access to the AKC. This includes: the remote location of the AKC which forced visiting farmers to travel a significant distance, inadequacies in basic infrastructure such as derelict and unsafe access roads and lack of public transport services which prevented farmers from travelling to the AKC with ease thereby discouraging its use.
Competing influences that dissuade the farming community from utilising the AKC. This includes: labour-intensive farming which imposes time constraints on farmers, private sector agro-chemical vendors who function as
that earn them an immediate income (e.g. manual labour) more attractive than visiting the AKC in search of information.
Resource constraints that erect barriers to engaging the farming community in utilising the AKC. This includes inadequacy of human resources for operating the AKC which prevented execution of activities important for enrolling the farming community such as maintaining uninterrupted delivery of AKC
services. Given the field work associated with his main job role as the agriculture advisor responsible for advising the farming community, the operator could not remain on-site at the AKC all five days of the working week, inadequate physical/material resources (e.g. lack of a multi-media projector, lack of a spacious location for housing the AKC, infrastructure inadequacies in the building where the AKC is located which jeopardises the safety of ICT equipment) which prevented the delivery of high quality services which may have convinced more farmers to visit the AKC.
Physical constraints that limit the farming community’s access to the AKC. This includes: the location of the AKC which forced farmers residing in remote villages to travel a significant distance, inadequacies in basic infrastructure such as derelict access roads and lack of public transport services which prevented farmers from travelling to the AKC with ease thereby discouraging its use.
Extent of the capacity possessed by the AKC operator to attract the farming community to the AKC. During its active period, the AKC was managed by an operator whose prowess in building and maintaining a close relationship with the farming community, motivation and commitment to serving the farming community
enrollment include: farmers’ low propensity to seek new information, farmers’ preference for the approach to information delivery they are accustomed to where agricultural extension officers of the Department of Agriculture would visit villages in person to deliver advice to their doorstep.
Demographic aspects of the farming community that discourage utilisation of the AKC. This includes: very low economic status of farmers which compels them to engage in activities that generate an immediate income for daily living (e.g. manual labour) rather than incur financial and time losses by opting to visit the AKC in search of information.
Resource constraints that erect barriers to engaging the farming community in utilising the AKC. This includes severe inadequacy of human resources for operating the AKC which prevented execution of activities important for enrolling the farming community such as building a close relationship with farmers and maintaining uninterrupted delivery of AKC services. The operator was unable to attend to the AKC given the workload associated with his main job role as the agriculture advisor responsible for advising the farming community. Severe shortage of agricultural extension officers in the province forced him to handle the workload of four officers, inadequate physical/material resources (e.g. lack of a sufficient number of multi-media projectors, lack of a spacious location for housing the AKC, infrastructure inadequacies in the building where the AKC is located which jeopardises the safety of ICT equipment) which prevented the delivery of high quality services which may have convinced more farmers to visit the AKC.
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Physical constraints that limit the farming community’s access to the AKC. This includes: inadequacies in basic infrastructure such as the lack of adequate public transport services which prevented farmers from travelling to the AKC with ease.
Competing influences that dissuade the farming community from utilising the AKC. This includes: private sector agro-chemical vendors who function as an alternative source that provides information required by farmers.
Relevance of the information delivered by the AKC to the information needs of the farming community. The AKC failed to provide information that was coveted by farmers (e.g. new seed varieties, market forecasts for crops) which would have compelled AKC use.
an alternative source that provides information required by farmers.
Appropriateness of the technologies employed by the AKCs in terms of constraints that afflicted the farming community. For example, interactive CDs which are too complex to be operated by farmers who lack IT skills discouraged farmers from using the AKC independently, given the scarcity of computers in their villages, farmers viewed interactive CDs which require a computer to access as an unsuitable medium that was useless at the village-level. This view was instrumental in discouraging farmer enrollment.
and excellence in service delivery contributed significantly towards convincing farmers to visit the AKC. The replacement of this dynamic operator with a new inexperienced recruit who lacked similar devotion and capacity contributed to the drastic reduction in the number of farmer visits.
Competing influences that dissuade the farming community from utilising the AKC. This includes: labour-intensive farming which imposes time constraints on farmers.
