the symbiotic biofilm of sinorhizobium frediismh12, necessary … · 2017-01-18 · the symbiotic...
TRANSCRIPT
The Symbiotic Biofilm of Sinorhizobium fredii SMH12,Necessary for Successful Colonization and Symbiosis ofGlycine max cv Osumi, Is Regulated by Quorum SensingSystems and Inducing Flavonoids via NodD1Francisco Perez-Montano1*, Irene Jimenez-Guerrero1, Pablo Del Cerro1, Irene Baena-Ropero2, Francisco
Javier Lopez-Baena1, Francisco Javier Ollero1, Ramon Bellogın1, Javier Lloret2, Rosario Espuny1
1Departamento de Microbiologıa, Facultad de Biologıa, Universidad de Sevilla, Sevilla, Spain, 2Departamento de Biologıa, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Autonoma
de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
Abstract
Bacterial surface components, especially exopolysaccharides, in combination with bacterial Quorum Sensing signals arecrucial for the formation of biofilms in most species studied so far. Biofilm formation allows soil bacteria to colonize theirsurrounding habitat and survive common environmental stresses such as desiccation and nutrient limitation. This mode oflife is often essential for survival in bacteria of the genera Mesorhizobium, Sinorhizobium, Bradyrhizobium, and Rhizobium.The role of biofilm formation in symbiosis has been investigated in detail for Sinorhizobium meliloti and Bradyrhizobiumjaponicum. However, for S. fredii this process has not been studied. In this work we have demonstrated that biofilmformation is crucial for an optimal root colonization and symbiosis between S. fredii SMH12 and Glycine max cv Osumi. Inthis bacterium, nod-gene inducing flavonoids and the NodD1 protein are required for the transition of the biofilm structurefrom monolayer to microcolony. Quorum Sensing systems are also required for the full development of both types ofbiofilms. In fact, both the nodD1 mutant and the lactonase strain (the lactonase enzyme prevents AHL accumulation) aredefective in soybean root colonization. The impairment of the lactonase strain in its colonization ability leads to a decreasein the symbiotic parameters. Interestingly, NodD1 together with flavonoids activates certain quorum sensing systemsimplicit in the development of the symbiotic biofilm. Thus, S. fredii SMH12 by means of a unique key molecule, theflavonoid, efficiently forms biofilm, colonizes the legume roots and activates the synthesis of Nod factors, required forsuccessfully symbiosis.
Citation: Perez-Montano F, Jimenez-Guerrero I, Del Cerro P, Baena-Ropero I, Lopez-Baena FJ, et al. (2014) The Symbiotic Biofilm of Sinorhizobium fredii SMH12,Necessary for Successful Colonization and Symbiosis of Glycine max cv Osumi, s Regulated by Quorum Sensing Systems and Inducing Flavonoids via NodD1. PLoSONE 9(8): e105901. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0105901
Editor: Roy M. RoopII, East Carolina University School of Medicine, United States of America
Received April 22, 2014; Accepted July 25, 2014; Published August 28, 2014
Copyright: � 2014 Perez-Montano et al. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permitsunrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.
Data Availability: The authors confirm that all data underlying the findings are fully available without restriction. All relevant data are within the paper and itsSupporting Information files.
Funding: This work was supported by the following grants: AGL2012-38831 from the Spanish Ministerio de Economıa y Competitividad, http://www.idi.mineco.gob.es/portal/site/MICINN/ P10-AGR-5821 and P11-CVI-7050 from the Junta de Andalucıa, Consejerıa de Innovacion, Ciencia y Empresas. http://www.juntadeandalucia.es/organismos/economiainnovacioncienciayempleo.html. Dr. Perez-Montano’s work was supported by an FPU fellowship from the SpanishMinisterio de Ciencia y Tecnologıa and a contract from the University of Seville. http://www.idi.mineco.gob.es/portal/site/MICINN/ http://www.us.es/. The fundershad no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.
Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.
* Email: [email protected]
Introduction
Rhizobia are bacteria that interact with the roots of leguminous
plants to develop symbiotic nodules when environmental nitrogen
is limited. In these symbiotic structures atmospheric nitrogen is
reduced to ammonium making it available to the plant. This
process requires the exchange of molecular signals between both
members of the symbiosis. Legume roots exude flavonoids which
induce, via a mechanism involving the NodD family of transcrip-
tion activators, the biosynthesis and secretion of strain-specific
lipo-chito-oligosaccharides, also known as nodulation factors (Nod
factors), which trigger the initiation of nodule organogenesis [1].
Plant flavonoids, besides inducing Nod factor production, attract
the bacteria to the legume root [2]; induce type III secretion
machinery via NodD1 by activation of the transcriptional
regulator TtsI [3,4]; and activate the rhizobial Quorum Sensing
(QS) systems [5].
QS is defined as a regulation mode of bacterial gene expression
in response to changes in their population density, which is
mediated by small diffusible signal molecules called autoinducers
(AI) [6,7]. QS-regulated genes are involved in adaptive changes in
the physiology of the bacterial population, which modify their
behaviour when a certain cell density is reached. QS modulates a
broad variety of phenotypes, such as biofilm formation, toxin and
exopolysaccharide production, virulence, plasmid transfer and
motility, which usually are essential for successful establishment of
a symbiotic or a pathogenic relationship with the eukaryotic hosts
[8,9,10,11,12]. In plant-associated bacteria QS coordinates the
PLOS ONE | www.plosone.org 1 August 2014 | Volume 9 | Issue 8 | e105901
I
expression of genes involved in virulence, colonization and
symbiosis [13].
In all species studied so far, bacterial surface components
(flagella, lipopolysaccharides and especially exopolysaccharides) in
combination with the presence of bacterial QS signals are crucial
for the formation of biofilms [12]. Biofilms are defined as bacterial
communities surrounded by a self-produced polymeric matrix,
and attached to an inert or a biotic surface [14]. In the course of
biofilm formation, the initial reversible attachment to the surface is
followed by an irreversible attachment and multiplication of the
bacteria forming microcolonies that develop mature communities
with a three-dimensional structure, in some cases permeated by
channels, which act as the biofilm circulatory system. All these
processes are coordinated by bacterial QS systems [14,15]. Many
rhizobia have been described as forming microcolonies or biofilms
when they colonize legume roots. These biofilms are mainly
composed of water and bacterial cells. However, the three-
dimensional structure of the biofilm is due to an extracellular
matrix, which is formed by exopolysaccharides (EPS) [16]. In S.meliloti, the biofilm formation is affected and/or regulated by
nutritional and environmental conditions [17,18]; exopolysacchar-
ides and flagella [19]; ExoR with the ExoS–ChvI two-component
system [20]; Nod factors synthesized by nod genes [19]; and
regulation of exopolysaccharide biosynthesis by means of QS
systems [21]. Development of biofilms by rhizobia is crucial to
overcoming environmental stresses and in certain species the
biofilm formation is clearly an important feature of symbiotic
ability [12,19,22,23,24]. S. fredii SMH12, a wide host-range
rhizobium that nodulates soybean and dozens of other legumes,
produces at least three AHLs, N-octanoyl homoserine lactone (C8-
HSL), 3-oxo N-octanoyl homoserine lactone (3-oxo-C8-HSL) and
N-tetradecanoyl homoserine lactone (C14-HSL). In the presence
of the flavonoid genistein, an activator of its nodulation genes, the
overall production of AHLs is enhanced, being detected the C14-
HSL only in bacterial cultures supplemented with inducing
flavonoids [5]. SMH12 possesses at least one gene, traI, which is
responsiblefor the synthesis of the 3-oxo-C8-HSL [5]; and at least
two non-identified luxI-type gene involved in the synthesis of the
C8-HSL and the C14-HSL. Furthermore, in this bacterium the
AHLs and the QS systems are involved in the biofilm formation on
the abiotic surface [25].
