The Syrian Tabqa Dam: Its Development and Impact

Monib EI-Khatib

University of Damascus-Syria

The Euphrates River has its sources in eastern Turkey's Anatolian Plateau and extends 3,000 kilometers through Syria and Iraq before it discharges into the river's delta at Shat AI-Arab in the Ara­bian Gulf. It is an exotic river, a center of past civilization and population, and a managed river with an extensive delta. It floods in early summer but its flooded area dries-out very quickly in the semi­arid climate. The Euphrates River can maintain an annual flow throughout its course because of relatively high rainfall and snow-melt at higher elevations. Uti ­lization of its drainage basin has been intensified from its source in the up­lands of Turkey to the Gulf since ancient times. The purpose of this paper is to describe one of the intensification proj­ects, viz., Syria 's activities along its northern portion of the Euphrates River where it constructed the Tabqa Dam and Lake Assad, and to assess the project's impact.

THE EUPHRATES VALLEY IN SYRIA

The Euphrates Basin occupies 65,000 km2 (35%) of the total surface area of Syria. The Euphrates River and its prin­cipal tributaries, the Balikh and the Kha­bur, comprise about 83% of the total yearly water discharge of Syria 's rivers . Soil texture in the valley is composed of alluvium deposited during flood stages. It ranges from clay to silt and sandy silt. If irrigated, these productive soi ls are well suited for wheat, barley, corn, rice, cotton, sugar beets, and or­chards.

Like many major river valleys throughout the world, the flood plains have been known for the ir fertility and production of crops, glorious cities, and their high population density. Water management of the valley goes back at least 6,000 years to the Samarian age. Productive use of the water and the prosperous cities made the basin a great temptation for neighboring powers. As a result, the Euphrates valley, like the re­mainder of the region, was dominated by powerful nations over the course of history. These conquerors left behind many remnants to reveal their existence

19

in present Syria. Archeological findings in the area represent cultural remnants of each dominating power, including the Arabs, which rose to authority in 635 A.D.

Historically, the Euphrates River was utilized by many civilizations. During the Abbasid' golden age period, many ca­nals constructed from the Euphrates for irrigation purposes were concentrated near the cities. Efficient water manage­ment was destroyed in the thirteenth century by Hulaguis army. People were killed, cities were demolished, docu­ments were burned, and the irrigation system was destroyed. Since the Mu­gulis invasion, 1258 A.D., the area has been less ,intensively utilized. The river was just an avenue at the edge of the desert. Little urbanization occurred in the area until after World War I when Syria , was placed under the French mandate. By then, potential benefits of the Eu­phrates River water were recognized.

HISTORY OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE EUPHRATES PROJECT

The idea of building a dam on the Eu­phrates River in Syria occurred during the French mandate period in the 1930's. The aim was to irrigate 100,000 hectares of land. Although short-lived, the idea was revived2 on March 30, 1947 when the Syrian government signed an agree­ment with an English company to study the exploitation of the Euphrates water. The main purpose was to generate elec­tricity to pump drinking water to the ma­jor western city of Aleppo. At the same time the company was assigned to search for a possible dam site at Yussif Pasha, approximately 25 kilometers south of the Turkish border, to irrigate the surround­ing areas.

A third proposal was made on No­vember 28, 1957, when the Syrian gov­ernment signed a $270 million agree­ment for Russian economic aid for various projects with the Soviet Union.3

Research on the project lasted three years. During this period, Syria and Egypt united to form one country named United Arab Republic (UAR). The Soviet ex­perts, in search for a suitable site for building a dam, considered three major

20

alternatives: Yussif Pasha, AI-Hassra, and AI-Tabqa (Fig. 1). The purpose of the project, as before, was to build a dam, construct a hydro-electric power station, and irrigate 100,000 hectares of land. The Soviet report concluded with the selec­tion of the Tabqa site as the most fea­sible location and the possibility of us­ing the Yussif Pasha site for additional hydroelectric power in the future.