Appropriateness of the technologies employed by the AKCs in terms of constraints that afflicted the farming community. For example, given the scarcity of computers in their villages, farmers viewed interactive CDs which require a computer to access as an unsuitable medium that was useless at the village-level. This view was also instrumental in discouraging farmer enrollment.
Extent of the capacity possessed by the AKC operator to attract the farming community to the AKC. The AKC operators’ talent and strong commitment to developing a closer relationship with the farming community contributed to the increase in farmer visits noted since the recommencement of operations at the AKC.
Appropriateness of the technologies employed by the AKCs in terms of constraints that afflicted the farming community. For example, given the scarcity of computers in their villages, farmers viewed interactive CDs which require a computer to access as an unsuitable medium that was useless at the village-level. This view was also instrumental in discouraging farmer enrollment.
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CASES EXAMINED
AKC 1 (Marassana)
AKC 2 (Meegahajandura)
AKC 3 (Rassagala)
AKC 4 (Inginimitiya)
AKC 5 (Yatiwawala)
LOC
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Relationship between the AKC and the Provincial Agriculture Authority (PAA)
Status of the relationship
The strength of the relationship that existed between the AKC and the PAA was adequate to ensure the PAA’s basic support for maintaining uninterrupted operations at the AKC. However, it was not so strong as to ensure the PAA’s unequivocal support for the AKC.
The strength of the relationship that existed between the AKC and the PAA was adequate to ensure the PAA’s basic support for maintaining uninterrupted operations at the AKC. However, it was not so strong as to ensure the PAA’s unequivocal support for the AKC.
The relationship that existed between the AKC and the PAA was extremely weak throughout the life time of the AKC. The ultimate disintegration of this relationship played a major role in the cessation of AKC operations.
During the period 2004 - 2006 the relationship between the AKC and the PAA was virtually non-existent. Thereafter, the strengthening of this relationship contributed immensely to the commencement of AKC operations and in moving the site towards an active state.
The relationship that existed between the AKC and the PAA was extremely weak throughout the period of AKC existence. While the PAA did offer basic financial and administrative support required for maintaining uninterrupted AKC operations, the relationship failed from the AKC end. A year after AKC inception, the relationship deteriorated to the extent that the PAA first recommended replacing the AKC operator and finally advocated the closure of the AKC.
Influences that impacted relationship formation, sustenance and strength
Extent of PAA’s project ownership, support and commitment. While basic financial and material resources and administrative support was provided, senior PAA officers viewed the AKC as a responsibility of the central government rather than a provincial concern. Consequently, their involvement with the AKC was devoid of enthusiasm and active engagement in resolving issues influencing its continuity.
Unavailability of an appropriate foundation and procedures that facilitate smooth maintenance of the AKCs. This includes: lack of a separate budget allocation for meeting operating costs of the AKC. Given this oversight, the PAA was forced to draw on their limited budget to maintain the AKC. The resulting financial burden on the PAA was instrumental in constraining the relationship between the AKC and the PAA and fostering a negative view towards the AKC.
Extent of the AKC operator’s capacity to attract the support, involvement of the PAA. The AKC operator’s excellence in executing AKC operations, his enthusiasm and commitment to the AKC and his adeptness at building and maintaining a cordial relationship with senior PAA officers was instrumental in compelling the PAA’s involvement with the AKC.
Extent of PAA’s project ownership, support and commitment. While senior PAA officers were generally supportive of the AKC and were interested in its progress, they viewed the AKC as a responsibility of the central government rather than a provincial concern. This perception was instrumental in limiting their involvement in the AKC.
Unavailability of an appropriate foundation and procedures that facilitate smooth maintenance of the AKCs. This includes: lack of a separate budget allocation for meeting operating costs of the AKC. Given this oversight, the PAA was forced to divert funds meant for other purposes into maintaining the AKC. The resulting financial burden on the PAA was instrumental in constraining the relationship between the AKC and the PAA.
Physical constraints that limited the PAA’s capacity to maintain close links with the AKC. The remote location of the AKC prevented senior PAA officers from visiting the AKC frequently in order to monitor its progress and maintain a close relationship with it.