In this work, the role and regulation of biofilm formation in S.fredii SMH12 have been studied during symbiosis with Glycinemax cv. Osumi. For this purpose, the wild-type strain, a nodD1mutant and a lactonase overproducing strain of SMH12 were
constructed. The lactonase enzyme hydrolyzes the ester bond of
the homoserine lactone ring of acylated homoserine lactones
preventing these signalling molecules from binding to their target
transcriptional regulators. Both nodD1 and lactonase strains
showed an impaired ability for colonization of Glycine max roots
with respect to the wild-strain, probably due to an abnormal
symbiotic biofilm formation which determines a less effective
symbiosis. Interestingly, QS-biofilm formation and effective
nodulation are connected through flavonoids, since these mole-
cules initiate the molecular dialogue between bacteria and plants
and allow the symbiotic biofilm formation. In summary, this
report unequivocally demonstrates that the development of biofilm
is crucial for successful root colonization and optimal symbiosis in
S. fredii SMH12.
Materials and Methods
Strains and mediaBacterial strains and plasmids used in this work are listed in
Table 1. S. fredii SMH12 and derivative strains were grown at
28uC in tryptone-yeast extract (TY) medium [26], yeast extract
mannitol (YM) medium [27] with a lower mannitol concentration
(3 g l21) and low-phosphate minimal glutamate mannitol (MGM)
medium [21], supplemented when necessary with genistein
3.7 mM as inducing flavonoid, umbelliferone 6.2 mM as non-
inducing flavonoid, or with commercial AHLs [25]. Agrobacteriumtumefaciens NT1 (pZLR4) was grown at 28uC in YM with
carbenicillin (100 mg ml21) and gentamicin (30 mg ml21). Esche-richia coli strains were cultured in Luria-Bertani (LB) medium (28)
at 37uC. When required, the media were supplemented with the
appropriate antibiotics as described by Lamrabet et al. [29].
Commercial AHLs were dissolved in methanol and used at
different concentrations. Flavonoids and AHLs were purchased
from Fluka (Sigma-Aldrich, USA).
Plasmids were transferred from E. coli to SMH12 by
conjugation as described by Simon [30] using plasmid pRK2013
as helper. Recombinant DNA techniques were performed
according to the general protocols of Sambrook et al. [28]. For
hybridization, DNA was blotted to Hybond-N nylon membranes
(Amersham, UK), and the DigDNA method of Roche was
employed according to the manufacturer’s instructions. PCR
amplifications were performed as previously described [31]. Using
this methodology the plasmid pMUS534 was employed for the
homogenotization of the mutated version of the nodD1 gene in S.fredii SMH12, generating the mutant strain SVQ648. The double
recombination event was confirmed by Southern blotting (data not
shown).
For the growth curves of the different strains, bacteria were
grown in 5 ml of YM medium to early stationary phase and then
diluted to OD600 values around 0.03 in fresh YM medium with or
without flavonoids. Growth was monitored by measuring the
OD600 for at least 46 h. Each experiment was performed two days,
eight replicates each day.
RNA isolation, cDNA synthesis and Quantitative RT-PCRBacterial RNA was extracted from bacterial cultures from the
microtiter plates in the same conditions employed for the biofilm
assays and described below. For the RNA extraction the
PowerBiofilm RNA Isolation Kit was employed following the
manufacturer’s instructions (MO BIO, USA). Three independent
RNA extractions were performed.
To quantify the expression of the S. fredii SMH12 traI gene
using quantitative RT-PCR, primers rt-traI-F and rt-traI-R
described by Perez-Montano et al. [5] were used. Expression
was calculated relative to bacteria grown without flavonoid. The
S. fredii SMH12 RNA 16S gene was used as internal control to
normalize gene expression. RNA 16S primers used are described
in the same work [5]. The expression data shown are the mean (6
standard deviation of the mean) for three biological replicates. The
fold change in the target gene, normalized to RNA 16S, and
relative to gene expression in the culture without flavonoids was
calculated. PCR was conducted on the LightCycler 480 (Roche,
Switzerland) with the following conditions: 95uC, 10 min; 95uC,
30 s; 50uC, 30 s; 72uC, 20 s; forty cycles, followed by the melting
curve profile from 60 to 95uC to verify the specificity of the
reaction. The threshold cycles (Ct) were determined with the
iCycler software and the individual values for each sample were
generated by averaging three technical replicates that varied less
than 0.5 per cycle.
Quorum Sensing and Flavonoids Regulate Symbiotic Biofilm
PLOS ONE | www.plosone.org 2 August 2014 | Volume 9 | Issue 8 | e105901
Confocal laser scanning microscopyThe different events of biofilm formation were visualized by
confocal laser scanning microscopy using a method described by
Russo et al. [32]. Bacterial cultures were placed in 8 well
chambered cover glass slides containing a borosilicate glass base
1 mm thick (Thermo Fischer Scientific Inc., USA) for 4 days
without shaking. To avoid desiccation, the chambers were
incubated in a humid sterilized petri dish. Confocal microscope
image capture was carried out with Leica TCS SP2 (Leica
Microsystems, Germany). In silico 3D reconstruction analysis was
executed using the computer program ImageJ (Java, USA).
Biofilm formation assayThe biofilm formation assay was based on the method described
by O9Toole and Kolter [33] with modifications [34]. Cultures
were grown in 5 ml of low-phosphate MGM medium, diluted to
Table 1. Resistance phenotypes: GmR, KmR, NxR, ApR and TcR, gentamicin, kanamycin, nalidixic acid, ampicillin and tetracycline,respectively.
Strain or plasmid Relevant properties Reference
Agrobacterium tumefaciensNT1 (pZRL4)
A.tumefaciens without pTiC58;with pZRL4, which carries thefusion traG::lacZ and the gene traR, GmR
[13]
Escherichia coliDH5a
SupE44, DlacU169, 5hsdR17,recA1, endA1, gyrA96, thi-1, relA1, NxR
[25]
Sinorhizobiumfredii SMH12
Wild-type strain, ApR [40]
SMH12 (pME6000) SMH12 with the plasmid pME6000, TcR This work
SMH12 (pME6863) SMH12 with the plasmid pME6863, whichcarries the lactonase gene, TcR
This work
SMH12 (pMP2463) SMH12 with the plasmid pMP2463, whichcarries the gene of the GFP, GmR
This work
SMH12 (pMP6000)(pMP2463)
SMH12 with the plasmids pME6000 and pMP2463,which carry the empty plasmid and thegreen fluorescent protein, respectively, TcR GmR
This work
SMH12 (pMP6863)(pMP2463)
SMH12 with the plasmids pME6863 and pMP2463,which carry the gene that encode the lactonaseand the green fluorescent protein, respectively, TcR GmR
This work
SVQ648 SMH12 nodD1::lacZ-GmR This work
SVQ648 (pMP2463) SVQ648 with the plasmid pMP2463, whichcarries the gene of the GFP, GmR
This work
pBBR1MCS-5 Broad-host-range cloning vector, GmR [41]
pK18mobsacB Cloning vector (suicide in rhizobia), KmR [42]
pME6000 Broad-host-range cloning vector, TcR [43]
pME6863 pME6000::aiiA, plasmid carrying thelactonase gene, TcR
[44]
pMP2463 pBBR-MCS-5::egfp-1, plasmid carryingthe green fluorescent protein gene, GmR
[45]
pMUS534 Plasmid pK18mob derivative containingnodD1::lacZ-GmR
[46]
pRK2013 Helper plasmid, KmR [47]
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0105901.t001
Table 2. Plant responses to inoculation of Glycine max cv. Osumi with S. fredii SMH12 and derivatives.