As an alternative to the Soviet pro­posal, the UAR sent a delegation to Bonn, West Germany on June 26, 1961 regard­ing the Euphrates River project. The del­egation's committee returned with an agreement whereby West Germany would lend the UAR $263 million in aid. It specified that $125 million should be used to finance the Euphrates Dam and the remainder was for Egypt. Neverthe­less, after the split between Syria and Egypt on September 28, 1961, Bonn cancelled its obligation to the Syrian project. The reason was to allow Bonn to maintain a good relationship with Egypt.

By February 1963, a new agreement between Syria and West Germany was initiated. According to this agreement, West Germany was to lend Syria $88 million ($37 million less than in 1961) for the Euphrates project. This was to be paid back to West Germany in 20 years and was to begin six years after the agree­ment at an interest rate of 3.75 percent.

Meanwhile, the Syrian administration of the Euphrates project had signed an agreement with the Swedish (V.B.B.) and West German (Lahmeyer) companies .. The agreement gave the two companies an assignment to conduct research re­garding construction of a dam on the Euphrates River at the Tabqa site. By February 29, 1964, the two companies submitted their engineering reports. They included building an earthen dam with an impermeable central core of clay. The water level behind the dam would be 300 meters above sea level in the first stage. This level would be raised to 320 meters during the second stage. The hydroelec­tric power station would be built at the southern embankment with a capacity of 800 megawatts. The report also recom-

r

TURKEY .--' '\ /'-'-'-'-'~ .

(~...... .- ' i ...,. ....... . -"

r

i ..... :)

.i

<.:. \ .,

ALEPPO

o

SYRIA

/ /

/

.~:. f.Q"< (/ «i r ' -'

" ( DAMASCUS ;0 /

11 . .,; i

I r--. i \'"

.......

TABOA DAM

RESERVOIR

,. ."

SCALE

I

i

"' I .I I

(

/

IRAQ

.0 100

~_"""_-'I KM

FIGURE 1. STUDY AREA (TABOA & LAKE ASSADI : SYRIA

SOURCE : SYRIA MINISTRY OF THE EUPHRATES DAM, 1973

mended building a spillway at the north­ern embankment with a discharge ca­pacity of 19,000 cubic meters per second to control flooding.

The previously mentioned West Ger­man agreement ran into many technical and financial difficulties. The German plan differed from those of the Swedish and Soviet experts' plan on many points. The main obstacle according to the Syr­ian government was the refusal of the West Germans to pay for development of the chalk soils in the Lower Khabur Basin. The Germans also insisted on having a pre-agreement on the alloca­tion of the Euphrates water between Syria , Iraq, and Turkey. Furthermore, West Germany demanded that one of their companies (West German Concor­dia Company) be allowed to invest in

Syrian oil fields which Syria refused. Consequently, Syria dropped Bonn's aid.

In a final attempt to have the project implemented, Syria looked to renew the previous Soviet agreement which was rejected during the UAR era. Syrian ef­forts in this direction were successful. By April 22, 1966, a new agreement was signed between Syria and Russia to be the first step toward implementing the Euphrates project. The project's imple­mentation, which had been swerving between many countries and different types of government, had started to de­velop.

THE SYRIA-SOVIET AGREEMENT

The final agreement between Syria and the Soviet Union to build the Tabqa Dam on the Euphrates River was put into

21

effect on December 18, 1966. In this agreement, the guidelines for each side to follow were described. The text of the agreement included the following :4

1. Both governments are to coop­erate with the construction of the first stage which had two major parts, bu i lding an earthen dam and con-

- structing the hydroelectric power sta­tion.

2. The Soviets are to make and of­fer the designs and studies. They are to organize and supervise the work. The equ ipment and materials, includ­ing transm ission lines and the water pumps, are to be delivered by the So­viets to Syria.

3. The Syrians are to facilitate the engineering work of the Soviets and to submit their opinions. The local materials and services are to be pro­vided by the Syrians. All construction and building works are to be carried­out financially and physically by the Syrians.

