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The Ten Attic OratorsEdited by Steven Weiss

ContentsArticlesIntroduction 1

Attic orators 1

Ten Attic Orators 3

Aeschines 3Andocides 5Antiphon (person) 6Demosthenes 10Dinarchus 35Hypereides 36Isaeus 39Isocrates 41Lycurgus of Athens 46Lysias 48

Appendices 55

Logographer (legal) 55List of orators 56

ReferencesArticle Sources and Contributors 59Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 60

Article LicensesLicense 61

1

Introduction

Attic orators

Lives of the Ten Orators [1], from an unknown writer whose allonym isPseudo-Plutarch, delivers a pseudepigraphy for the ten Attic orators; here

Demosthenes practises his craft.

The ten Attic orators were considered thegreatest orators and logographers of theclassical era (5th–4th century BCE). They areincluded in the "Alexandrian Canon"(sometimes called the "Canon of Ten")compiled by Aristophanes of Byzantium andAristarchus of Samothrace.

The Alexandrian "Canon ofTen"

•• Aeschines•• Andocides•• Antiphon•• Demosthenes•• Dinarchus•• Hypereides•• Isaeus•• Isocrates•• Lycurgus•• LysiasGoing back at least as far as Homer (8th or 9thcentury BCE), the art of effective speaking wasof considerable value in Greece. In Homer'sepic, the Iliad, the warrior, Achilles, wasdescribed as "a speaker of words" and "a doerof deeds."

Until the 5th century BCE, however, oratory was not formally taught. In fact, it is not until the middle of that centurythat the Sicilian orator, Corax, along with his pupil, Tisias, began a formal study of rhetoric. In 427 BCE, anotherSicilian named Gorgias of Leontini visited Athens and gave a speech which apparently dazzled the citizens.Gorgias’s "intellectual" approach to oratory—which included new ideas, forms of expression, and methods ofargument—was continued by Isocrates, a 4th century BCE educator and rhetorician. Oratory eventually became acentral subject of study in the formalized Greek education system.

The work of the Attic orators inspired the later rhetorical movement of Atticism, an approach to speech compositionemphasizing a simple rather than ornate style.

Attic orators 2

References• Carawan, Edwin (ed.): Oxford readings in the Attic orators. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press, 2007.

ISBN 9780199279920• Smith, R.M. “A New Look at the Canon of the Ten Attic Orators”, Mnemosyne 48.1 (1995): 66-79.

External links• Lives of the Ten Orators [2]

References[1] http:/ / classicpersuasion. org/ pw/ plu10or/ index. htm[2] http:/ / classicpersuasion. org/ pw/ plu10or/

3

Ten Attic Orators

Aeschines

Aeschines

Marble bust of Aeschines

Born 389 BCAthens

Died 314 BCSamos

Aeschines (Greek: Αἰσχίνης, Aischínēs; 389 – 314 BC) was a Greek statesman and one of the ten Attic orators.

LifeAlthough it is known he was born in Athens, the records regarding his parentage and early life are conflicting; but itseems probable that his parents, though poor, were respectable. Aeschines' father was Atrometus, an elementaryschool teacher of letters. His mother Glaukothea assisted in the religious rites of initiation for the poor. Afterassisting his father in his school, he tried his hand at acting with indifferent success, served with distinction in thearmy, and held several clerkships, amongst them the office of clerk to the Boule. Among the campaigns thatAeschines participated in were Phlius in the Peloponnese (368 BC), Battle of Mantinea (362 BC), and Phokion'scampaign in Euboea (349 BC). The fall of Olynthus (348 BC) brought Aeschines into the political arena, and he wassent on an embassy to rouse the Peloponnese against Philip II of Macedon.In spring of 347 BC, Aeschines addressed the assembly of Ten Thousand in Megalopolis, Arcadia urging them to unite and defend their independence against Philip. In the summer 347 BC, he was a member of the peace embassy to Philip, who seems to have won him over entirely to his side. His dilatoriness during the second embassy (346 BC) sent to ratify the terms of peace led to him being accused by Demosthenes and Timarchus on a charge of high treason. Aeschines counterattacked by claiming that Timarchus had forfeited the right to speak before the people as a consequence of youthful debauches which had left him with the reputation of being a whore and prostituting himself to many men in the port city of Piraeus. The suit succeeded and Timarchus was sentenced to atimia and politically

Aeschines 4

destroyed, according to Demosthenes. This comment was later interpreted by Pseudo-Plutarch in his Lives of the TenOrators as meaning that Timarchos hanged himself upon leaving the assembly, a suggestion contested by somemodern historians.[1]

This oration, Against Timarchus, is considered important because of the bulk of Athenian laws it cites. As aconsequence of his successful attack on Timarchus, Aeschines was cleared of the charge of treason.[2]

In 343 BC the attack on Aeschines was renewed by Demosthenes in his speech On the False Embassy. Aeschinesreplied in a speech with the same title and was again acquitted. In 339 BC, as one of the Athenian deputies(pylagorae) in the Amphictyonic Council, he made a speech which brought about the Fourth Sacred War.By way of revenge, Aeschines endeavoured to fix the blame for these disasters upon Demosthenes. In 336 BC, whenCtesiphon proposed that his friend Demosthenes should be rewarded with a golden crown for his distinguishedservices to the state, Aeschines accused him of having violated the law in bringing forward the motion. The matterremained in abeyance till 330 BC, when the two rivals delivered their speeches Against Ctesiphon and On theCrown. The result was a complete victory for Demosthenes.Aeschines went into voluntary exile at Rhodes, where he opened a school of rhetoric. He afterwards removed toSamos, where he died aged seventy-five. His three speeches, called by the ancients "the Three Graces," rank next tothose of Demosthenes. Photius knew of nine letters by him which he called the Nine Muses; the twelve publishedunder his name (Hercher, Epistolographi Graeci) are not genuine.

Ancient AuthoritiesDemosthenes, De Corona and De Falsa Legatione; Aeschines, De Falsa Legations and In Ctesiphentem; Lives byPlutarch, Philostratus and Libanius; the Exegesis of Apollonius.

Editions• Gustav Eduard Benseler (1855–1860) (trans. and notes)• Andreas Weidner (1872)• Friedrich Blass (Teubner, 1896)• Thomas Leland (1722–1785), Weidner (1872), (1878), G. A. Simcox and W. H. Simcox (1866), Drake (1872),

Richardson (1889), G. Watkin and Evelyn S. Shuckburgh (1890).• Teubner ed. of Orationes: 1997, edited Mervin R. Dilts. ISBN 3-8154-1009-6

Notes[1] Nick Fisher, Aeschines: Against Timarchos, "Introduction," p.22 n.71; Oxford University Press, 2001[2] Nick Fisher, Aeschines: Against Timarchos, "Introduction," p.22 n.71, passim; Oxford University Press, 2001

External links• Livius (http:/ / www. livius. org), Aeschines (http:/ / www. livius. org/ ad-af/ aeschines/ aeschines. html) by Jona

Lendering• Against Timarchus (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Perseus:text:1999. 01. 0002:speech=1) at

the Perseus Project• On the Embassy (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Perseus:text:1999. 01. 0002:speech=2) at the

Perseus Project• Against Ctesiphon (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Perseus:text:1999. 01. 0002:speech=3) at

the Perseus Project

Aeschines 5

Sources• This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911).

Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.

AndocidesAndocides or Andokides (Ancient Greek: Ἀνδοκίδης, 440–390 BC) was a logographer (speech writer) in AncientGreece. He was one of the ten Attic orators included in the "Alexandrian Canon" compiled by Aristophanes ofByzantium and Aristarchus of Samothrace in the third century BC.He was implicated during the Peloponnesian War in the mutilation of the Herms on the eve of the departure of theAthenian expedition against Sicily in 415 BC. Although he saved his life by turning informer, he was condemned topartial loss of civil rights and forced to leave Athens. He engaged in commercial pursuits, and returned to Athensunder the general amnesty that followed the restoration of the democracy (403 BC), and filled some importantoffices. In 391 BC he was one of the ambassadors sent to Sparta to discuss peace terms, but the negotiations failed.Oligarchical in his sympathies, he offended his own party and was distrusted by the democrats. Andocides was noprofessional orator; his style is simple and lively, natural but inartistic.