Inoculant Number of nodules Fresh mass of nodules (g) Plant-top dry mass (g)
None 060* 060* 0.4860.11*
SMH12 124.30612.06 1.5660.20 1.3460.18
SVQ648 060* 060* 0.4660.10*
SMH12 (pME6863) 76.20616.02* 1.0460.29 1.1060.30
SMH12 (pME6000) 131.00622.68 1.6060.38 1.3560.25
Data represent means 6 sd of six soybean jars. Each jar contained two soybean plants. Determinations were made six weeks after inoculation. Mutant nodD1 and thelactonase strain parameters were individually compared with the parental strain SMH12 parameters by using the Mann-Whitney non-parametric test. Values tagged by *are significantly different at the level a=5%.doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0105901.t002
Quorum Sensing and Flavonoids Regulate Symbiotic Biofilm
PLOS ONE | www.plosone.org 3 August 2014 | Volume 9 | Issue 8 | e105901
Table 3. Glycine max cv. Osumi root attachment.
Inoculant CFU/cm of proximal root CFU/cm of lateral root
None 060* 060*
SMH12 1.6860.186105 1.2260.296104
SVQ648 1.1060.426105 3.8360.56103*
SMH12 (pME6863) 5.0060.106104* 8.4560.466102*
SMH12 (pME6000) 1.5560.276105 1.2060.396104
Soybean plants were inoculated with the test strains, one centimetre of the proximal root and of the lateral roots of each plant were collected after 7 days, and thebacteria present were resuspended and plated. Data are the mean 6 SD of at least three independent experiments performed in triplicate. Mutant nodD1 and thelactonase strain attachment were individually compared with the parental strain SMH12 attachment by using the Mann-Whitney non-parametric test. Values tagged by* are significantly different at the level a= 5%.doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0105901.t003
Figure 1. Visualization of the soybean root colonization. A. Epifluorescence microscopy analysis of the colonization of the soybeanrhizosphere by gfp-tagged bacteria [SMH12, SVQ648, SMH12 (pME6863)]. Roots were visualized 7 days after inoculation. 1. Proximal root. 2. Lateralroots. Bar, 100 mm. B. Scanning microscopy analysis of the colonization of the soybean rhizosphere by SMH12, SVQ648 and SMH12 (pME6863). Rootswere visualized 7 days after inoculation. 1. Proximal root. 2. Lateral roots. Bar, 5 mm. SMH12: wild-type, SVQ648: nodD1 mutant, SMH12 (pME6863):lactonase strain.doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0105901.g001
Quorum Sensing and Flavonoids Regulate Symbiotic Biofilm
PLOS ONE | www.plosone.org 4 August 2014 | Volume 9 | Issue 8 | e105901
an OD600 of 0.2, with or without flavonoids and AHLs, and
inoculated with 100 ml aliquots and placed on polystyrene
microtiter plates, U form (Deltalab S.L., Spain). The plates were
inverted and incubated at 28uC for 7 days with gentle rocking. Cell
growth was analyzed by measuring OD600 using a microtiter
reader Synergy HT (Biotek, USA). The culture in each well was
removed carefully; the wells were dried, washed three times with
0.9% NaCl and dried again. Biofilms in each well were stained
with 100 ml of 0.1% crystal violet for 20 minutes, then washed
with water three times and dried again. Finally, 100 ml of 96%
ethanol were added to each well and the OD570 was measured.
Every experiment was performed six times with eight replicates
each time.
Quantification of overall AHLsSupernatants of the rhizobial strains grown for 7 days in 96
wells on U shaped polystyrene microtiter plates (Deltalab S.L.,
Spain) were collected and sterilized by microfiltration. To
determine the overall autoinducer production in each condition
the method described by Perez-Montano et al. was used. [5].
Briefly, 25 ml, 2.5 ml or 0.25 ml of the supernatants were mixed
with YM to obtain a final volume of 2.5 ml reaching supernatant
concentrations of 1%, 0.1% and 0.01% (v/v). The mixtures were
inoculated with approximately 107 cells ml21 of the A. tumefaciensNT1 (pZLR4), incubated with shaking for 12 h at 28uC and
assayed for b-galactosidase activity [35]. As controls, 125 ml of
distilled water or 125 ml of N-(3-oxo-hexanoyl)-L-homoserine
lactone (3-oxo-C6-HSL) 5.5 mM, were used. To obtain the
standard curve with synthetic AHLs, 125 ml of 3-oxo-C8-HSL,
C8-HSL or C14-HSL at different concentration were added. The
experiments were repeated independently five times with 3
replicates.
Thin Layer ChromatographyFor TLC analysis, cultures previously removed from each well
of the microtiter plate were extracted with the same volume of
dichloromethane, evaporated to dryness and analyzed by thin-
layer chromatography as described by Perez-Montano et al. [25].
Briefly, 1 ml of each culture extract was loaded on TLC plates
(HPTLC plates RP-18 F254s 1.13724 and 1.05559, Merck,
Germany) using methanol:water (60:40 v/v) as eluent, dried and
overlaid with a soft agar culture of the biosensor A. tumefaciensNT1 (pZLR4).
Plant assaysNodulation assays on Glycine max (L.) Merrill cultivar Osumi
were performed as described by de Lyra et al. [36]. Plants were
inoculated with approximately 56108 bacteria and were grown in
Leonard jars with Fahraeus nutrient solution [27] for 42 days with
a 16 hour-photoperiod at 26uC in light and 18uC in the dark with
70% of humidity. Shoots were dried at 70uC for 48 h and
weighed. Experiments were performed three times. For root
colonization assays and microscopy, seeds were surface sterilized,
germinated and inoculated with a modified method described in
Perez-Montano et al. [25]. Briefly, Glycine max (L.) Merrill
cultivar Osumi seeds were soaked for 30 seconds in 96% ethanol
and for 8 minutes in commercial bleach. Then, seeds were washed
repeatedly with sterilized distilled water, germinated and checked
for sterility in LB medium. Each plant was inoculated with
approximately 56108 bacteria. Plants were grown under hydro-
ponic controlled conditions in Fahraeus solution for 7 days in the
same conditions as those mentioned above.