4. The Soviet Un ion lends the Syr­ian government 120 million rubles ($133 million) at an annual interest rate of 2.5%. This loan is to pay for ma­ter ials, equipment, and machines needed for the project, and is to cover the expenses of Soviet experts. Re­payment is to be in 12 payments at equal installments, one every year for 12 years, after one year from date of completion of the first stage. The method of payment would include exportation of Syrian commodities to the Soviet Union or hard currency.

Since the agreement in 1966 w ith the U.S.S.R., geologists began their re­search, geographers plotted the avail ­able data on maps and joined the ge­olog i sts in the water research and studies, and social scientists began to search for solutions to potential human problems and the need to develop sur­rounding areas. Of particular impor­tance was the need to provide the in­habitants, who were located in the area planned for inundation, with new hous­ing. In essence, the Euphrates project

22

went through three5 major stages: 1) the hydrologic investigations, the geology, and related studies; 2) the physical con­struction; 3) and implementation of eco­nomic programs in the region.

THE HYDROLOGY INVESTIGATION

The main goal of the water research was to forecast water movement relat­ing to the project. Hydrologic and cli ­matic data, which included the accu­mulation of sediments in the reservoir, were obtained. Loss of water by evapo­transpiration and water infiltration to the groundwater system was computed. Ex­perts had to study the dynamics of water in its new channel. Materials needed for the basic study of water in the labora­tory, e.g., measuring resistance, perme­ability, and chemical elements, were gathered to establish models and em­pirical data for the dam and its reser­voir.

THE GEOLOGIC RESEARCH

Geologists assessed the suitability of the rocks for the structure's foundation by examining resistance of the rock, specific gravity of the soil, and impact of the chemical substances which may dis­solve construction materials. The nega­tive effects of water on the material used for paving and cementing the construc­tion parts were taken into consideration. They also studied the possibility of us­ing the water for drinking and industrial purposes.

Scientists who examined the condi­tions in the Euphrates River area before and after the dam construction aimed to conclude whether the reservoir will en­dure long enough to pay for its con­struction. They warned about the de­struction of the river ' s course from erosion and concluded that the accu­mulation of sediment in the reservoir was expected to average 140 million tons a year. This figure6 put the Euphrates River sixth in the sediment yield of the world rivers, after the Amazon (1,000), Missis­sippi (730), Indus (400), Irrawaddy (350), and Colorado (160) million tons a year. The Euphrates has 81 million tons a year more than the Nile sediment yield .

It was predicted by engineers that new dams constructed on the river's up­stream portion in Turkey would capture some sediments and therefore eliminate them from the total amount that would otherwise reach the Syrian reservoir project. However, they expected that the predicted yearly average accumulation would enable the Tabqa Dam to perform at its maximum altitude of 320 m. above sea level for many decades. This conclu­sion led to an official decision to build the dam with no fear of filling the lake with sediments.

THE TABQA DAM AND LAKE ASSAD

The Euphrates River dam and reser­voir project altered the physical land­scape of the project area and has given it a different appearance. The water now covers many sites which were previ­ously villages or ancient ruins. Also, the biology of the flooded area has been changed. Animals, e.g., sheep, sheep dogs, camels, and donkeys and terres­trial plants have been replaced with aquatic plants and animals. New living

quarters had to be constructed for peo­ple working on the project and for peo­ple who were displaced from the innun­dated area . The old water intake of Aleppo, which was engulfed by water, had to be replaced. Therefore, besides the major components of the project such as the dam, the reservoir, and the power station, many other physical and social needs had to be considered. Table 1 provides the sequence of events, current work and future activities associated with the Euphrates Project.

The Tabqa Dam is an earthen struc­ture composed of gravel and sand, with an impermeable central core of clay. This design was chosen to provide full safety guarantees. Another major reason for this design was the availability of the re­quired construction materials from local sources near the work site.