List of extant speeches1. On the Mysteries [1] (Περὶ τῶν μυστηρίων "De Mysteriis"). Andocides' defense against the charge of impiety in

attending the Eleusinian Mysteries.2. On His Return [2] (Περὶ τῆς ἑαυτοῦ καθόδου "De Reditu"). Andocides' plea for his return and removal of civil

disabilities.3. On the Peace with Sparta [3] (Περὶ τῆς πρὸς Λακεδαιμονίους εἰρήνης "De Pace"). An argument for peace with

Sparta.4. Against Alcibiades [4] (Κατὰ Ἀλκιβιάδου "Contra Alcibiadem"). Generally considered spurious.

References• This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911).

Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.• Andocides. (Speeches [5] at the Perseus Project.)

References[1] http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ cgi-bin/ ptext?lookup=Andoc. + 1+ 1[2] http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ cgi-bin/ ptext?lookup=Andoc. + 2+ 1[3] http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ cgi-bin/ ptext?lookup=Andoc. + 3+ 1[4] http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ cgi-bin/ ptext?lookup=Andoc. + 4+ 1[5] http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ cgi-bin/ ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999. 01. 0018

Antiphon (person) 6

Antiphon (person)Antiphon the Sophist lived in Athens probably in the last two decades of the 5th century BC. There is an ongoingcontroversy over whether he is one and the same with Antiphon (Ἀντιφῶν) of the Athenian deme Rhamnus inAttica (480–411 BC), the earliest of the ten Attic orators. For the purposes of this article, they will be treated asdistinct persons.

Antiphon of RhamnusAntiphon of Rhamnus was a statesman who took up rhetoric as a profession. He was active in political affairs inAthens, and, as a zealous supporter of the oligarchical party, was largely responsible for the establishment of theFour Hundred in 411 (see Theramenes); upon restoration of the democracy shortly afterwards, he was accused oftreason and condemned to death. Thucydides famously characterized Antiphon's skills, influence, and reputation:

...He who concerted the whole affair [of the 411 coup], and prepared the way for the catastrophe, and who hadgiven the greatest thought to the matter, was Antiphon, one of the best men of his day in Athens; who, with ahead to contrive measures and a tongue to recommend them, did not willingly come forward in the assemblyor upon any public scene, being ill-looked upon by the multitude owing to his reputation for cleverness; andwho yet was the one man best able to aid in the courts, or before the assembly, the suitors who required hisopinion. Indeed, when he was afterwards himself tried for his life on the charge of having been concerned insetting up this very government, when the Four Hundred were overthrown and hardly dealt with by thecommons, he made what would seem to be the best defence of any known up to my time.—Thucydides, Histories 8.68[1]

Antiphon may be regarded as the founder of political oratory, but he never addressed the people himself except onthe occasion of his trial. Fragments of his speech then, delivered in defense of his policy (called Περὶ μεταστάσεως)have been edited by J. Nicole (1907) from an Egyptian papyrus.His chief business was that of a logographer (λογογράφος), that is a professional speech-writer. He wrote for thosewho felt incompetent to conduct their own cases—all disputants were obliged to do so—without expert assistance.Fifteen of Antiphon's speeches are extant: twelve are mere school exercises on fictitious cases, divided intotetralogies, each comprising two speeches for prosecution and defence—accusation, fence, reply, counter-reply;three refer to actual legal processes. All deal with cases of homicide (φονικαὶ δίκαι). Antiphon is also said to havecomposed a Τέχνη or art of Rhetoric.

Antiphon (person) 7

Antiphon the Sophist

A third century AD papyrus attributed to the firstbook of On Truth (P.Oxy. XI 1364 fr. 1, cols.

v-vii)

A treatise known as On Truth, of which only fragments survive, isattributed to Antiphon the Sophist. It is of great value to politicaltheory, as it appears to be a precursor to natural rights theory. Theviews expressed in it suggest its author could not be the same person asAntiphon of Rhamnus, since it was interpreted as affirming strongegalitarian and libertarian principles appropriate to a democracy - butantithetical to the oligarchical views of one who was instrumental inthe anti-democratic coup of 411 like Antiphon of Rhamnus.[2] It's beenargued that that interpretation has become obsolete in light of a newfragment of text from On Truth discovered in 1984. New evidencesupposedly rules out an egalitarian interpretation of the text.[3]

However, that argument cannot withstand the actual text of thesurviving fragments of On Truth, which specifically attacks class andnational distinctions as being based, not on nature, but on conventionalprejudice.

Those born of illustrious fathers we respect and honour, whereasthose who come from an undistinguished house we neitherrespect nor honour. In this we behave like barbarians towardsone another. For by nature we all equally, both barbarians andGreeks, have an entirely similar origin: for it is fitting to fulfil the natural satisfactions which are necessary toall men: all have the ability to fulfil these in the same way, and in all this none of us is different either asbarbarian or as Greek; for we all breathe into the air with mouth and nostrils and we all eat with the hands.[4]

The egalitarian thrust of this statement is unmistakable and is in harmony with the Greek tendency to view liberty asrequiring equality. Aristotle for one, mentions this as the consensus concerning democracy, that it championsequality as a form of liberty. This conjunction of equality with liberty would apply both to supporters of democracylike Pericles or opponents, like Plato. The following passages confirm the strongly libertarian commitments ofAntiphon the Sophist.

"Nature" requires libertyOn Truth juxtaposes the repressive nature of convention and law (νόμος) with "nature" (φύσις), especially humannature. Nature is envisaged as requiring spontaneity and freedom, in contrast to the often gratuitous restrictionsimposed by institutions:

Most of the things which are legally just are [none the less] ... inimical to nature. By law it has been laiddown for the eyes what they should see and what they should not see; for the ears what they should hearand they should not hear; for the tongue what it should speak, and what it should not speak; for thehands what they should do and what they should not do ... and for the mind what it should desire, andwhat it should not desire.[5]

Repression means pain, whereas it is nature (human nature) to shun pain.Elsewhere, Antiphon wrote: "Life is like a brief vigil, and the duration of life like a single day, as it were, in whichhaving lifted our eyes to the light we give place to other who succeed us."[6] Mario Untersteiner comments: "If deathfollows according to nature, why torment its opposite, life, which is equally according to nature? By appealing to thistragic law of existence, Antiphon, speaking with the voice of humanity, wishes to shake off everything that can doviolence to the individuality of the person."[7]

Antiphon (person) 8

In his championship of the natural liberty and equality of all men, Antiphon anticipates the natural rights doctrine ofHobbes, Locke, Rousseau, and the Declaration of Independence.

MathematicsFurther information: Bryson of Heraclea, Pi, and squaring the circleAntiphon was also a capable mathematician. Antiphon, alongside his companion Bryson of Heraclea, was the first togive an upper and lower bound for the value of pi by inscribing and then circumscribing a polygon around a circleand finally proceeding to calculate the polygons' areas. This method was applied to the problem of squaring thecircle.

List of Extant Speeches (available at the Perseus Digital Library [8])1. Prosecution Of The Stepmother For Poisoning [9] (Φαρμακείας κατὰ τῆς μητρυιᾶς)2. The First Tetralogy: Anonymous Prosecution For Murder [10] (Κατηγορία φόνου ἀπαράσημος)3. The Second Tetralogy: Prosecution for Accidental Homicide [11] (Κατηγορία φόνου ακουσίου)4. The Third Tetralogy: Prosecution for Murder Of One Who Pleads Self-Defense [12] (Κατηγορία φόνου κατὰ τοῦ

λέγοντος ἀμύνασθαι)5. On the Murder of Herodes [13] (Περὶ τοῦ Ἡρῷδου φόνου)6. On the Choreutes [14] (Περὶ τοῦ χορευτοῦ)

Notes[1] trans. by Richard Crawley, revised by Robert Strassler, 1996[2] W. K C. Guthrie, The Sophists, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1971[3] pp. 351, 356, Gerard Pendrick, 2002, Antiphon the Sophist: The Fragments, Cambridge U. Press; also p. 98 n. 41 of Richard Winton's

"Herodotus, Thucydides, and the sophists" in C.Rowe & M.Schofield, The Cambridge Companion to Greek and Roman Political Thought,Cambridge 2005.