Epifluorescence and scanning electron microscopyEpifluorescence microscopy assays were carried out with S.
fredii SMH12 and derivatives carrying GFP expressing plasmid
pME2463. After growth, roots were excised (one centimetre of the
proximal area of the main root and the last centimetre of a lateral
root) and thoroughly washed with water to eliminate any loosely
Figure 2. Biofilm structure of S. fredii SMH12 and derivatives onglass surfaces: reconstruction of the Z-stacks and measure ofthe surface coverage. Main fluorescence value of the wild-type strainwas arbitrarily given a value of 100. Averages and standard deviationsof five randomized optical fields per strain corresponding to twoindependent experiments are shown. The asterisks indicate a significantdifferent at the level a=5% with respect to wild-type strain by usingthe Mann-Whitney non-parametrical test. Left side corresponds tocultures without flavonoids. Right side corresponds to cultures withinducing flavonoid. A. SMH12. B. SVQ648. C. SMH12 (pME6863). D.SMH12 (pME6000). Bar, 20 mm. SMH12: wild-type, SVQ648: nodD1mutant, SMH12 (pME6863): lactonase strain. SMH12 (pME6000):carrying the empty plasmid.doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0105901.g002
Quorum Sensing and Flavonoids Regulate Symbiotic Biofilm
PLOS ONE | www.plosone.org 5 August 2014 | Volume 9 | Issue 8 | e105901
attached bacteria. Afterwards, roots were soaked for 3 minutes in
0.5% crystal violet to avoid auto-fluorescence, following 3 washes
with distilled water. Microscopy analysis was carried out using an
Olympus BH2-FRCA microscope with 40x and 100x magnifica-
tions (Olympus, Japan). Images of GFP-labelled bacterial cells
were obtained by using a filter set consisting of a 400 to 490 nm
(BP490) bandpass exciter, a 505 nm dicroic filter and a 530 nm
longpass emitter (EO530). In all cases, exposure length of red and
green channels was 30 seconds.
For electron scanning microscopy, 7 day-soybean plants were
collected and the roots were excised as described above. Sample
preparation and visualization were done according to Barahona etal. [37].
Root attachmentWhole plants were carefully taken from the hydroponic solution
and roots were excised and thoroughly washed with water to
eliminate any loosely attached bacteria. Remaining attached
bacteria were recovered from the root by vortexing (one
centimetre of the proximal area of the main root or the last
centimetre of a lateral root) for 2 min in a tube containing YM
medium and plating the appropriate dilutions on YM medium
plates. Experiments were performed three times with three plants
per assay.
Figure 3. Biofilm structure of S. fredii SMH12 and derivatives on glass surfaces: reconstruction of the XY-axis, XZ-axis and YZ-axis.The top corresponds to cultures without flavonoids. The bottom corresponds to cultures with inducing flavonoid. A. SMH12. B. SVQ648. C.SMH12 (pME6863). D. SMH12 (pME6000). Bar, 20 mm. SMH12: wild-type, SVQ648: nodD1 mutant, SMH12 (pME6863): lactonase strain. SMH12(pME6000): carrying the empty plasmid.doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0105901.g003
Table 4. b-galactosidase activity obtained using an adapted assay with A. tumefaciens NT1 (pZLR4) as bioreporter and grown inthe presence of supernatants from biofilm cultures (1% v/v).
Miller units n (%)
Control (YM) 143.566.4
Genistein (37 nM) 122.1625.6
Umbelliferone (62 nM) 131.267.2
3-oxo-C6-HSL (5.5 mM) 824.7621.2
SMH12 717.6623.6 100
SMH12+genistein (3.7 mM) 843.9624.6 117*
SVQ648 702.7628.4 97
SVQ648+genistein (3.7 mM) 745.8639.2 104
SMH12 (pME6863) 150.2653.8 21*
SMH12 (pME6863)+genistein (3.7 mM) 152.269.71 21*
Data are the mean 6 SD of three independent experiments performed in triplicate.n: percentage of induction of each supernatant with respect to SMH12 without flavonoids, defined as 100%.Each b-galactosidase activity using biofilm supernatant was individually compared to that obtained in SMH12 without flavonoids by using the Mann-Whitney non-parametrical test. Numbers on the percentage of induction column followed by * are significantly different at the level a= 5%.doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0105901.t004
Quorum Sensing and Flavonoids Regulate Symbiotic Biofilm
PLOS ONE | www.plosone.org 6 August 2014 | Volume 9 | Issue 8 | e105901
Results
Nodulation TestIn a previous work [5] we described that certain plant
flavonoids, besides inducing synthesis of Nod factors, increase
the overall production of QS signals in S. fredii SMH12. In many
bacteria, these systems regulate a broad variety of phenotypes
which are important for the successful establishment of a
relationship with the eukaryotic hosts. For this reason, a
nodulation test was performed to elucidate if SMH12 QS systems
are regulating any important phenotype during the symbiosis with
Glycine max. The symbiotic properties of the wild-type strain,
SVQ648 (SMH12 nodD1::LacZ::GmR), hereafter nodD1 mutant,
SMH12 (pME6863), hereafter lactonase strain (this enzyme
prevents AHL accumulation), and SMH12 (pME6000), which
carries the empty plasmid, were determined in plant infection tests
with soybean cultivar Osumi which are effectively nodulated by
the wild-type strain S. fredii SMH12.
As expected, the nodD1 mutant did not induce nodule
development due to its inability to produce Nod factors, which
are responsible for the formation of these structures in the soybean
roots. Consequently, the plant top dry mass was significantly lower
(a 60%, where * is the statistical significance of the differences
observed using the Mann–Whitney non-parametric test) in plants
inoculated with the nodD1 mutant than in those inoculated with
the parental strain SMH12. In the cases of the plants inoculated
with the lactonase strain, the top dry mass, number of nodules and
fresh mass of nodules formed were lower than in the wild-type
strain (20%, 40% and 35% respectively). Only in the case of the
Figure 4. Quantitative RT-PCR analysis of the expression of traIand nodA from S. fredii SMH12 and derivatives from biofilmcultures. Expression data shown are the mean (6 standard deviationof the mean) for three biological replicates. Expression was calculatedrelative to the expression without flavonoids of the wild-type strain byusing the Mann-Whitney non-parametrical test. The asterisks indicate asignificant different at the level a= 5%. White bars: biofilm cultureswithout flavonoids. Gray bars: biofilm cultures with genistein. A. traIrelative expression. B. nodA relative expression. SMH12: wild-type,SVQ648: nodD1 mutant, SMH12 (pME6863): lactonase strain.doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0105901.g004
Figure 5. Adhesion of S. fredii SMH12 and derivatives onpolystyrene surfaces. Biofilms were measured as the amount ofcrystal violet absorbed by the biofilm formed on multi-well plates anddetermined by absorbance at 570 nm after de-staining with ethanol(see methods). Absorbance of the wild-type strain was arbitrarily givena value of 1. Averages and standard deviations of eight replicas perstrain corresponding to five independent experiments are shown. Theasterisks indicate a significant different at the level a= 5% with respectto wild-type strain by using the Mann-Whitney non-parametrical test. A.Dark gray bars correspond to experiments performed withoutflavonoids, white to experiments with umbelliferone and light greybars to experiments with genistein. B. Dark gray bars correspond toexperiments performed without flavonoids and light grey bars toexperiments with genistein. 3-oxo-C8-HSL and C8-HSL are used at5.5 mM. C14-HSL is used at 55 mM. SMH12: wild-type, SVQ648: nodD1mutant, SMH12 (pME6863): lactonase strain. SMH12 (pME6000):carrying the empty plasmid.doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0105901.g005
Figure 6. Model of biofilm formation in S. fredii SMH12. A. In soil.B. In rizosphere. S. fredii SMH12 forms monolayer-type biofilm whencolonize soil surfaces. When the bacterium colonizes the legume root(in presence of inducing flavonoids), it forms microcolony-type biofilm,which is necessary for a successful root colonization and symbiosisbetween rhizobia and legume.doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0105901.g006
Quorum Sensing and Flavonoids Regulate Symbiotic Biofilm
PLOS ONE | www.plosone.org 7 August 2014 | Volume 9 | Issue 8 | e105901
number of nodules were these differences statistically significant
(where * is the statistical significance of the differences observed
using the Mann–Whitney non-parametric test) (Table 2). To
confirm that differences in this strain are not due to the presence of
the plasmid, the symbiotic parameters of SMH12 carrying the
empty plasmid (pME6000) were studied. No changes were
observed with respect to the wild-type strain. In summary, these
results indicate that QS systems could regulate some important
phenotypes during the symbiosis with Glycine max.