The dimensions and capacities of the dam are as follows:

a) The dam length, with its north­ern embankment, is 4,500 m.

b) The height is 60 m.

TABLE 1

Stage

Complete

In progress

Future action

Work Achievement of the Euphrates Project

Dam and the spillway Typical villages The Pilot Project,

Fruit nurseries Experimental farms Cow station

Work Description

Hydroelectric Power Station Reservoir (filled) Cotton spinning mill in Hama Paper plant in Deir Ez-Zor Sugar beet factory in Meskene Land reclamation on about 100,000 ha. Work on the salt and gypsum problems. Electrifying the total country (Syria). Building eight more electrical turbines in the Euphrates power

station. Complete the land reclamation in the Euphrates project area. Building more factories countrywide.

Source : Syria Ministry of the Euphrates Dam, and Darwich, Samir A, 1980.

Date

1973 1973 1973 1973 1973 1973 1975 1975 1976 1978 1980

23

c) In longitudinal profile, the max­imum width at the base is 512 m. and at the crest it is 19 m.

d) The volume of the dam is 41 million m3 of fill materials.

e) The regular storage level of the dam is 300 m above the sea level at the first stage. It is possible to raise this storage level to 320 m. in the fu­ture.

The Assad Lake Reservoir is an arti­ficial lake created behind the dam. The lake surface of 630 sq. km. extends 80 km . northwestwards to the village of Yussif Pasha. It has an average width of eight kilometers. The total stored capac­ity of water is about 12 billion m3

. Other uses for the water include fishing , water transportation and hydroelectric power. Because of the location of the lake in a semi-arid region new recreational activ­ities emerged. The new water body cre­ated a milder climate because of the higher humidity. This is an important factor to tourists who are being at­tracted by the new appearance of the area. Tourists come from different parts of Syria and other foreign countries.

The hydroelectric station which forms a part of the dam body is situated on the southern side of the flood plain. This station can accommodate eight gener­ating units of 100,000 kilowatts each at + 300 meters above sea level. This ca­pacity is to be increased to 1,100 thou­sand kilowatts at the + 320 meters above sea level in the future. The spillway's construction is to protect the downriver pla in from possible heavy flooding . This spillway is comprised of eight loopholes that work automatically when the water in the reservoir reaches the level of + 300 m. above sea level. The discharge ca­pacity of the power station and the spill­way is 15,700 m3 j sec. This figure ex­ceeds the maximum recurrence interval every 10,000 years with 2,700 m3 j sec. which gives more safety to the dam and the associated equ ipment.

By July 5, 1973, the date7 established for the alteration of the river course, construction of the dam and power sta­tion was completed as scheduled. After

24

the order was issued on 11 : 1 a A.M., si­multaneously trucks discharged cubic or pyramid shaped armid (fortified with iron bars) and cement into the water. In a few hours the river's course was sealed and the water shifted to its new man-made channel. At the moment when the riv­er's course was altered a new era of de­velopment began. Over 10,000 families had been transferred to new areas where typical rural villages were built and water was being captured for future irrigation.

AGRICULTURAL IMPACT

The total irrigated land in Syria be­tween 1953 and 1967 was estimated at about 17% of the total cropped area. The remaining 83% depended on rainfall , which is adequate in the coastal plains and the western mountains but be­comes increasingly inadequate in the south and east. The total irrigated crop­land in 1967 was about 530,000 hec­tares. The potential irrigated area, based on various resources at that time, was about 900,000 hectares.s

Agriculturally related problems had developed in the past and some of these continue to occur after construction of the dam. Land fertility which accumu­lated through centuries had been con­sumed because of monoculture of cere­als and cotton . This naturally renewed fertility may not continue since the dam prohibits large quantities of sediments from being deposited on the flood pla in. Drought years in the late 1950s also contributed to declining yields in the Je­zira area between the Euphrates and Ti­gris Rivers. Furthermore, extensive mechanization had increased the effects of wind erosion.