[4][4] quoted in Mario Untersteiner, The Sophists, tr. Kathleen Freeman (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1954), p. 252[5] Antiphon, On Truth, Oxyrhynchus Papyri, xi, no. 1364, fragment 1, quoted in Donald Kagan (ed.) Sources in Greek Political Thought from

Homer to Polybius "Sources in Western Political Thought, A. Hacker, gen. ed.; New York: Free Press, 2965[6] Fr. 50 DK, quoted at Stobaeus 4.34.63.[7] Mario Untersteiner, The Sophists, tr. Kathleen Freeman (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1954) Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1971,

p. 247[8] http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/[9] http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Antiph. + 1+ 1[10] http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Antiph. + 2+ 1[11] http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Antiph. + 3+ 1[12] http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Antiph. + 4+ 1[13] http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Antiph. + 5+ 1[14] http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Antiph. + 6+ 1

Antiphon (person) 9

References• Edition, with commentary, by Eduard Maetzner (1838)• text by Friedrich Blass (1881)• R. C. Jebb, Attic Orators• Ps.-Plutarch, Vitae X. Oratorum or Lives of the Ten Orators (http:/ / classicpersuasion. org/ pw/ plu10or/ )• Philostratus, Vit. Sophistarum, i. 15• van Cleef, Index Antiphonteus, Ithaca, N. Y. (1895)• Antiphon (http:/ / www. swan. ac. uk/ classics/ staff/ ter/ grst/ People/ Antiphon. htm)• Michael Gagarin, Antiphon the Athenian, 2002, U. of Texas Press. Argues for the identification of Antiphon the

Sophist and Antiphon of Rhamnus.• Gerard Pendrick, Antiphon the Sophist: The Fragments, 2002, Cambridge U. Press. Argues that Antiphon the

Sophist and Antiphon of Rhamnus are two, and provides a new edition of and commentary on the fragmentsattributed to the Sophist.

• David Hoffman, "Antiphon the Athenian: Oratory, Law and Justice in the Age of the Sophists/Antiphon theSophist: The Fragments" (http:/ / findarticles. com/ p/ articles/ mi_qa4142/ is_200607/ ai_n17176178/ pg_1),Rhetoric Society Quarterly, summer 2006. A review of Gagarin 2002 and Pendrick 2002.

External links• Antiphon's Apology, the Papyrus Fragments, French 1907 edition from the Internet Archive (http:/ / www.

archive. org/ details/ lapologiedantip00antigoog)• Xenophon's Memorabilia 1.6.1-.15 (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ cgi-bin/ ptext?doc=Perseus:text:1999. 01.

0208& layout=& loc=1. 6. 1) presents a dialogue between Antiphon the Sophist and Socrates.• Speeches (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ cgi-bin/ ptext?doc=Perseus:text:1999. 01. 0020;layout=;loc=1.

1;query=toc) by Antiphon of Rhamnus on Perseus• A bio on Antiphon of Rhamnus by Richard C. Jebb, The Attic Orators from Antiphon to Isaeos, 1876 (http:/ /

www. perseus. tufts. edu/ cgi-bin/ ptext?doc=Perseus:text:1999. 04. 0077:head=#40) on Perseus• O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., "Antiphon (person)" (http:/ / www-history. mcs. st-andrews. ac. uk/

Biographies/ Antiphon. html), MacTutor History of Mathematics archive, University of St Andrews.• The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy article on "Callicles and Thrasymachus" (http:/ / plato. stanford. edu/

entries/ callicles-thrasymachus/ ) discusses the views of Antiphon the Sophist.

Further reading• Kerferd, G.B. (1970). "Antiphon". Dictionary of Scientific Biography. 1. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons.

pp. 170–172. ISBN 0-684-10114-9.

This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911).Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.

Demosthenes 10

Demosthenes

Demosthenes

Bust of Demosthenes (Louvre, Paris, France)

Born 384 BCAthens

Died 322 BCIsland of Kalaureia (present-day Poros)

Demosthenes (English pronunciation: /dɪˈmɒs.θəniːz/, Greek: Δημοσθένης, Dēmosthénēs Greek

pronunciation: [dɛːmostʰénɛːs]; 384–322 BC) was a prominent Greek statesman and orator of ancient Athens. Hisorations constitute a significant expression of contemporary Athenian intellectual prowess and provide an insightinto the politics and culture of ancient Greece during the 4th century BC. Demosthenes learned rhetoric by studyingthe speeches of previous great orators. He delivered his first judicial speeches at the age of 20, in which he arguedeffectively to gain from his guardians what was left of his inheritance. For a time, Demosthenes made his living as aprofessional speech-writer (logographer) and a lawyer, writing speeches for use in private legal suits.Demosthenes grew interested in politics during his time as a logographer, and in 354 BC he gave his first publicpolitical speeches. He went on to devote his most productive years to opposing Macedon's expansion. He idealizedhis city and strove throughout his life to restore Athens' supremacy and motivate his compatriots against Philip II ofMacedon. He sought to preserve his city's freedom and to establish an alliance against Macedon, in an unsuccessfulattempt to impede Philip's plans to expand his influence southwards by conquering all the other Greek states. AfterPhilip's death, Demosthenes played a leading part in his city's uprising against the new King of Macedonia,Alexander the Great. However, his efforts failed and the revolt was met with a harsh Macedonian reaction. Toprevent a similar revolt against his own rule, Alexander's successor in this region, Antipater, sent his men to trackDemosthenes down. Demosthenes took his own life, in order to avoid being arrested by Archias, Antipater'sconfidant.The Alexandrian Canon compiled by Aristophanes of Byzantium and Aristarchus of Samothrace recognizedDemosthenes as one of the ten greatest Attic orators and logographers. Longinus likened Demosthenes to a blazingthunderbolt, and argued that he "perfected to the utmost the tone of lofty speech, living passions, copiousness,readiness, speed".[1] Quintilian extolled him as lex orandi ("the standard of oratory"), and Cicero said about him thatinter omnis unus excellat ("he stands alone among all the orators"), and he also acclaimed him as "the perfect orator"who lacked nothing.[2]

Demosthenes 11

Early years and personal life

Family and personal life

Bust of Demosthenes (British Museum, London),Roman copy of a Greek original sculpted by

Polyeuktos.

Demosthenes was born in 384 BC, during the last year of the98th Olympiad or the first year of the 99th Olympiad.[3] Hisfather—also named Demosthenes—who belonged to the local tribe,Pandionis, and lived in the deme of Paeania[4] in the Atheniancountryside, was a wealthy sword-maker.[5] Aeschines, Demosthenes'greatest political rival, maintained that his mother Kleoboule was aScythian by blood[6]—an allegation disputed by some modernscholars.[a] Demosthenes was orphaned at the age of seven. Althoughhis father provided well for him, his legal guardians, Aphobus,Demophon and Therippides, mishandled his inheritance.[7]

As soon as Demosthenes came of age in 366 BC, he demanded theyrender an account of their management. According to Demosthenes,the account revealed the misappropriation of his property. Although hisfather left an estate of nearly fourteen talents, (equivalent to about 220years of a laborer's income at standard wages, or 11 million dollars interms of median US annual incomes)[8] Demosthenes asserted hisguardians had left nothing "except the house, and fourteen slaves andthirty silver minae" (30 minae = ½ talent).[9] At the age of 20Demosthenes sued his trustees in order to recover his patrimony anddelivered five orations: three Against Aphobus during 363 and 362 BCand two Against Ontenor during 362 and 361 BC. The courts fixed Demosthenes' damages at ten talents.[10] Whenall the trials came to an end,[b] he only succeeded in retrieving a portion of his inheritance.[11]

According to Pseudo-Plutarch, Demosthenes was married once. The only information about his wife, whose name isunknown, is that she was the daughter of Heliodorus, a prominent citizen.[12] Demosthenes also had a daughter, "theonly one who ever called him father", according to Aeschines' in a trenchant remark.[13] His daughter died young andunmarried a few days before Philip II's death.[13]

In his speeches, Aeschines uses pederastic relations of Demosthenes as a means to attack him. In the case ofAristion, a youth from Plataea who lived for a long time in Demosthenes' house, Aeschines mocks the "scandalous"and "improper" relation.[14] In another speech, Aeschines brings up the pederastic relation of his opponent with a boycalled Cnosion. The slander that Demosthenes' wife also slept with the boy suggests that the relationship wascontemporary with his marriage.[15] Aeschines claims that Demosthenes made money out of young rich men, such asAristarchus, the son of Moschus, whom he allegedly deceived with the pretence that he could make him a greatorator. Apparently, while still under Demosthenes' tutelage, Aristarchus killed and mutilated a certain Nicodemus ofAphidna. Aeschines accused Demosthenes of complicity in the murder, pointing out that Nicodemus had oncepressed a lawsuit accusing Demosthenes of desertion. He also accused Demosthenes of having been such a baderastes to Aristarchus so as not even to deserve the name. His crime, according to Aeschines, was to have betrayedhis eromenos by pillaging his estate, allegedly pretending to be in love with the youth so as to get his hands on theboy's inheritance. Nevertheless, the story of Demosthenes' relations with Aristarchus is still regarded as more thandoubtful, and no other pupil of Demosthenes is known by name.[16]

Demosthenes 12

Education

Demosthenes Practising Oratory byJean-Jules-Antoine Lecomte du Nouy

(1842–1923). Demosthenes used to study in anunderground room he constructed himself. Healso used to talk with pebbles in his mouth andrecited verses while running.[17] To strengthenhis voice, he spoke on the seashore over the roar

of the waves.