Plant root colonizationAs commented in the introduction, in plant-associated bacteria
one of the processes controlled by bacterial QS systems is the root
colonization. For this reason three independent assays to study
root colonization were carried out: root attachment quantification,
observation studies of root by epifluorescence microscopy and
electronic barrier microscopy. In these studies, proximal and
lateral roots were analyzed separately to test differences in
bacterial colonization in the whole root.
Root attachment assays showed a statistically significant
reduction in the bacterial number per cm on the proximal area
of the main root in the lactonase strain, the detected bacteria being
around 10-fold less than in the other two strains. In lateral roots,
colonization differences (statistically significant) were even more
pronounced, these differences being 100-fold less than in the wild-
type strain. A slight reduction in the number of bacteria per cm on
the lateral root was also observed in the nodD1 mutant (10-fold
less than SMH12). No changes in root attachment were observed
in plants inoculated with the SMH12 strain carrying the empty
plasmid with respect to those inoculated with the wild-type strain
(Table 3). No differences in the bacterial growth-curves were
detected among the four strains (data not shown).
Epifluorescence microscopy and electronic barrier microscopy
assays (Fig. 1) showed that in lateral roots of plants inoculated with
nodD1 mutant and lactonase strain, the soybean root surface
presented lower bacterial density with respect to the wild-type
strain. Interestingly, the wild-type strain seems to be also
distributed more clustered than the other two strains along the
main root and especially in the lateral roots, which could indicate
different biofilm structures in these strains. All these results suggest
that the nodD1 mutant and especially the lactonase strain are
defective in root colonization.
Influence of inducing flavonoids on biofilm structureWhen rhizobia colonize the legume root surface microcolonies
or biofilms are formed. Could the observed colonization differ-
ences be a consequence of abnormal biofilm formation in the
lactonase strain and in the nodD1 mutant? To study the role of the
biofilm formation during symbiosis, the biofilm structures both in
the presence/absence of nod-gen inducing flavonoid (genistein)
were observed using confocal microscopy experiments. Biofilm
images of the wild-type, the nodD1 mutant, the lactonase and the
control strain carrying the empty plasmid, all labelled with GFP,
were obtained (Fig. 2 and Fig. 3). Results showed that after 4 days
of growth without flavonoid, the formed biofilm consisted of a
monolayer in all the studied strains being the surface coverage
statistically lower (about 50%) in the lactonase strain biofilm
(Fig. 2c). In the presence of genistein, the formed biofilm changed
from monolayer to microcolony type in SMH12, being the
coverage statistically lower (almost 45%) (Fig. 2a). In the case of
the nodD1 mutant, no change was observed in the biofilm three-
dimensional structure or surface coverage with genistein (Fig. 2b).
Moreover, the lactonase strain showed a less surface-coverage
(43%) without genistein with respect to the wild-type, but
interestingly, in the presence of genistein the biofilm development
underwent the transition to microcolony but no reduction in the
coverage was obtained with respect to the lactonase strain without
flavonoid (Fig. 2c). The control strain carrying the empty plasmid
showed the same phenotype as the wild-type strain (Fig. 2d).
These results suggest that, in S. fredii SMH12, the nodulation
gene inducing flavonoids via NodD1 protein provoke a decrease in
the bacterial attachment to an abiotic surface, since the monolayer
biofilm structure (covering the whole surface) developed in the
absence of flavonoid changed to microcolony-type (covering only
some parts of the surface). Furthermore, these data indicate that
QS signals must to be involved at least in the full formation of the
monolayer-type biofilm on the glass surface.
Influence of inducing flavonoids on the QS systemsOur earlier results demonstrated that nod gene inducing
flavonoids increase the overall production of QS signals in S.fredii SMH12 [5]. To investigate if the activation of the QS
systems takes place during the biofilm formation a quantification
of the overall AI production was carried out in each condition and
strain during the biofilm formation experiments on microtiter
plates using the A. tumefaciens NT1 (pZRL4) biosensor. Firstly,
the optimal concentration of bacterial supernatant required to
obtain the wider differences between each condition without
reaching saturation were determined adding different concentra-
tions of bacterial supernatants (1%, 0.1% and 0.01%). The
optimal concentration for these assays was 1% of the total volume
of the biosensor culture (data not shown). Under these exper-
imental conditions, results showed that the presence of genistein
provoked a statistically significant higher production of AIs only in
SMH12 (17% more), indicating that nod gene inducing flavonoids
enhanced the QS signals accumulation via NodD1. Furthermore,
b-galactosidase activity only in the presence of these flavonoids
was similar to that obtained in the negative control (Table 4). As
expected, a strong decrease in AI accumulation was detected in the
supernatants from the lactonase strain, with or without genistein
(Table 4). A supplementary TLC with extracts of the supernatants
of biofilm experiments in microtiter plates showed a complete
degradation of all AHLs in the lactonase strain. In the SMH12
strain carrying the empty plasmid no changes in the AHL profile
were observed with respect to the wild-type strain (data not
shown).
Finally, to ascertain if the increase in AHL production with
flavonoids in biofilm culture assays was correlated with an increase
of gene transcription, a quantitative real time RT-PCR assays was
carried out. Results showed that the expression of traI, an AHL-
synthesis gene from SMH12 [5], significantly increased (5-fold) in
the presence of genistein compared to the control without
flavonoids. No changes in the traI expression were observed in
the presence of flavonoid in the case of the nodD1 mutant or in the
lactonase strain, suggesting that the induction of the transcription
takes place via NodD1 and that QS systems are necessary for the
gene expression enhancement probably due to the typical positive
feedback of the QS systems at high cellular density (Fig. 4a). As
control, the expression of nodA, a gene positively regulated via
NodD1 and flavonoids, was measured. As expected, a statistically
significant increase was observed in nodA gene expression (46-fold
and 24-fold, respectively) in both SMH12 and lactonase strains in
the presence of genistein, but not in the nodD1 mutant.
Interestingly, the nodA gene expression in the lactonase strain in
the presence of genistein was significantly lower than in the wild-
type (Fig. 4b), which could explain both the reduced soybean
nodulation and the less rizosphere attachment capacities of the
Quorum Sensing and Flavonoids Regulate Symbiotic Biofilm
PLOS ONE | www.plosone.org 8 August 2014 | Volume 9 | Issue 8 | e105901
lactonase strain, connecting the Nod factor production with these
capacities (Table 2, Table 3, Fig. 1).
All these observations suggest that SMH12 nod gene inducing
flavonoids enhance the transcription of certain AHL synthesis
genes and the overall AHL production in biofilm experiments via
NodD1 when the bacteria have reached the necessary cell density
threshold.