Although the previous elements had a negative impact on the Jezira area, the Tabqa Dam contributed to the ongoing physical and cultural changes not only on the Euphrates project area, but on the country as a whole. Some land was in­undated by Lake Assad. Irrigation and drainage canals have given a different appearance to the land by replacing dry agricultural land with irrigation systems. The availabil ity of water for irrigation is permanent. Nevertheless, silt deposited

on the river banks is diminished with the abatement of floods and salt exposed at the surface causes many problems for agriculture in the area. The gypsum problem is an especially critical concern for agriculturalists and the government.

Although potential shortcomings are foreseen, optimism prevails. Agricultural growth is expected to expand at a rate of 8 to 10 percent annually.9 This growth is attributed to a reliable supply of water and energy. Export earnings from cotton have increased from $135 million in 1975 to $280 million in 1979.10 The value of all Syrian agricultural production between 1975 and 1978 increased from $1 ,060 to $1,892 million, or a 78.5% increase. The Euphrates Project was the main factor in this growth."

Assad Lake has been the basis for profitable fish farming since the con­struction of the dam. The Lake already provided more than 500 tons of fresh fish a year in 1979. The General Organization for Fish stocked the lake with several va­rieties including trout, steelhead and others. Hatcheries have been built along the banks. A central hatchery to spawn 10 million fish a year is planned.

The year 2000, which is set for the project completion, will probably not be enough time to achieve expected goals. The 640,000 hectares of land projected to be reclaimed due to improper man­agement may not reach 300,000 hect­ares. The cost of reclaiming a hectare of land is increasing constantly because of salinity and gypsum problems. The ir­rigation of these problem areas is re­lated to the production of a new plastics plant in Aleppo which should provide pipe to irrigate these toxic soils. This will raise the cost per hectare of agriculture. Even though the Syrian government will realize overall profits from agricultural production, the contribution to the Gross Domestic Production will not show a percentage increase since Syrian indus­try is growing more rapidly than agri­culture.

ENERGY AND INDUSTRIAL OUTPUT

The Tabqa Dam produced in 1978 two billion kwh of electricity which is more

than the expected productivity of 1.6 bil­lion kwh per year. Although the Tabqa Dam supplies 90% of the country's elec­trical needs, this percentage should in­crease since future expansion of the re­source is anticipated. At present five 100 MW turbines exist. However, French, Swiss, and West German firms are in­volved in installing eight additional tur­bines. This expansion will enable Syria to make itself a center of a five-country electric grid system. The excess power will be sold to Iraq, Turkey, Lebanon and Jordan. If the industrial base of the country increases, adequate hydroelec­tric power will be available.

In the field of industry, the Syrian production value increased between 1975 and 1978 from $2.04 billion to $2.95 bil­lion, or a growth of approximately 50% in three years. 12 This was accomplished because the Euphrates project was com­pleted during that period. Textile pro­duction is one of the expanding export industries and Syria aimed to produce over 100,000 tons a year of cotton (33,000 tons in 1975). To achieve this goal a spinning mill was built in Hama in 1976 with Chinese technical aid. Three other major spinning mills were under con­struction at that time. In Deir Ez-Zor, a paper plant is now fully operational us­ing poplar trees of the Jezira area as raw material. This factory should be able to supply the country with its entire paper needs of 600,000 tons per year.13 An ad­ditional plant was built in Deir Ez-Zor for the production of sugar from sugar beets.

The surplus power of the Tabqa Dam will increase the potential trend toward industry in the Euphrates Basin area and the Jezira in general. The rower gener­ated exceeds the power consumed and the projected industrial consumption . This positive situation will encourage more industrial growth in the region which may become the center of indus­try in Syria . This status will inspire the road industry to link the industrial sites to the large cities in the western part of the country. Many subsidiary services will follow the road construction. Gas sta­tions, rest areas, and restaurants will spread around transportation lines. This

25

road construction will help persuade people to migrate to the new site since transportation became easier and travel time shorter.