Between his coming of age in 366 BC and the trials that took place in364 BC, Demosthenes and his guardians negotiated acrimoniously butwere unable to reach an agreement, for neither side was willing tomake concessions.[18] At the same time, Demosthenes preparedhimself for the trials and improved his oratory skill. As an adolescent,his curiosity had been noticed by the orator Callistratus, who was thenat the height of his reputation, having just won a case of considerableimportance.[19] According to Friedrich Nietzsche, a German philologistand philosopher, and Constantine Paparrigopoulos, a major Greekhistorian, Demosthenes was a student of Isocrates;[20] according toCicero, Quintillian and the Roman biographer Hermippus, he was astudent of Plato.[21] Lucian, a Roman-Syrian rhetorician and satirist,lists the philosophers Aristotle, Theophrastus and Xenocrates amonghis teachers.[22] These claims are nowadays disputed.[c] According toPlutarch, Demosthenes employed Isaeus as his master in Rhetoric,even though Isocrates was then teaching this subject, either because hecould not pay Isocrates the prescribed fee or because Demosthenesbelieved Isaeus' style better suited a vigorous and astute orator such ashimself .[23] Curtius, a German archaeologist and historian, likened therelation between Isaeus and Demosthenes to "an intellectual armedalliance".[24]

It has also been said that Demosthenes paid Isaeus 10,000 drachmae (somewhat over 1.5 talents) on the conditionthat Isaeus should withdraw from a school of Rhetoric which he had opened, and should devote himself wholly toDemosthenes, his new pupil.[24] Another version credits Isaeus with having taught Demosthenes without charge.[25]

According to Sir Richard C. Jebb, a British classical scholar, "the intercourse between Isaeus and Demosthenes asteacher and learner can scarcely have been either very intimate or of very long duration".[24] Konstantinos Tsatsos, aGreek professor and academician, believes that Isaeus helped Demosthenes edit his initial judicial orations againsthis guardians.[26] Demosthenes is also said to have admired the historian Thucydides. In the Illiterate Book-Fancier,Lucian mentions eight beautiful copies of Thucydides made by Demosthenes, all in Demosthenes' ownhandwriting.[27] These references hint at his respect for a historian he must have assiduously studied.[28]

Speech trainingAccording to Plutarch, when Demosthenes first addressed himself to the people, he was derided for his strange anduncouth style, "which was cumbered with long sentences and tortured with formal arguments to a most harsh anddisagreeable excess".[29] Some citizens however discerned his talent. When he first left the ecclesia (the AthenianAssembly) disheartened, an old man named Eunomus encouraged him, saying his diction was very much like that ofPericles.[30] Another time, after the ecclesia had refused to hear him and he was going home dejected, an actornamed Satyrus followed him and entered into a friendly conversation with him.[31]

As a boy Demosthenes had a speech impediment: Plutarch refers to a weakness in his voice of "a perplexed and indistinct utterance and a shortness of breath, which, by breaking and disjointing his sentences much obscured the sense and meaning of what he spoke."[29] There are problems in Plutarch's account, however, and it is probable that Demosthenes actually suffered rhotacism, mispronouncing ρ (r) as λ (l).[32] Aeschines taunted him and referred to him in his speeches by the nickname "Batalus",[d] apparently invented by Demosthenes' pedagogues or by the little boys with whom he was playing.[33] Demosthenes undertook a disciplined program to overcome his weaknesses and

Demosthenes 13

improve his delivery, including diction, voice and gestures.[34] According to one story, when he was asked to namethe three most important elements in oratory, he replied "Delivery, delivery and delivery!"[35] It is unknown whethersuch vignettes are factual accounts of events in Demosthenes' life or merely anecdotes used to illustrate hisperseverance and determination.[36]

Career

Legal careerTo make his living, Demosthenes became a professional litigant, both as a "logographer", writing speeches for use inprivate legal suits, and advocate ("synegoros") speaking on another's behalf. He seems to have been able to manageany kind of case, adapting his skills to almost any client, including wealthy and powerful men. It is not unlikely thathe became a teacher of rhetoric and that he brought pupils into court with him. However, though he probablycontinued writing speeches throughout his career,[e] he stopped working as an advocate once he entered the politicalarena.[37]

"If you feel bound to act in the spirit of that dignity, whenever you come into court to give judgement on public causes, you must bethinkyourselves that with his staff and his badge every one of you receives in trust the ancient pride of Athens."

Demosthenes (On the Crown, 210)—The orator's defense of the honor of the courts was in contrast to the improper actions of whichAeschines accused him.

Judicial oratory had become a significant literary genre by the second half of the fifth century, as represented in thespeeches of Demosthenes' predecessors, Antiphon and Andocides. Logographers were a unique aspect of theAthenian justice system: evidence for a case was compiled by a magistrate in a preliminary hearing and litigantscould present it as they pleased within set speeches; however, witnesses and documents were popularly mistrusted(since they could be secured by force or bribery), there was little cross-examination during the trial, there were noinstructions to the jury from a judge, no conferencing between jurists before voting, the juries were huge (typicallybetween 201 and 501 members), cases depended largely on questions of probable motive, and notions of naturaljustice were felt to take precedence over written law—conditions that favoured artfully constructed speeches.[38]

Since Athenian politicians were often indicted by their opponents, there wasn't always a clear distinction between"private" and "public" cases, and thus a career as a logographer opened the way for Demosthenes to embark on hispolitical career.[39] An Athenian logographer could remain anonymous, which enabled him to serve personalinterests, even if it prejudiced the client. It also left him open to allegations of malpractice. Thus for exampleAeschines accused Demosthenes of unethically disclosing his clients' arguments to their opponents; in particular, thathe wrote a speech for Phormion (350 BC), a wealthy banker, and then communicated it to Apollodorus, who wasbringing a capital charge against Phormion.[40] Plutarch much later supported this accusation, stating thatDemosthenes "was thought to have acted dishonorably"[41] and he also accused Demosthenes of writing speeches forboth sides. It has often been argued that the deception, if there was one, involved a political quid pro quo, wherebyApollodorus secretly pledged support for unpopular reforms that Demosthenes was pursuing in the greater, publicinterest[42] (i.e. the diversion of Theoric Funds to military purposes).

Early political activityDemosthenes was admitted to his deme as a citizen with full rights probably in 366 BC, and he soon demonstrated aninterest in politics.[36] In 363 and 359 BC, he assumed the office of the trierarch, being responsible for the outfittingand maintenance of a trireme.[43] He was among the first ever volunteer trierarchs in 357 BC, sharing the expenses ofa ship called Dawn, for which the public inscription still survives.[44] In 348 BC, he became a choregos, paying theexpenses of a theatrical production.[45]

Demosthenes 14

"While the vessel is safe, whether it be a large or a small one, then is the time for sailor and helmsman and everyone in his turn to show hiszeal and to take care that it is not capsized by anyone's malice or inadvertence; but when the sea has overwhelmed it, zeal is useless."

Demosthenes (Third Philippic, 69)—The orator warned his countrymen of the disasters Athens would suffer, if they continued to remainidle and indifferent to the challenges of their times.