Role of the QS signals on biofilm formationFinally, for a more exhaustive analysis of the role of each QS
signal in the biofilm formation, bacterial adhesion to polystyrene
surface (biofilm formation experiments) was studied after 7 days of
growing in low-phosphate MGM medium (Fig. 5). Firstly, it was
confirmed that the glass coverage results obtained in confocal
microscopy experiments are correlated with the bacterial adhesion
values obtained in biofilm formation in polystyrene microtiter
plate experiments. Thus, we could use this experimental approach
to study the different biofilm structures. As shown in Figure 5, in
the presence of genistein, SMH12 showed a significant reduction
in the adhesion value to the abiotic surface (80%, where * is the
statistical significance of the differences observed using the Mann–
Whitney non-parametric test). Only a slight reduction was
obtained using umbelliferone, a non-inducing flavonoid [5]. In
the case of nodD1 mutant, the adhesion values with or without
flavonoids were similar to those obtained in the case of SMH12
without flavonoid. However, in the lactonase strain a lower
adhesion was observed to polystyrene surfaces (50%) in all cases
with respect to the wild-type strain without flavonoids, indicating
that QS signals must be implied in the full differentiation of both
types of biofilm on polystyrene surface since neither the high
values without flavonoids nor the low values with inducing
flavonoids are reached. To confirm that the differences observed
in this strain were not due to the presence of the plasmid, the
adhesion values were studied using SMH12 carrying the empty
plasmid (pME6000). The experiment confirmed that this strain
behaved like the wild-type strain (Fig. 5a). The absorbance at
600 nm after bacterial growth was similar in all strains and
conditions (data not shown). Thus, the adhesion values to
polystyrene surface in the wild type strain have a correlation with
the values of surface coverage obtained on a glass surface with
confocal microscopy experiments (Fig. 2).
Once this method was validated as a reporter of the formation
of the different biofilm types (monolayer with high values of
coverage/adhesion and microcolony with low values of coverage/
adhesion), the influence of QS signals in the biofilm formation of
SMH12 with or without inducing flavonoids was studied. For this
purpose, the cognate AHLs of SMH12, 3-oxo-C8-HSL, C8-HSL
and C14-HSL [5], were added to wild-type bacterial cultures at
physiological concentrations (data not shown) in biofilm formation
experiments on microtiter plates (Fig. 5b). A slight increase or
decrease in the adhesion to the polystyrene surface was observed
when the medium was supplemented with C8-HSL or C14-HSL,
respectively. However, these differences were not statistically
significant (Fig. 5b). The absorbance at 600 nm after bacterial
growth was similar in all bacteria and conditions (data not shown).
Discussion
During the first stages of root colonization, leguminous plants
exudate molecules which chemotactically attract rhizobia. Once in
the rhizosphere, the rhizobial population colonizes the root
surface, forming a bacterial community surrounded by a matrix
produced by its own bacteria, the biofilm. In the family
Rhizobiaceae, the bacterial intrinsic factors that are required for
the biofilm formation are mainly EPS and bacterial QS systems as
well as in the case of S. meliloti the Nod factor production [12]. A
fundamental question is whether the process of biofilm formation
significantly affects nodulation in the symbiosis S. fredii SMH12-
G. max cv. Osumi. To answer this question, the significance of QS
systems and the nod gene inducing flavonoids on the biofilm
formation, the colonization and the symbiosis with soybean were
studied by means of both a nodD1 mutant and a lactonase strain of
S. fredii SMH12.
As expected, nodulation tests with soybean showed that the
symbiotic phenotype of the nodD1 mutant is similar to that
obtained in non-inoculated plants, since this bacterium is unable to
detect via NodD1 the flavonoids exuded by plants. Consequently
the Nod factor production is blocked. Interestingly, results indicate
that SMH12 QS systems could regulate some important process
during the symbiosis, since the lactonase strain showed reductions
in both the plant top dry mass and the fresh mass of nodules
formed with respect to the wild-type strain but only in the number
of nodules the reduction was statistically significant (Table 2). As
described in the introduction, QS regulates a broad variety of
phenotypes, including the biofilm formation. In the review of
Rinaudi and Giordano [12] the mechanisms involved in both the
rhizobial biofilm formation and the attachment to the plant roots
are summarized. Taking into consideration the previous reports,
they concluded that the biofilm lifestyle allows rhizobia to survive
under unfavourable conditions and in certain species the biofilm
formation is clearly an important feature of symbiotic ability
[19,22,23,24]. However, the role and regulation of biofilm
formation during the symbiosis S. fredii SMH12-soybean has
not been reported. Our results suggest that there is a correlation
between QS systems, biofilm formation, root colonization and
symbiosis. Firstly, three independent experiments of bacterial root
colonization showed a significant reduction in bacterial root
colonization in the nodD1 mutant and especially in the lactonase
strain. These differences were more visible in the lateral root
colonization (Table 3). Interestingly, in addition to the differences
in the bacterial number, these two strains showed more of a spread
surface distribution on roots compared to the wild-type, in which
the bacteria appeared clustered (Fig. 1). These observations would
indicate that the nodD1 mutant and specially the lactonase strain
do not colonize the root surface optimally due to an alteration in
their biofilm formation ability. The impaired biofilm formation in
the case of the lactonase strain would explain its less nodulation
capacity in the soybean test (Table 2).
To corroborate this hypothesis, the biofilm structure was
analyzed by confocal microscopy. Two types of biofilms were
observed, the monolayer-type in the absence of flavonoid
(bacterial population cover the entire surface homogeneously),
and the microcolony-type in the presence of genistein (bacterial
population is clustered) (Fig. 2a and Fig. 3a). These observations
would indicate that on the surface of the legume root, with a high
concentration of flavonoids, the bacterial biofilm could undergo a
transition from monolayer to microcolony. Perhaps this biofilm
structure allows the bacterial colonization of specific root areas
(those with high flavonoid exudation), which would be the optimal
for the symbiosis initiation (i.e. root hairs).
Furthermore, analysing these results we infer that QS systems is
involved at least in the formation of the monolayer type, since the
lactonase strain developed incomplete biofilm phenotypes without
inducing flavonoids (Fig. 2c and Fig. 3c). In fact, most rhizobial
biofilms investigated so far are regulated directly or indirectly by
QS systems [12]. Interestingly, the transition to microcolony-type
biofilm requires Nod factor production since this biofilm was not
developed in the presence of genistein in the nodD1 mutant
Quorum Sensing and Flavonoids Regulate Symbiotic Biofilm
PLOS ONE | www.plosone.org 9 August 2014 | Volume 9 | Issue 8 | e105901
(Fig. 2b and Fig. 3b). Fujishige et al. [19] reported that
nodD1ABC of S. meliloti, involved in the synthesis of Nod factors,
are necessary for the three-dimensional architecture of the biofilm
and, in fact, these molecules are present in the biofilm matrix. The
mutation of any of these genes generates a monolayer-type biofilm.
However, in contrast with our results, the presence of inducing
flavonoids is not necessary for the development of three
dimensional structures in the biofilm of S. meliloti [19].
Interestingly, our findings also suggest that flavonoids, beyond
inducing the synthesis of Nod factors (which integrate the
symbiotic biofilm matrix), are enhancing the QS systems in
biofilm formation experiments (Table 4 and Fig. 4a). In the
presence of inducing flavonoids, an increase in the traI expression
and in the overall AI production was detected. These effects were
not observed in the lactonase strain due to the positive feed-back
regulation of the QS systems which only occurs when the
threshold in cellular density is reached [6] (Fig. 4a and Table 4).