SOCIAL CHANGE

The Euphrates project impact on the Jezira area has resulted in the settle­ment of nomadic people in the area. They occupy housing in typical villages or in newly constructed small towns. In mar­ginal areas some nomads are scattered in the remaining grazing areas between the Euphrates project region and the Upper Balikh River area. They have not joined the others employed in agricul­ture in spite of the need for more people to work and the incentives that the gov­ernment has provided. Some nomads migrated out of Syria toward Iraq, Saudi Arabia, and Jordan to join the other large numbers of nomads in those areas. Ben­efits provided by the government have not induced many people from western Syria's congested areas to relocate in the project area. These westerners prefer to move into larger cities with less income than to the Jezira area where many eco­nomic activities are developed and more money and benefits are provided.

The number of Syrian villages receiv­ing electricity increased from 241 in 1970 to 1,173 villages by the end of 1978. The program of electrifying one village a day is projected. About 5,400 villages, each with 100 inhabitants, will be electrified before the end of 1988.'4 It is evident that increased electricity will aid progress in technology, economic development, and communication, and will radically alter life-styles. These influences would affect rural people who until 1976 seldom had electricity. Now they can experience new conveniences such as illumination, ra­dio, television, and other electrical in­struments. They will receive educational programs and will be able to obtain electrical equipment for their private needs. The people in the project area will also experience other advantages be­cause they would be helped by social workers, agricultural advisors, improved roads linking them to cities, and better

26

financial conditions which enable them to obtain some luxuries.

WATER DISPUTES

The Euphrates River is not the first river to create resource problems as an international river. The strife over the water resources varies from case to case and depends on the relationship be­tween the sharing countries. Hammura­bi, ca. 1760 B.C., had centralized control of irrigation on the entire Tigris Valley and part of the Euphrates under his con­trol. Several laws in his code dealt with irrigation which made him the first law­maker regarding water disputes.

The recent Euphrates water dispute was between Turkey, Syria and Iraq. The problem of reaching an agreement be­tween these countries had two phases. Turkey wanted to bargain with Syria to have access to the Orant River. Th is would cause Syria to recognize the oc­cupied part of the Syria's territory by Turkey. Syria refused to negotiate this problem . The second obstacle was the Iraqi-Syrian political relationship. Talks with Iraq had been unsuccessful despite Soviet mediation. Iraq demanded 66% of the river's water, while Syria was pre­pared to give only 53%.

On May 21, 1974, there was an an­nouncement that an agreement had been reached by the three countries during their talks to determine the allocation of the Euphrates River. This agreement was not implemented and each party put the blame on the other. Iraq accused Syria of arbitrarily withholding Euphrates water from Iraqi peasants in violation of inter­national agreement and norms. Many foreign observers had verified the se­vere hardship for Iraqi agriculture. The dispute over the water created strained relationships between the two Arab countries when Syrian armor personnel carriers were reported to be moving along the Iraqi border. However, on June 3, 1975, Syria announced that it would release more water to Iraq from its Tabqa Dam reservoir. Finally, using Saudi Ara­bian mediation, an agre~ment on Au-

gust 12, 1975 was issued which allo­cates the water, entering Syria from Turkey, between the two countries (Syria and Iraq) on a proportional basis .15 Nevertheless, there are political differ­ences between the countries and the river may potentially be used as a political tool. Since Iraq is at the lower end of the ba­sin, its concern about water is more sen­sitive than the other two nations which control the upper and middle portion of the basin. Such a condition could en­courage further strife in the region.