Between 355–351 BC, Demosthenes continued practicing law privately while he was becoming increasinglyinterested in public affairs. During this period, he wrote Against Androtion and Against Leptines, two fierce attackson individuals who attempted to repeal certain tax exemptions.[46] In Against Timocrates and Against Aristocrates,he advocated eliminating corruption.[47] All these speeches, which offer early glimpses of his general principles onforeign policy, such as the importance of the navy, of alliances and of national honor,[48] are prosecutions (graphēparanómōn) against individuals accused of illegally proposing legislative texts.[49]

In Demosthenes' time different political goals developed around personalities. Instead of electioneering, Athenianpoliticians used litigation and defamation to remove rivals from government processes. Often they indicted eachother for breaches of the statute laws (graphē paranómōn), but accusations of bribery and corruption were ubiquitousin all cases, being part of the political dialogue. The orators often resorted to "character assassination" (diabolē,loidoria) tactics, both in the courts and in the Assembly. The rancorous and often hilariously exaggeratedaccusations, satirized by Old Comedy, were sustained by innuendo, inferences about motives, and a completeabsence of proof; as J.H. Vince states "there was no room for chivalry in Athenian political life".[50] Such rivalryenabled the "demos" or citizen-body to reign supreme as judge, jury and executioner.[51] Demosthenes was tobecome fully engaged in this kind of litigation and he was also to be instrumental in developing the power of theAreopagus to indict individuals for treason, invoked in the ecclesia by a process called "ἀπόφασις".[52]

In 354 BC, Demosthenes delivered his first political oration, On the Navy, in which he espoused moderation andproposed the reform of "symmories" (boards) as a source of funding for the Athenian fleet.[53] In 352 BC, hedelivered For the Megalopolitans and, in 351 BC, On the Liberty of the Rhodians. In both speeches he opposedEubulus, the most powerful Athenian statesman of the period 355 to 342 BC. The latter was no pacifist but came toeschew a policy of aggressive interventionism in the internal affairs of the other Greek cities.[54] Contrary toEubulus' policy, Demosthenes called for an alliance with Megalopolis against Sparta or Thebes, and for supportingthe democratic faction of the Rhodians in their internal strife.[55] His arguments revealed his desire to articulateAthens' needs and interests through a more activist foreign policy, wherever opportunity might provide.[56]

Although his early orations were unsuccessful and reveal a lack of real conviction and of coherent strategic andpolitical prioritization,[57] Demosthenes established himself as an important political personality and broke withEubulus' faction, a prominent member of which was Aeschines.[58] He thus laid the foundations for his futurepolitical successes and for becoming the leader of his own "party" (the issue of whether the modern concept ofpolitical parties can be applied in the Athenian democracy is hotly disputed among modern scholars[59]).

Demosthenes 15

Confrontation with Philip II

First Philippic and the Olynthiacs (351–349 BC)

For more details on this topic, see First Philippic and Olynthiacs

Philip II of Macedon: victory medal (niketerion)struck in Tarsus, c. 2nd BC (Cabinet des

Médailles, Paris).

Most of Demosthenes' major orations were directed against thegrowing power of King Philip II of Macedon. Since 357 BC, whenPhilip seized Amphipolis and Pydna, Athens had been formally at warwith the Macedonians.[60] In 352 BC, Demosthenes characterizedPhilip as the very worst enemy of his city; his speech presaged thefierce attacks that Demosthenes would launch against the Macedonianking over the ensuing years.[61] A year later he criticized thosedismissing Philip as a person of no account and warned that he was asdangerous as the King of Persia.[62]

In 352 BC, Athenian troops successfully opposed Philip atThermopylae,[63] but the Macedonian victory over the Phocians at theBattle of Crocus Field shook Demosthenes. In 351 BC, Demosthenesfelt strong enough to express his view concerning the most importantforeign policy issue facing Athens at that time: the stance his cityshould take towards Philip. According to Jacqueline de Romilly, a French philologist and member of the Académiefrançaise, the threat of Philip would give Demosthenes' stances a focus and a raison d'être (reason for existence).[48]

Demosthenes saw the King of Macedon as a menace to the autonomy of all Greek cities and yet he presented him asa monster of Athens' own creation; in the First Philippic he reprimanded his fellow citizens as follows: "Even ifsomething happens to him, you will soon raise up a second Philip [...]".[64]

The theme of the First Philippic (351–350 BC) was preparedness and the reform of the theoric fund,[f] a mainstay ofEubulus' policy.[48] In his rousing call for resistance, Demosthenes asked his countrymen to take the necessary actionand asserted that "for a free people there can be no greater compulsion than shame for their position".[65] He thusprovided for the first time a plan and specific recommendations for the strategy to be adopted against Philip in thenorth.[66] Among other things, the plan called for the creation of a rapid-response force, to be created cheaply witheach hoplite to be paid only ten drachmas (two obols) per day, which was less than the average pay for unskilledlabourers in Athens – implying that the hoplite was expected to make up the deficiency in pay by looting.[67]

"We need money, for sure, Athenians, and without money nothing can be done that ought to be done."

Demosthenes (First Olynthiac, 20)—The orator took great pains to convince his countrymen that the reform of the theoric fund wasnecessary to finance the city's military preparations.

From this moment until 341 BC, all of Demosthenes' speeches referred to the same issue, the struggle against Philip.In 349 BC, Philip attacked Olynthus, an ally of Athens. In the three Olynthiacs, Demosthenes criticized hiscompatriots for being idle and urged Athens to help Olynthus.[68] He also insulted Philip by calling him a"barbarian".[g] Despite Demosthenes' strong advocacy, the Athenians would not manage to prevent the falling of thecity to the Macedonians. Almost simultaneously, probably on Eubulus' recommendation, they engaged in a war inEuboea against Philip, which ended in stalemate.[69]

Demosthenes 16

Case of Meidias (348 BC)

In 348 BC a peculiar event occurred: Meidias, a wealthy Athenian, publicly slapped Demosthenes, who was at thetime a choregos at the Greater Dionysia, a large religious festival in honour of the god Dionysus.[45] Meidias was afriend of Eubulus and supporter of the unsuccessful excursion in Euboea.[70] He also was an old enemy ofDemosthenes; in 361 BC he had broken violently into his house, with his brother Thrasylochus, to take possession ofit.[71]

"Just think. The instant this court rises, each of you will walk home, one quicker, another more leisurely, not anxious, not glancing behindhim, not fearing whether he is going to run up against a friend or an enemy, a big man or a little one, a strong man or a weak one, oranything of that sort. And why? Because in his heart he knows, and is confident, and has learned to trust the State, that no one shall seize orinsult or strike him."

Demosthenes (Against Meidias, 221)—The orator asked the Athenians to defend their legal system, by making an example of the defendantfor the instruction of others.[72]

Demosthenes decided to prosecute his wealthy opponent and wrote the judicial oration Against Meidias. This speechgives valuable information about Athenian law at the time and especially about the Greek concept of hybris(aggravated assault), which was regarded as a crime not only against the city but against society as a whole.[73] Hestated that a democratic state perishes if the rule of law is undermined by wealthy and unscrupulous men, and thatthe citizens acquire power and authority in all state affairs due "to the strength of the laws".[71] There is no consensusamong scholars either on whether Demosthenes finally delivered Against Meidias either on the veracity ofAeschines' accusation that Demosthenes was bribed to drop the charges.[h]

Peace of Philocrates (347–345 BC)

In 348 BC, Philip conquered Olynthus and razed it to the ground; then conquered the entire Chalcidice and all thestates of the Chalcidic federation that Olynthus had once led.[74] After these Macedonian victories, Athens sued forpeace with Macedon. Demosthenes was among those who favored compromise. In 347 BC, an Athenian delegation,comprising Demosthenes, Aeschines and Philocrates, was officially sent to Pella to negotiate a peace treaty. In hisfirst encounter with Philip, Demosthenes is said to have collapsed from fright.[75]

The ecclesia officially accepted Philip's harsh terms, including the renouncement of their claim to Amphipolis.However, when an Athenian delegation arrived at Pella to put Phillip under oath, which was required to conclude thetreaty, he was campaigning abroad.[76] He expected that he would hold safely any Athenian possessions which hemight seize before the ratification.[77] Being very anxious about the delay, Demosthenes insisted that the embassyshould travel to the place where they would find Philip and swear him in without delay.[77] Despite his suggestions,the Athenian envoys, including himself and Aeschines, remained in Pella, until Philip successfully concluded hiscampaign in Thrace.[78]

Philip swore to the treaty, but he delayed the departure of the Athenian envoys, who had yet to receive the oathsfrom Macedon's allies in Thessaly and elsewhere. Finally, peace was sworn at Pherae, where Philip accompanied theAthenian delegation, after he had completed his military preparations to move south. Demosthenes accused the otherenvoys of venality and of facilitating Philip's plans with their stance.[79] Just after the conclusion of the Peace ofPhilocrates, Philip passed Thermopylae, and subdued Phocis; Athens made no move to support the Phocians.[80]

Supported by Thebes and Thessaly, Macedon took control of Phocis' votes in the Amphictyonic League, a Greekreligious organization formed to support the greater temples of Apollo and Demeter.[81] Despite some reluctance onthe part of the Athenian leaders, Athens finally accepted Philip's entry into the Council of the League.[82]

Demosthenes was among those who adopted a pragmatic approach, and recommended this stance in his oration Onthe Peace. For Edmund M. Burke, this speech landmarks a moment of maturation in Demosthenes' career: afterPhilip's successful campaign in 346 BC, the Athenian statesman realized that, if he was to lead his city against theMacedonians, he had "to adjust his voice, to become less partisan in tone".[83]

Demosthenes 17

Second and Third Philippics (344–341 BC)

Satellite image of the Thracian Chersonese andthe surrounding area. The Chersonese became the

focus of a bitter territorial dispute betweenAthens and Macedon. It was eventually ceded to

Philip in 338 BC.