Furthermore, it is clear that the enhancement of the traI gene
expression takes place via NodD1, because in the nodD1 mutant
this over expression was not observed. He et al. [38] studied the
QS systems of Rhizobium sp. NGR234, a Sinorhizobium frediirelated bacterium, but they only unequivocally identified the trasystem. This QS system is homologous to the one responsible for
the plasmid Ti transfer in A. tumefaciens. This transference occurs
only in the presence of opines, compounds that are produced by
plants. Control of the Ti plasmid transference is modulated by
TraM, a small protein that binds to and inactivates TraR, which
senses the AI concentration. The induction in the presence of
opines allows the synthesis of TraR at levels that overcome the
inhibitory activity of TraM, activating the QS systems and the
plasmid transfer [39]. In NGR234, the over expression of TraR
activates not only the tra system but also other QS systems of the
bacteria, since an increase in the overall AI production was
detected [34]. However, so far, no natural compounds exuded by
plants (similar to opines for A. tumefaciens QS systems) have been
identified as inductor molecules for NGR234. Interestingly, results
obtained in this paper and those reported in our previous work [5]
indicate that the nod gene inducing flavonoids could be these
inducing compounds for S. fredii SMH12.
In summary, experiments show that SMH12 QS systems must
be involved at least in the full differentiation of monolayer-type
biofilm and, moreover, in the presence of inducing flavonoids,
these systems increase the AHL production and the biofilm
undergoes a transition to microcolony-type (Fig. 4a, Table 4 and
Fig. 2). Logically, this expression increase in the presence of
flavonoids could be related to the developement of the microcol-
ony-type biofilm, which would only occur in the rhizosphere. This
fact would allow, through a unique key molecule, the efficient
colonization of the legume root and the activation of the synthesis
of Nod factors, both required for successful symbiosis. Interest-
ingly, the study of the role of QS signals on biofilm formation
experiments (Fig. 5) showed no statistically differences in adhesion
values with or without flavonoid after addition of the wild-type
cognate AHLs (Fig. 5b). However, in the case of the lactonase
strain, the decrease in the adhesion values in the presence of
inducing flavonoids did not reach the values obtained in the wild-
type strain. This result suggests that, despite the transition to
microcolony-type biofilm is regulated directly by NodD1 protein
and inducing flavonoids (Fig. 2), the QS signals could also be
involved in the full differentiation of this biofilm on the polystyrene
surface (Fig. 5a).
Thus, taking into consideration all the results, we propose the
following model (Fig. 6): S. fredii SMH12 forms a QS-regulated
monolayer-type biofilm (whose matrix would be mainly composed
of EPS, water and ions) when bacterium colonizes soil. In the
rhizosphere, the exudation of inducing flavonoids, besides
inducing the synthesis of Nod factors which are necessary for the
microcolony-type biofilm, potentiate via NodD1 the tra QS
system, which leads to an overproduction of the QS signals. This
accumulation and the synthesis of Nod factors are required for the
full development of the microcolony-type biofilm, whose matrix
should be composed of EPS, water, ions and Nod factors. The
complete formation of this symbiotic biofilm is necessary for a
successful root colonization and symbiosis between rhizobia and
legume.
Despite demonstrating in this work that the rhizobial biofilm
formation is important for colonization and symbiosis of S. frediiSMH12 with the soybean, there are still many aspects that must to
be studied in the future to further clarify this process.
Acknowledgments
We would like to thank the Laboratorio de Microscopıa de Barrido y
Analisis por Energıa Dispersiva de Rayos X from the Universidad
Autonoma de Madrid for electronic barrier microscopy assays. Thanks to
Servicio General de Biologıa of the CITIUS from the University of Seville
for allowing us to use their laboratory equipment. Thanks to Diane Haun
for English style supervision. Special thanks to Miguel Camara, for his
comments on an earlier version of the manuscript.
Author Contributions
Conceived and designed the experiments: FPM RB JL RE. Performed the
experiments: FPM IJG PDC IBR. Analyzed the data: FPM RB JL RE.
Contributed reagents/materials/analysis tools: FJO JL. Contributed to the
writing of the manuscript: FPM FJL RE.
References
1. Murray JD. (2011) Invasion by invitation: rhizobial infection in legumes. Mol
Plant-Microbe Interact 24: 631–639.
2. Somers E, Vanderleyden J, Srinivasan M. (2004). Rhizosphere bacterial
signalling: a love parade beneath our feet. Crit Rev Microbiol 30: 205–240.
3. Krause A, Doerfel A, Gottfert M. (2002) Mutational and Transcriptional
Analysis of the Type III Secretion System of Bradyrhizobium japonicum. Mol
Plant Microbe Interact 12: 1228–1235.
4. Lopez-Baena FJ, Vinardell JM, Perez-Montano F, Crespo-Rivas JC, Bellogın
RA, et al. (2008) Regulation and symbiotic significance of nodulation outer
proteins secretion in Sinorhizobium fredii HH103. Microbiology 154: 1825–
1836.
5. Perez-Montano F, Guasch-Vidal B, Gonzalez-Barroso S, Lopez-Baena FJ, Cubo
T, et al. (2011) Nodulation-gene-inducing flavonoids increase overall production
of autoinducers and expression of N-acyl homoserine lactone synthesis genes in
rhizobia. Res Microbiol 162: 715–723.
6. Fuqua WC, Winans SC, Greenberg EP. (1994) Quorum sensing in bacteria: the
LuxR-LuxI family of cell density-responsive transcriptional regulators. J Bacter-
iol 176: 269–275.
7. Miller MB, Bassler BL. (2001) Quorum sensing in bacteria. Annu Rev Microbiol
55: 165–199.
8. Marketon MM, Glenn SA, Eberhard A, Gonzalez JE. (2003) Quorum sensing
controls exopolysaccharide production in Sinorhizobium meliloti. J Bacteriol
185: 25–331.
9. Ohtani K, Hayashi H, Shimizu T. (2002) The luxS gene is involved in cell-cell
signalling for toxin production in Clostridium perfringens. Mol Microbiol 44:
171–179.
10. Quinones B, Dulla G, Lindow SE. (2005) Quorum sensing regulates
exopolysaccharide production, motility, and virulence in Pseudomonas syringae.Mol Plant-Microbe Interact 18: 682–693.
11. Rice SA, Koh KS, Queck SY, Labbate M, Lam KW, et al. (2005) Biofilm
formation and sloughing in Serratia marcescens are controlled by quorum
sensing and nutrient cues. J Bacteriol 187: 3477–3485.
12. Rinaudi LV, Giordano W. (2010) An integrated view of biofilm formation in
rhizobia. FEMS Microbiol Lett 304: 1–11.
13. Cha C, Gao P, Chen YC, Shaw PD, Farrand SK. (1998) Production of acyl-
homoserine lactone quorum-sensing signals by gram-negative plant-associated
bacteria. Mol Plant-Microbe Interact 11: 1119–1129.
Quorum Sensing and Flavonoids Regulate Symbiotic Biofilm
PLOS ONE | www.plosone.org 10 August 2014 | Volume 9 | Issue 8 | e105901
14. Costerton JW, Lewandowski Z, Caldwell DE, Korber DR, Lappin-Scott HM.
(1995) Microbial biofilm. Annu Rev Microbiol 49: 711–745.15. Stanley NR, Lazazzera BA. (2004) Environmental signals and regulatory
pathways that influence biofilm formation. Mol Microbiol 52: 917–924.
16. Sutherland IW. (2001) Biofilm exopolysaccharides: a strong and stickyframework. Microbiology 147: 3–9.
17. Rinaudi L, Fujishige NA, Hirsch AM, Banchio E, Zorreguieta A, et al. (2006)Effects of nutritional and environmental conditions on Sinorhizobium melilotibiofilm formation. Res Microbiol 157: 867–875.
18. Fujishige NA, Kapadia NN, De Hoff PL, Hirsch AM. (2006) Investigations ofRhizobium biofilm formation. FEMS Microbiol Ecol 56: 195–206.