GEOPOLITICAL ACTION

Geopolitically, the concentration of industry in the east will require more protection. The few military divisions scattered in the region will be strength­ened. The ongoing Iraqi-Iranian war, and the latest Israeli invasion to Lebanon, make it inevitable to have strong mili­tary posts close to each important eco­nomic site. Syria has no recognized bor­ders with Turkey since Turkey took the Syrian province of Iskenderum in 1939. Syria and Iraq have political differences which once led to a close military con­frontation in 1975. Syria and Israel are old enemies. Regarding this situation, Syria must have more protection for its vital projects in respect to the men­tioned factors. Consequently Syria will provide the eastern part of the country with more military personnel and more investments to provide food and civil services to the military people and their families. These services require schools, restaurants, grocery shops and other subsidiary shops, e.g., barber, tailor, shoemaker, refreshment and others. Many job opportunities would be open when this occurs which will give more prosperity to the region because of the Euphrates project consequence.

CONCLUSION

In the past two decades the Eu­phrates River basin had endured many cultural changes that include installation of dams, i rrigation canals, and water pump stations. Water discharge has been

regulated and floods are no longer a hazard. Sediments carried by the river have been reduced since large quan­tities are deposited in the artificial lakes behind the new constructed dams. The Tabqa Dam in Syria and the upper basin dams in Turkey control part of the Eu­phrates River. When added to the water management projects in Iraq, most of the sediments carried by the river were de­posited either in the lakes or in its own channel. After construction of several such dams, the river velocity decreased causing a decrease in the quantity of sediments. Shat AI-Arab, which repre­sents the river's delta, would not be able to enlarge because of reduced sedi ­ments in the river body. This delta may be modified by marine erosion and the delta's size may decrease. Such condi ­tions now prevail in the Nile delta.

In short, the amount of water flow in the Euphrates River course is being dis­tributed among the three hosted coun­tries. The future hydraulic character of the river will cause a more consistent flow rather than an erratic discharge. The Euphrates River is more helpful now to its host countries than it has ever been.

Syria's economy will improve. The Euphrates project will add more irri­gated lands, different varieties of crops, more industries, different products, and more employment. The prosperity of the economy will have its impact on every person in the country. The agricultural growth will not yield what was ex­pected, however, it will contribute to strengthening the nation since farmers will find it profitable to invest money in agriculture. Since more jobs are being created, more people will be able to pur­chase domestic products. Factories will find good markets, and consequently, industry may expand vertically and hor­izontally. This is exemplified by Syria's intent to export more textiles and to build factories to manufacture paper products and small appliances. The overall im­pact is the expectation that the nation's balance of trade may become positive. If so, the Euphrates project will receive much of the credit.

27

CITATIONS

1. Syria, Ministry of the Euphrates Dam. Sadd EI-Furat, Da­mascus, 1973, p. 32.

2. Ibid. p. 39. Euphrates Project, Damascus, 1975.

3. All monetary figures have been convened to U.S. dol­lars.

4. Syria, Ministry of the Euphrates Dam. Op. Cit., p. 44.

5. Ibid. pp. 53- 58.

6. UNESCO. "Scientific Problems of the Humid Tropical Zone Deltas and Their Implications," Proceedings of the Dacca Symposium. Paris, 1966, p. 404.

7. NOVOSTY/ Soviet News Agency. Addwah Ala EI-Furat, 1974, Moscow, pp. 12-13.

28

8. Hansen, Bent. " Economic Development of Syria," Eco­nomic Development and Population Growth in the Mid­dle East, Ch. 7, New York, 1972, pp. 331-366.

9. Economist Intel ligent Unit, " Syria," Quarterly Economic Review, Syria-Lebanon-Cyrus, Ch. 3, London, 1976, p. 8.

10. Rizq, John. " Euphrates Dam Begins to Pay Off," Middle East Economic Digest, V. 23, April 1979, p. 3.

11 . Darwich, Samir A. Raport sur L 'Economie Syrienne. Da­mascus, 1978-1980, p. A-5.

12. Ibid .. p. A-8.

13. Rizq, John, Op. Cit.. p. 36.

14. Darwich, Samir A., Op. Cit., p. A-5.

15. Nulty, Peter. Middle East Monitor, V. 17, No. 12, 1974, pp. 1-2.