Extent of PAA’s project ownership, support and commitment. Senior PAA officers viewed the AKC as a responsibility of the central government. Their lack of attention, inadequate support and disinterest impacted resolution of problems that affected AKC continuity. As an example, senior PAA officers’ delay in approving the funds required for repairing essential ICT equipment contributed to the cessation of AKC operations.
Negative perceptions and mind-set of individual PAA officials entrusted with administering the AKC. For instance, the PAA officer who was directly in charge of the AKC harboured numerous negative perceptions and a mind-set that caused him to sabotage AKC continuity. This includes: resentment of his subordinate the AKC operator given the prominence and credit gained by him as a result of the AKC project, view that a junior officer such as the AKC operator should not be given access to ICT resources lacked by senior PAA officers.
Unavailability of an appropriate foundation and procedures that facilitate smooth maintenance of the AKCs. This includes: lack of a separate budget allocation for meeting operating costs of the AKC, centralized, lengthy, slow PAA administrative and regulatory
Extent of PAA’s project ownership, support and commitment. The PAA officer directly in charge of the AKC during its active period had a deep interest in it and was committed to its development. He was instrumental in encouraging local ownership of the AKC project at the provincial level by actively seeking the involvement of his superiors in further developing the AKC and resolving issues that affected its operation. In particular, he played a prominent role in securing human and material resources required for AKC operation. Further, he maintained a close relationship with the AKC operator and other local agricultural extension officers involved in the AKC project offering extensive support.
Unavailability of an appropriate foundation and procedures that facilitate smooth maintenance of the AKCs. This includes: lack of a separate budget allocation for meeting operating costs of the AKC, centralised lengthy PAA administrative procedures which delayed acquisition of approvals necessary for executing activities essential for AKC continuity such as ICT equipment maintenance and payment of telephone bills.
Extent of the AKC operator’s capacity to attract the support, involvement of the PAA. The AKC operator’s failure to maintain operations at a standard expected by the PAA and her failure to heed the PAA’s warnings regarding the need for performance improvement contributed to the disintegration of the relationship between the AKC and the PAA.
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procedures which prevented the officers directly in charge of the AKC (e.g. the AKC operator, his immediate superior) from making even the most basic financial and procurement decisions.
CASES EXAMINED
AKC 1 (Marassana)
AKC 2 (Meegahajandura)
AKC 3 (Rassagala)
AKC 4 (Inginimitiya)
AKC 5 (Yatiwawala)
LOC
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Relationship between the AKC and the Project Execution Unit (PEU)
Status of the relationship
The relationship that existed between the AKC and the PEU was strong throughout AKC existence, with the exception of a period of 6 months prior to conducting the study during which deterioration was noted.
The relationship that existed between the AKC and the PEU was strong throughout AKC existence, with the exception of a period of 6 months prior to conducting the study during which deterioration was noted.
During the period in which the AKC was active (i.e. 2005 - 2006), the relationship that existed between the AKC and the PEU was extremely strong. The relationship deteriorated during the course of 2007 - 2008. It was extremely weak during the period of 6 months prior to conducting the study.
During the period in which the AKC was inactive (i.e. 2004 - 2006) the relationship between the AKC and the PEU was virtually non-existent. Given the inability to maintain operations at the AKC as a result severe human resource inadequacies and the PEU’s lack of power to rectify this issue which had to be addressed at the level of the national government, there was literally no purpose in maintaining a relationship. The formation of the relationship had just begun at the point of conducting the study.
The relationship that existed between the AKC and the PEU was extremely weak throughout the period of AKC existence. A year after AKC inception, the relationship deteriorated to the extent that the PEU recommended closure of the AKC to the Provincial Agricultural Authority.
Influences that impacted relationship formation, sustenance and strength
The PEU’s strong commitment towards supporting the AKCs. The PEU’s willingness to provide unequivocal and extensive support in maintaining AKC operations contributed to the formation and sustenance of the relationship between the AKC and the PEU. The quality of the support provided left an impression of reliability, efficiency and care with regard to the PEUs conduct in relation to the AKC.