For more details on this topic, see Second Philippic, On theChersonese, Third Philippic

In 344 BC Demosthenes travelled to the Peloponnese, in order todetach as many cities as possible from Macedon's influence, but hisefforts were generally unsuccessful.[84] Most of the Peloponnesianssaw Philip as the guarantor of their freedom and sent a joint embassy toAthens to express their grievances against Demosthenes' activities.[85]

In response, Demosthenes delivered the Second Philippic, a vehementattack against Philip. In 343 BC Demosthenes delivered On the FalseEmbassy against Aeschines, who was facing a charge of high treason.Nonetheless, Aeschines was acquitted by the narrow margin of thirtyvotes by a jury which may have numbered as many as 1,501.[86]

In 343 BC, Macedonian forces were conducting campaigns in Epirus and, in 342 BC, Philip campaigned inThrace.[87] He also negotiated with the Athenians an amendment to the Peace of Philocrates.[88] When theMacedonian army approached Chersonese (now known as the Gallipoli Peninsula), an Athenian general namedDiopeithes ravaged the maritime district of Thrace, thereby inciting Philip's rage. Because of this turbulence, theAthenian Assembly convened. Demosthenes delivered On the Chersonese and convinced the Athenians not to recallDiopeithes. Also in 342 BC, he delivered the Third Philippic, which is considered to be the best of his politicalorations.[89] Using all the power of his eloquence, he demanded resolute action against Philip and called for a burstof energy from the Athenian people. He told them that it would be "better to die a thousand times than pay court toPhilip".[90] Demosthenes now dominated Athenian politics and was able to considerably weaken thepro-Macedonian faction of Aeschines.

Battle of Chaeronea (338 BC)

The battle of Chaeronea (map designed by MarcoPrins and Jona Lendering [91]) took place theautumn of 338 BC and resulted in a significantvictory for Philip, who established Macedon's

supremacy over the Greek cities.

In 341 BC Demosthenes was sent to Byzantium, where he sought torenew its alliance with Athens. Thanks to Demosthenes' diplomaticmanoeuvres, Abydos also entered into an alliance with Athens. Thesedevelopments worried Philip and increased his anger at Demosthenes.The Assembly, however, laid aside Philip's grievances againstDemosthenes' conduct and denounced the peace treaty; so doing, ineffect, amounted to an official declaration of war. In 339 BC Philipmade his last and most effective bid to conquer southern Greece,assisted by Aeschines' stance in the Amphictyonic Council. During ameeting of the Council, Philip accused the Amfissian Locrians ofintruding on consecrated ground. The presiding officer of the Council,a Thessalian named Cottyphus, proposed the convocation of anAmphictyonic Congress to inflict a harsh punishment upon theLocrians. Aeschines agreed with this proposition and maintained that the Athenians should participate in theCongress.[92] Demosthenes however reversed Aeschines' initiatives and Athens finally abstained.[93] After the failureof a first military excursion against the Locrians, the summer session of the Amphictyonic Council gave command ofthe league's forces to Philip and asked him to lead a second excursion. Philip decided to act at once; in the winter of339–338 BC, he passed through Thermopylae, entered Amfissa and defeated the Locrians. After this significantvictory, Philip swiftly entered Phocis in 338 BC. He then turned south-east down the Cephissus valley, seizedElateia, and restored the fortifications of the city.[94]

Demosthenes 18

At the same time, Athens orchestrated the creation of an alliance with Euboea, Megara, Achaea, Corinth, Acarnaniaand other states in the Peloponnese. However the most desirable ally for Athens was Thebes. To secure theirallegiance, Demosthenes was sent, by Athens, to the Boeotian city; Philip also sent a deputation, but Demosthenessucceeded in securing Thebes' allegiance.[95] Demosthenes' oration before the Theban people is not extant and,therefore, the arguments he used to convince the Thebans remain unknown. In any case, the alliance came at a price:Thebes' control of Boeotia was recognized, Thebes was to command solely on land and jointly at sea, and Athenswas to pay two thirds of the campaign's cost.[96]

While the Athenians and the Thebans were preparing themselves for war, Philip made a final attempt to appease hisenemies, proposing in vain a new peace treaty.[97] After a few trivial encounters between the two sides, whichresulted in minor Athenian victories, Philip drew the phalanx of the Athenian and Theban confederates into a plainnear Chaeronea, where he defeated them. Demosthenes fought as a mere hoplite.[i] Such was Philip's hatred forDemosthenes that, according to Diodorus Siculus, the King after his victory sneered at the misfortunes of theAthenian statesman. However, the Athenian orator and statesman Demades is said to have remarked: "O King, whenFortune has cast you in the role of Agamemnon, are you not ashamed to act the part of Thersites? [an obscene soldierof the Greek army during the Trojan War]" Stung by these words, Philip immediately altered his demeanour.[98]

Last political initiatives and death

Confrontation with Alexander

Alexander Mosaic from Pompeii, from a 3rdcentury BC original Greek painting, now lost. In336–335 BC, the King of Macedon crippled any

attempt of the Greek cities at resistance andshattered Demosthenes' hopes for Athenian

independence.

After Chaeronea, Philip inflicted a harsh punishment upon Thebes, butmade peace with Athens on very lenient terms. Demosthenesencouraged the fortification of Athens and was chosen by the ecclesiato deliver the Funeral Oration.[99] In 337 BC, Philip created the Leagueof Corinth, a confederation of Greek states under his leadership, andreturned to Pella.[100] In 336 BC, Philip was assassinated at thewedding of his daughter, Cleopatra of Macedon, to King Alexander ofEpirus. The Macedonian army swiftly proclaimed Alexander III ofMacedon, then twenty years old, as the new King of Macedon. Greekcities like Athens and Thebes saw in this change of leadership anopportunity to regain their full independence. Demosthenes celebratedPhilip's assassination and played a leading part in his city's uprising.According to Aeschines, "it was but the seventh day after the death ofhis daughter, and though the ceremonies of mourning were not yetcompleted, he put a garland on his head and white raiment on his body, and there he stood making thank-offerings,violating all decency."[13] Demosthenes also sent envoys to Attalus, whom he considered to be an internal opponentof Alexander.[101] Nonetheless, Alexander moved swiftly to Thebes, which submitted shortly after his appearance atits gates. When the Athenians learned that Alexander had moved quickly to Boeotia, they panicked and begged thenew King of Macedon for mercy. Alexander admonished them but imposed no punishment.

In 335 BC Alexander felt free to engage the Thracians and the Illyrians, but, while he was campaigning in the north,Demosthenes spread a rumor—even producing a bloodstained messenger—that Alexander and all of hisexpeditionary force had been slaughtered by the Triballians.[102] The Thebans and the Athenians rebelled once again,financed by Darius III of Persia, and Demosthenes is said to have received about 300 talents on behalf of Athens andto have faced accusations of embezzlement.[j] Alexander reacted immediately and razed Thebes to the ground. Hedid not attack Athens, but demanded the exile of all anti-Macedonian politicians, Demosthenes first of all. Accordingto Plutarch, a special Athenian embassy led by Phocion, an opponent of the anti-Macedonian faction, was able topersuade Alexander to relent.[103]

Demosthenes 19

Delivery of On the Crown

"You stand revealed in your life and conduct, in your public performances and also in your public abstinences. A project approved by thepeople is going forward. Aeschines is speechless. A regrettable incident is reported. Aeschines is in evidence. He reminds one of an oldsprain or fracture: the moment you are out of health it begins to be active."