19. Fujishige NA, Lum MR, De Hoff PL, Whitelegge JP, Faull KF, et al. (2008)Rhizobium common nod genes are required for biofilm formation. Mol
Microbiol 67: 504–515.20. Wells DH, Chen EJ, Fisher RF, Long SR. (2007) ExoR is genetically coupled to
the ExoS-ChvI two-component system and located in the periplasm of
Sinorhizobium meliloti. Mol Microbiol 64: 647–664.21. Rinaudi LV, Gonzalez JE. (2009) The low-molecular-weight fraction of
exopolysaccharide II from Sinorhizobium meliloti is a crucial determinant ofbiofilm formation. J Bacteriol 191: 7216–7224.
22. Gonzalez JE, Marketon MM (2003) Quorum sensing in nitrogen-fixing rhizobia.
Microbiol Mol Biol Rev 67: 574–592.23. Loh JT, Yuen-Tsai JP, Stacey MG, Lohar D, Welborn A, et al. (2001)
Population density-dependent regulation of the Bradyrhizobium japonicumnodulation genes. Mol Microbiol 42: 37–46.
24. Jitacksorn S1, Sadowsky MJ (2008) Nodulation gene regulation and quorumsensing control density-dependent suppression and restriction of nodulation in
the Bradyrhizobium japonicum-soybean symbiosis. Appl Environ Microbiol 74:
3749–3756.25. Perez-Montano F, Jimenez-Guerrero I, Sanchez-Matamoros RC, Lopez-Baena
FJ, Ollero FJ, et al. (2013) Rice and bean AHL-mimic quorum-sensing signalsspecifically interfere with the capacity to form biofilms by plant-associated
bacteria. Res Microbiol 164: 749–760.
26. Beringer JE. (1974) R factor transfer in Rhizobium leguminosarum. J GenMicrobiol 84: 188–198.
27. Vincent JM (1970) The modified Fahraeus slide technique. In A manual for thepractical study of root nodule bacteria, 144–145. Edited by J. M. Vincent.
Oxford, UK: Blackwell Scientific Publications.28. Sambrook J, Fritsch EF, Maniatis T(1989) Molecular cloning: a laboratory
manual, 2nd edn. Cold Spring Harbor NY: Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory.
29. Lamrabet Y, Bellogın RA, Cubo T, Espuny R, Gil A, et al. (1999) Mutation inGDP-fucose synthesis genes of Sinorhizobium fredii alters Nod factors and
significantly decreases competitiveness to nodulate soybeans. Mol Plant-MicrobeInteract 12: 207–217.
30. Simon R. (1984) High frequency mobilization of gram-negative bacterial
replicons by the in vitro constructed TnS-Mob transposon. Mol Gen Genet 196:413–420.
31. Lopez-Baena FJ, Monreal JA, Perez-Montano F, Guasch-Vidal B, Bellogın RA,et al. (2009) The absence of Nops secretion in Sinorhizobium fredii HH103
increases GmPR1 expression in Williams soybean. Mol Plant-Microbe Interact22: 1445–1454.
32. Russo DM, Williams A, Edwards A, Posadas DM, Finnie C, et al. (2006)
Proteins exported via the PrsD-PrsE type I secretion system and the acidic
exopolysaccharide are involved in biofilm formation by Rhizobium legumino-sarum. J Bacteriol 188: 4474–4486.
33. O’Toole GA, Kolter R. (1998) Initiation of biofilm formation in Pseudomonasfluorescens WCS365 proceeds via multiple, convergent signalling pathways: a
genetic analysis. Mol Microbiol 28: 449–461.
34. Mueller K, Gonzalez JE. (2011) Complex regulation of symbiotic functions is
coordinated by MucR and quorum sensing in Sinorhizobium meliloti. J Bacteriol
193: 485–496.
35. Miller JH. (1972) Experiments in molecular genetics. Cold Spring Harbor
Laboratory Press. Cold Spring Harbor, New York (USA).
36. de Lyra, MCCP, Lopez-Baena FJ, Madinabeitia N, Vinardell JM, Espuny MR,
et al. (2006) Inactivation of the Sinorhizobium fredii HH103 rhcJ gene abolishes
nodulation outer proteins (Nops) secretion and decreases the symbiotic capacity
with soybean. Int Microbiol 9: 125–133.
37. Barahona E, Navazo A, Yousef-Coronado F, Aguirre de Carcer D, Martınez-
Granero F, et al. (2010) Efficient rhizosphere colonization by Pseudomonasfluorescens f113 mutants unable to form biofilms on abiotic surfaces. Environ
Microbiol 12: 3185–3195.
38. He X, Chang W, Pierce DL, Seib LO, Wagner J, et al. (2003) Quorum sensing
in Rhizobium sp. strain NGR234 regulates conjugal transfer (tra) gene expression
and influences growth rate. J Bacteriol 185: 809–822.
39. Piper KR, Farrand SK. (2000) Quorum sensing but not autoinduction of Ti
plasmid conjugal transfer requires control by the opine regulon and the
antiactivator TraM. J Bacteriol 182: 1080–1088.
40. Rodrıguez-Navarro DN, Bellogın R, Camacho M, Daza A, Medina C, et al.
(2003) Field assessment and genetic stability of Sinorhizobium fredii strain
SMH12 for commercial soybean inoculants. Eur J Agron 19: 299–309.
41. Kovach ME, Elzer PH, Hill DS, Robertson GT, Farris MA, et al. (1995) Four
new derivatives of the broad-host-range cloning vector pBBR1MCS, carrying
different antibiotic-resistance cassettes. Gene 166: 175–176.
42. Schafer A, Tauch A, Jager W, Kalinowski J, Thierbach G, et al. (1994) Small
mobilizable multi-purpose cloning vectors derived from the Escherichia coliplasmids pK18 and pK19: selection of defined deletions in the chromosome of
Corynebacterium glutamicum. Gene 145: 69–73.
43. Maurhofer M, Reimmann C, Schmidli-Sacherer P, Heeb S, Haas D, et al.
(1998) Salicylic acid biosynthetic genes expressed in Pseudomonas fluorescensstrain P3 improve the induction of systemic resistance in tobacco against tobacco
necrosis virus. Phytopathology 88: 678–684.
44. Reimmann C, Ginet N, Michel L, Keel C, Michaux P, et al. (2002) Genetically
programmed autoinducer destruction reduces virulence gene expression and
swarming motility in Pseudomonas aeruginosa PAO1. Microbiology 148: 923–
932.
45. Stuurman N, Pacios-Bras C, Schlaman HR, Wijfjes AH, Bloemberg G, et al.
(2000) Use of green fluorescent protein color variants expressed on stable broad-
host-range vectors to visualize rhizobia interacting with plants. Mol Plant
Microbe-Interact 13: 1163–1169.
46. Vinardell JM, Ollero FJ, Hidalgo A, Lopez-Baena FJ, Medina C, et al. (2004)
NolR regulates diverse symbiotic signals of Sinorhizobium fredii HH103. Mol
Plant Microbe-Interact 17: 676.
47. Figurski DH, Helinski DR. (1979) Replication of an origin-containing derivative
of plasmid RK2 dependent on a plasmid function provided in trans. Proc Natl
Acad Sci USA 76: 1648–1652.
Quorum Sensing and Flavonoids Regulate Symbiotic Biofilm
PLOS ONE | www.plosone.org 11 August 2014 | Volume 9 | Issue 8 | e105901