Extent of the AKC operator’s capacity to attract the support, involvement of the PEU. The AKC operator’s excellence in executing AKC operations, his enthusiasm and commitment to the AKC and his skills in cultivating a sound relationship with the PEU were instrumental in compelling the PEU’s involvement with the AKC.
Physical constraints that affected the AKC’s ability to maintain close links with the PEU. This includes: the AKC’s proximity to the PEU
The PEU’s strong commitment towards supporting the AKCs. The PEU’s willingness to provide unequivocal and extensive support in maintaining AKC operations contributed to the formation and sustenance of the relationship between the AKC and the PEU. The quality of the support extended was such that officers involved in operating the AKC were convinced that the PEU could be relied upon to provide an immediate response to any request made by them.
The PEU’s strong commitment towards supporting the AKCs. The PEU’s willingness to provide unequivocal and extensive support in maintaining AKC operations contributed to the formation and sustenance of the relationship between the AKC and the PEU.
Extent of the AKC operator’s capacity to attract the support, involvement of the PEU. During the tenure of the AKC operator who was in charge of the AKC during its active period (i.e. 2005 - 2006), his excellence in executing AKC operations, his enthusiasm and commitment, his capacity for innovation and his skills in cultivating a relationship with the PEU compelled the PEU’s strong involvement with the AKC.
The PEU’s strong commitment towards supporting the AKCs. The officers involved in operating the AKC (e.g. the AKC operator, officers from the PAA) during its active period held a positive view of the PEU and the quality of the service provided by them. The PEU’s willingness to provide unequivocal and extensive support in maintaining AKC operations contributed to the formation and sustenance of the relationship between the AKC and the PEU.
Extent of the AKC operator’s capacity to attract the support, involvement of the PEU. The AKC operator’s failure to maintain operations at the AKC, her lack of interest and commitment to the AKC was instrumental in the PEU developing a negative opinion about the AKC operator which discouraged their involvement with the AKC. The conflict that arose as a result of the PEU’s refusal to tolerate the AKC operator’s conduct and the AKC operator’s lack of effort in changing the status quo contributed to the disintegration of the relationship between the AKC and the PEU.
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which enabled maintenance of frequent contact between the two entities relative to the other AKCs in studied. Given that the AKC was situated in the same district as the PEU, PEU staff was able to visit it frequently with ease to support its operations.
An Influence identified by interviewees from the Project Execution Unit that applies to all cases examined: Resource constraints encountered by the PEU that limit/prevent it from supporting the AKCs. Resource constraints prevented execution of mechanisms such as conducting frequent visits to the AKCs to provide support and evaluate progress. This issue became acute during the period of 6 months prior to conducting the study. Examples for resource constraints include: inadequate human resources. PEU staff was involved in a range of other large-scale projects and competing duties which severely restricted the time and effort that they could expend on the AKC project, inadequate material resources. For instance, unavailability of vehicles made it difficult to conduct site evaluation visits.
CASES EXAMINED
AKC 1 (Marassana)
AKC 2 (Meegahajandura)
AKC 3 (Rassagala)
AKC 4 (Inginimitiya)
AKC 5 (Yatiwawala)
LOC
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Relationship between the AKC and the AKC operator
Status of the relationship
The relationship that existed between the AKC and the AKC operator was strong throughout the period of AKC existence.
The relationship that existed between the AKC and the AKC operator was weak throughout the period of AKC existence.
The relationship that existed between the AKC and the AKC operator was strong during the first two years of the AKC’s existence. Thereafter, the relationship weakened with the transfer of the dynamic operator who was in charge of the AKC during the first two years.
The relationship between the AKC and the AKC operator was almost non-existent during the first two years of the AKC’s existence. Thereafter, the strength of the relationship improved with the appointment of an officer who was largely released from other duties and expected to function mostly as the operator of the AKC.
The relationship that existed between the AKC and the AKC operator was extremely weak throughout the period of AKC existence.
Influences that impacted relationship formation, sustenance and strength
Perceptions, mind-set of the operator that encouraged his involvement in the AKC. The AKC operator possessed a generally positive attitude towards the farming community and was strongly committed to serving them. The operator was also a highly motivated and enthusiastic officer whose attitude towards work and public service was committed. Further, he was genuinely interested in the AKC and possessed an affinity for ICTs. The operator also possessed a willing mind frame in terms of mastering the new skills necessary for operating the AKC.