Demosthenes (On the Crown, 198)—In On the Crown Demosthenes fiercely assaulted and finally neutralized Aeschines, his formidablepolitical opponent.

Despite the unsuccessful ventures against Philip and Alexander, the Athenians still respected Demosthenes. In336 BC, the orator Ctesiphon proposed that Athens honor Demosthenes for his services to the city by presentinghim, according to custom, with a golden crown. This proposal became a political issue and, in 330 BC, Aeschinesprosecuted Ctesiphon on charges of legal irregularities. In his most brilliant speech,[104] On the Crown, Demostheneseffectively defended Ctesiphon and vehemently attacked those who would have preferred peace with Macedon. Hewas unrepentant about his past actions and policies and insisted that, when in power, the constant aim of his policieswas the honor and the ascendancy of his country; and on every occasion and in all business he preserved his loyaltyto Athens.[105] He finally defeated Aeschines, although his enemy's objections to the crowning were arguably validfrom a legal point of view.[106]

Case of Harpalus and death

The site of the temple of Poseidon, Kalaureia,where Demosthenes committed suicide.

In 324 BC Harpalus, to whom Alexander had entrusted huge treasures,absconded and sought refuge in Athens.[k] The Assembly had initiallyrefused to accept him, following Demosthenes' advice, but finallyHarpalus entered Athens. He was imprisoned after a proposal ofDemosthenes and Phocion, despite the dissent of Hypereides, ananti-Macedonian statesman and former ally of Demosthenes.Additionally, the ecclesia decided to take control of Harpalus' money,which was entrusted to a committee presided over by Demosthenes.When the committee counted the treasure, they found they only hadhalf the money Harpalus had declared he possessed. Nevertheless, theydecided not to disclose the deficit. When Harpalus escaped, theAreopagus conducted an inquiry and charged Demosthenes with mishandling twenty talents. During the trial,Hypereides argued that Demosthenes did not disclose the huge deficit, because he was bribed by Harpalus.Demosthenes was fined and imprisoned, but he soon escaped.[107] It remains unclear whether the accusations againsthim were just or not.[l] In any case, the Athenians soon repealed the sentence.[108]

"For a house, I take it, or a ship or anything of that sort must have its chief strength in its substructure; and so too in affairs of state theprinciples and the foundations must be truth and justice."

Demosthenes (Second Olynthiac, 10)—The orator faced serious accusations more than once, but he never admitted to any improper actionsand insisted that it is impossible "to gain permanent power by injustice, perjury, and falsehood".

After Alexander's death in 323 BC, Demosthenes again urged the Athenians to seek independence from Macedon in what became known as the Lamian War. However, Antipater, Alexander's successor, quelled all opposition and demanded that the Athenians turn over Demosthenes and Hypereides, among others. Following his request, the ecclesia adopted a decree condemning the most prominent anti-Macedonian agitators to death. Demosthenes escaped to a sanctuary on the island of Kalaureia (modern-day Poros), where he was later discovered by Archias, a confidant of Antipater. He committed suicide before his capture by taking poison out of a reed, pretending he wanted to write a letter to his family.[109] When Demosthenes felt that the poison was working on his body, he said to Archias: "Now, as soon as you please you may commence the part of Creon in the tragedy, and cast out this body of mine unburied.

Demosthenes 20

But, O gracious Neptune, I, for my part, while I am yet alive, arise up and depart out of this sacred place; thoughAntipater and the Macedonians have not left so much as the temple unpolluted." After saying these words, he passedby the altar, fell down and died.[109] Years after Demosthenes' suicide, the Athenians erected a statue to honor himand decreed that the state should provide meals to his descendants in the Prytaneum.[110]

Assessments

Political careerPlutarch lauds Demosthenes for not being of a fickle disposition. Rebutting historian Theopompus, the biographerinsists that for "the same party and post in politics which he held from the beginning, to these he kept constant to theend; and was so far from leaving them while he lived, that he chose rather to forsake his life than his purpose".[111]

On the other hand, Polybius, a Greek historian of the Mediterranean world, was highly critical of Demosthenes'policies. Polybius accused him of having launched unjustified verbal attacks on great men of other cities, brandingthem unjustly as traitors to the Greeks. The historian maintains that Demosthenes measured everything by theinterests of his own city, imagining that all the Greeks ought to have their eyes fixed upon Athens. According toPolybius, the only thing the Athenians eventually got by their opposition to Philip was the defeat at Chaeronea. "Andhad it not been for the king's magnanimity and regard for his own reputation, their misfortunes would have goneeven further, thanks to the policy of Demosthenes".[112]

"Two characteristics, men of Athens, a citizen of a respectable character...must be able to show: when he enjoys authority, he mustmaintain to the end the policy whose aims are noble action and the pre-eminence of his country: and at all times and in every phase offortune he must remain loyal. For this depends upon his own nature; while his power and his influence are determined by external causes.And in me, you will find, this loyalty has persisted unalloyed...For from the very first, I chose the straight and honest path in public life: Ichose to foster the honour, the supremacy, the good name of my country, to seek to enhance them, and to stand or fall with them."

Demosthenes (On the Crown, 321–22)—Faced with the practical defeat of his policies, Demosthenes assessed them by the ideals theyembodied rather than by their utility.

Paparrigopoulos extols Demosthenes' patriotism, but criticizes him as being short-sighted. According to this critique,Demosthenes should have understood that the ancient Greek states could only survive unified under the leadership ofMacedon.[113] Therefore, Demosthenes is accused of misjudging events, opponents and opportunities and of beingunable to foresee Philip's inevitable triumph.[114] He is criticized for having overrated Athens' capacity to revive andchallenge Macedon.[115] His city had lost most of its Aegean allies, whereas Philip had consolidated his hold overMacedonia and was master of enormous mineral wealth. Chris Carey, a professor of Greek in UCL, concludes thatDemosthenes was a better orator and political operator than strategist.[114] Nevertheless, the same scholarunderscores that "pragmatists" like Aeschines or Phocion had no inspiring vision to rival that of Demosthenes. Theorator asked the Athenians to choose that which is just and honorable, before their own safety and preservation.[111]

The people preferred Demosthenes' activism and even the bitter defeat at Chaeronea was regarded as a price worthpaying in the attempt to retain freedom and influence.[114] According to Professor of Greek Arthur Wallace Pickarde,success may be a poor criterion for judging the actions of people like Demosthenes, who were motivated by the idealof political liberty.[116] Athens was asked by Philip to sacrifice its freedom and its democracy, while Demostheneslonged for the city's brilliance.[115] He endeavored to revive its imperilled values and, thus, he became an "educatorof the people" (in the words of Werner Jaeger).[117]

The fact that Demosthenes fought at the battle of Chaeronea as a hoplite indicates that he lacked any military skills.According to historian Thomas Babington Macaulay, in his time the division between political and military officeswas beginning to be strongly marked.[118] Almost no politician, with the exception of Phocion, was at the same timean apt orator and a competent general. Demosthenes dealt in policies and ideas, and war was not his business.[118]

This contrast between Demosthenes' intellectual prowess and his deficiencies in terms of vigor, stamina, militaryskill and strategic vision is illustrated by the inscription his countrymen engraved on the base of his statue:[119]

Demosthenes 21

“Had you for Greece been strong, as wise you were, The Macedonian would not have conquered her.”Oratorical skill

Herma of Demosthenes: the head is acopy of the bronze posthumous

commemorative statue in the AncientAgora of Athens by Polyeuctus

(ca. 280 BC); this herm was found in theCircus of Maxentius in 1825 (Glyptothek,

Munich).