Availability of the AKC operator. The AKC operator also functioned as the agriculture advisor responsible for providing advisory services to the farming community. The execution of this
Availability of the AKC operator. The AKC operator also functioned as the agriculture advisor responsible for providing advisory services to the farming community. The execution of this demanding role which involved substantial field duties, severely limited the time and effort that the AKC operator could devote on the AKC. The operator of AKC 2 was responsible for providing advisory services to farmers in multiple agricultural ranges. As such he was overburdened with work which prevented him from being involved in the AKC.
Perceptions, mind-set of the former AKC operator that encouraged his involvement in the AKC. The AKC operator was devoted to the AKC and was genuinely interested in it. He was also an officer whose attitude towards work and public service was committed. He possessed a generally positive attitude towards the farming community and was strongly committed to serving them.
Availability of the AKC operator. The AKC operator also functioned as the agriculture advisor responsible for providing advisory services to the farming community. The execution of this demanding role which involved substantial field duties, severely limited the time and effort that the AKC operator could devote on the AKC.
Availability of the AKC operator. During the first two years of the AKC’s existence, given the severe shortage of agricultural extension officers in the province where the AKC was established, the AKC operator was entrusted with the duties performed by four agriculture advisors. This issue of massive workload prevented the AKC operator from being involved in the AKC.
Lack of incentives for the AKC operator’s performance with regard to the AKC.
Perceptions, mind-set of the operator that limits/prevents their involvement in the AKC. This includes the AKC operator’s lack of affinity for ICTs and the AKC operator’s belief that the AKC is suited for the younger operators and not the older generation.
Inadequacies in IT training. The AKC operator’s personal capacity to master IT skills was weak. As such, the short term, intense IT training programmes conducted by the PEU proved inadequate in the case of the AKC operator of AKC 5.
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demanding role which involved substantial field duties, severely limited the time and effort that the AKC operator could devote on the AKC.
Perceptions, mind-set of the AKC operator that limits/prevents their involvement in the AKC identified by the interviewees from the Project Execution Unit include: Officers’ lethargic attitude to work in general, perception of the AKC as a burden that leads to additional work, perception of the AKC project as a restricting initiative that forces agriculture advisors/AKC operators to be present at the Farmer Service Center thereby eliminating their chances of work avoidance by claiming to be on field visits, a sense of grandiosity given their role as officials of the DOA, lack of receptivity to new approaches.
CASES EXAMINED
AKC 1 (Marassana)
AKC 2 (Meegahajandura)
AKC 3 (Rassagala)
AKC 4 (Inginimitiya)
AKC 5 (Yatiwawala)
LOC
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Relationship between the AKC and the Technology vendors
Status of the relationship
The relationship that existed between the AKC and the technology vendors was weak throughout AKC existence in the case of all four AKCs. Given that the AKC was never truly operational, there was no evidence of interaction between the AKC and the technology vendors.
Influences that impacted relationship formation, sustenance and strength
Degree of quality of the technology vendors. This includes: the internet and telecommunications service provider’s constant inefficiency, lack of responsibility and overall atrocious performance (complaints made against this service provider include service disconnection despite bill payment, delays in re-activation of connections, charging for inactive connections, bill mailing errors).
Lack of a robust mechanism for ICT maintenance. The project lacked an appropriate, well-defined, efficient mechanism for maintaining the ICTs in the AKCs. The existing mechanism was ad hoc. In particular, there was a lack of clearly articulated procedures and responsibilities pertaining to maintenance. ICT systems maintenance support was partly provided by the project implementation team of the PEU during visits made to evaluate the AKCs. In other instances, ICT systems were transported to the Media Unit where the PEU was located, by the AKC staff. Yet another approach adopted was seeking the support of the technology vendors or private sector ICT maintenance service providers located in the locality of the AKC. Further the existing mechanism was insufficiently de-centralised and practically unviable in terms of serving AKCs located in remote or disadvantaged areas. Such AKCs, which suffered from the lack of quick and guaranteed access to on-site ICT maintenance support, were forced to both transport ICT equipment to the PEU or main towns situated at a significant distance from the AKC for maintenance and remain inactive for extended periods of time given the unavailability of essential ICT equipment and services. Furthermore, there was a lack of provisions for periodic maintenance of ICT systems in the AKCs. In the absence of a robust mechanism for ICT maintenance that would serve as a foundation for engaging the support of the technology vendors, it was difficult to cultivate and maintain a strong relationship between the AKC and the technology vendors that facilitated project sustainability.
Physical elements that determine the ease with which an AKC can gain access to the services of technology vendors. This includes the location of the AKC. AKCs that were situated in remote or disadvantaged areas found it difficult to cultivate and maintain a close relationship with technology vendors, given difficulties associated with site accessibility. For instance, AKC 2 which was situated in a remote area, found it difficult to access the closest technology vendors, who were located at a significant distance from the AKC.
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CASES EXAMINED
AKC 1 (Marassana)
AKC 2 (Meegahajandura)
AKC 3 (Rassagala)
AKC 4 (Inginimitiya)
AKC 5 (Yatiwawala)
LOC
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SHIP
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Relationship between the AKC and the Department of Farmer Services (DFS)
Status of the relationship
The relationship that existed between the AKC and the DFS was weak throughout the period of AKC existence.
The relationship that existed between the AKC and the DFS was weak throughout the period of AKC existence.
The relationship that existed between the AKC and the DFS was weak throughout the period of AKC existence.
The relationship that existed between the AKC and the DFS was weak throughout the period of AKC existence.
Given that the AKC was never truly operational, there was no evidence of interaction between the AKC and the DFS.
Influences that impacted relationship formation, sustenance and strength
Perceptions and mind-set of individual officers employed by the DFS which results in lack of support for the AKC. For example, support was limited as a result of the conflict that arose between the AKC operator and the DFS officer who managed the Farmer Service Center due to the DFS officer’s jealousy and competition with the AKC operator given the prominence and visibility gained by him within the farming community as a result of the AKC project.
DFS officers’ inadequate support and low commitment towards the AKC project. Reasons behind this include assignment of low priority to the AKC project given that it was not an initiative owned by the DFS.
Extent of alignment between the agenda of the AKC project and the agenda of the DFS. The AKC’s focus on delivering technical information on agriculture to the farming community was beyond the scope of responsibilities assigned to the DFS. Thus, the officers of the DFS who lacked the authority to deliver technical information on agriculture to the farming community saw no reason to support a related project.
DFS officers’ inadequate support and low commitment towards the AKC project.
An influence identified by a member of the Project Execution Unit (i.e. the Project Director) that applies to all cases examined: Extent of the rapport that existed between the DOA and the DFS. At the point of implementing the AKC project, the relationship that existed between the DOA and the DFS was weak given a history of rivalry, conflict and enmity that had prevailed between the two departments. This rift was also instrumental in weakening the relationship between the AKC and the DFS.
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Appendix 9.1 - Relationship Mapping (Project-specific to Generic)
AKC project relationship
Equivalent generic form of the relationship listed in the framework
Relationship between the AKC and the farming community
Relationship between the local facility for project delivery and the user community
Relationship between the AKC & the Provincial Agriculture Authority (PAA)
Relationship between the local facility for project delivery & its maintainer
Relationship between the AKC & the Project Execution Unit (PEU)
Relationship between the local facility for project delivery & the project implementer
Relationship between the AKC & the ICT solutions/maintenance providers
Relationship between the local facility for project delivery & technology(ICT) vendors
Relationship between the AKC and the Department of Farmer Services (DFS)
Relationship between the local facility for project delivery & local-level external entities/agencies that influence project sustainability
Relationship between the AKC & the AKC operator
Relationship between the local facility for project delivery & its operator
Relationship between the PEU & ARPB/RPDP/RRO/NITA/National-level ICT4D projects
Relationship between the project implementer & the funding agencies
Relationship between the PEU & DOA/MOA Relationship between the project implementer & the project owner/s
Relationship between the PEU & Central government politicians/the State
Relationship between the project implementer & global-level external entities/agencies that influence project sustainability