In Demosthenes' initial judicial orations, the influence of both Lysias andIsaeus is obvious, but his marked, original style is already revealed.[24] Mostof his extant speeches for private cases—written early in his career—showglimpses of talent: a powerful intellectual drive, masterly selection (andomission) of facts, and a confident assertion of the justice of his case, allensuring the dominance of his viewpoint over his rival. However, at this earlystage of his career, his writing was not yet remarkable for its subtlety, verbalprecision and variety of effects.[120]

According to Dionysius of Halicarnassus, a Greek historian and teacher ofrhetoric, Demosthenes represented the final stage in the development of Atticprose. Both Dionysius and Cicero assert that Demosthenes brought togetherthe best features of the basic types of style; he used the middle or normal typestyle ordinarily and applied the archaic type and the type of plain elegancewhere they were fitting. In each one of the three types he was better than itsspecial masters.[121] He is, therefore, regarded as a consummate orator, adeptin the techniques of oratory, which are brought together in his work.[117]

According to the classical scholar Harry Thurston Peck, Demosthenes"affects no learning; he aims at no elegance; he seeks no glaring ornaments;he rarely touches the heart with a soft or melting appeal, and when he does, itis only with an effect in which a third-rate speaker would have surpassedhim. He had no wit, no humour, no vivacity, in our acceptance of these terms.The secret of his power is simple, for it lies essentially in the fact that hispolitical principles were interwoven with his very spirit."[122] In thisjudgement, Peck agrees with Jaeger, who said that the imminent politicaldecision imbued the Demosthenes' speech with a fascinating artisticpower.[123] From his part, George A. Kennedy believes that his politicalspeeches in the ecclesia were to become "the artistic exposition of reasonedviews".[124]

Demosthenes was apt at combining abruptness with the extended period, brevity with breadth. Hence, his styleharmonizes with his fervent commitment.[117] His language is simple and natural, never far-fetched or artificial.According to Jebb, Demosthenes was a true artist who could make his art obey him.[24] For his part, Aeschinesstigmatized his intensity, attributing to his rival strings of absurd and incoherent images.[125] Dionysius stated thatDemosthenes' only shortcoming is the lack of humor, although Quintilian regards this deficiency as a virtue.[126] In anow lost letter of his, Cicero, though an admirer of the Athenian orator, he claimed that occasionally Demosthenes"nods", and elsewhere Cicero also argued that, although he is pre-eminent, Demosthenes sometimes fails to satisfyhis ears.[127] The main criticism of Demosthenes' art, however, seems to have rested chiefly on his known reluctanceto speak extempore;[128] he often declined to comment on subjects he had not studied beforehand.[122] However, hegave the most elaborate preparation to all his speeches and, therefore, his arguments were the products of carefulstudy. He was also famous for his caustic wit.[129]

Demosthenes 22

Besides his style, Cicero also admired other aspects of Demosthenes's works, such as the good prose rhythm, and theway he structured and arranged the material in his orations.[130] According to the Roman statesman, Demosthenesregarded "delivery" (gestures, voice etc.) as more important than style.[131] Although he lacked Aeschines' charmingvoice and Demades's skill at improvisation, he made efficient use of his body to accentuate his words.[132] Thus hemanaged to project his ideas and arguments much more forcefully. However, the use of physical gestures wasn't anintegral or developed part of rhetorical training in his day.[133] Moreover, his delivery was not accepted byeverybody in antiquity: Demetrius Phalereus and the comedians ridiculed Demosthenes' "theatricality", whilstAeschines regarded Leodamas of Acharnae as superior to him.[134]

Rhetorical legacy

Phryne Going to the Public Baths as Venus andDemosthenes Taunted by Aeschines by J. M. W.

Turner (1838)

Demosthenes' fame has continued down the ages. Authors and scholarswho flourished at Rome, such as Longinus and Caecilius, regarded hisoratory as sublime.[135] Juvenal acclaimed him as "largus et exundansingenii fons" (a large and overflowing fountain of genius),[136] and heinspired Cicero's speeches against Mark Antony, also called thePhilippics. According to Professor of Classics Cecil Wooten, Ciceroended his career by trying to imitate Demosthenes' political role.[137]

Plutarch drew attention in his Life of Demosthenes to the strongsimilarities between the personalities and careers of Demosthenes andMarcus Tullius Cicero:[138]

“The divine power seems originally to have designed Demosthenes and Cicero upon the same plan, giving them many similarities in theirnatural characters, as their passion for distinction and their love of liberty in civil life, and their want of courage in dangers and war, and at thesame time also to have added many accidental resemblances. I think there can hardly be found two other orators, who, from small and obscurebeginnings, became so great and mighty; who both contested with kings and tyrants; both lost their daughters, were driven out of their country,and returned with honor; who, flying from thence again, were both seized upon by their enemies, and at last ended their lives with the libertyof their countrymen. ”

During the Middle Ages and Renaissance, Demosthenes had a reputation for eloquence.[139] He was read more thanany other ancient orator; only Cicero offered any real competition.[140] French author and lawyer Guillaume du Vairpraised his speeches for their artful arrangement and elegant style; John Jewel, Bishop of Salisbury, and JacquesAmyot, a French Renaissance writer and translator, regarded Demosthenes as a great or even the "supreme"orator.[141] For Thomas Wilson, who first published translation of his speeches into English, Demosthenes was notonly an eloquent orator, but, mainly, an authoritative statesman, "a source of wisdom".[142]

In modern history, orators such as Henry Clay would mimic Demosthenes' technique. His ideas and principlessurvived, influencing prominent politicians and movements of our times. Hence, he constituted a source ofinspiration for the authors of the Federalist Papers (series of 85 articles arguing for the ratification of the UnitedStates Constitution) and for the major orators of the French Revolution.[143] French Prime Minister GeorgesClemenceau was among those who idealized Demosthenes and wrote a book about him.[144] For his part, FriedrichNietzsche often composed his sentences according to the paradigms of Demosthenes, whose style he admired.[145]

Demosthenes 23

Works and transmissionThe "publication" and distribution of prose texts was common practice in Athens by the latter half of the fourthcentury BC and Demosthenes was among the Athenian politicians who set the trend, publishing many or even all ofhis orations.[146] After his death, texts of his speeches survived in Athens (possibly forming part of the library ofCicero's friend, Atticus, though their fate is otherwise unknown), and in the Library of Alexandria. However, thespeeches that Demosthenes "published" might have differed from the original speeches that were actually delivered(there are indications that he rewrote them with readers in mind) and therefore it is possible also that he "published"different versions of any one speech, differences that could have impacted on the Alexandrian edition of his worksand thus on all subsequent editions down to the present day.[147]

The Alexandrian texts were incorporated into the body of classical Greek literature that was preserved, cataloguedand studied by scholars of the Hellenistic period. From then until the fourth century AD, copies of his orationsmultiplied and they were in a relatively good position to survive the tense period from the sixth until the ninthcentury AD.[148] In the end, sixty-one orations attributed to Demosthenes' survived till the present day (somehowever are pseudonymous). Friedrich Blass, a German classical scholar, believes that nine more speeches wererecorded by the orator, but they are not extant.[149] Modern editions of these speeches are based on four manuscriptsof the tenth and eleventh centuries AD.[150]

Some of the speeches that comprise the "Demosthenic corpus" are known to have been written by other authors,though scholars differ over which speeches these are.[m] Irrespective of their status, the speeches attributed toDemosthenes are often grouped in three genres first defined by Aristotle:[151]

• Symbouleutic or political, considering the expediency of future actions—sixteen such speeches are included in theDemosthenic corpus;[m]

• Dicanic or judicial, assessing the justice of past actions—only about ten of these are cases in which Demostheneswas personally involved, the rest were written for other speakers;[152]

• Epideictic or sophistic display, attributing praise or blame, often delivered at public ceremonies—only twospeeches have been included in the Demosthenic corpus, one a funeral speech that has been dismissed as a "ratherpoor" example of his work, and the other probably spurious.[153]

In addition to the speeches, there are fifty-six prologues (openings of speeches). They were collected for the Libraryof Alexandria by Callimachus, who believed them genuine.[154] Modern scholars are divided: some reject them,while others, such as Blass, believe they are authentic.[155] Finally, six letters also survive under Demosthenes' nameand their authorship too is hotly debated.[n]

Notesa.   According to Edward Cohen, professor of Classics at the University of Pennsylvania, Cleoboule was thedaughter of a Scythian woman and of an Athenian father, Gylon, although other scholars insist on the genealogicalpurity of Demosthenes.[156] There is an agreement among scholars that Cleoboule was a Crimean and not anAthenian citizen.[157] Gylon had suffered banishment at the end of the Peloponnesian War for allegedly betrayingNymphaeum in Crimaea.[158] According to Aeschines, Gylon received as a gift from the Bosporan rulers a placecalled "the Gardens" in the colony of Kepoi in present-day Russia (located within two miles (3 km) fromPhanagoria).[4] Nevertheless, the accuracy of these allegations is disputed, since more than seventy years had elapsedbetween Gylon's possible treachery and Aeschines speech, and, therefore, the orator could be confident that hisaudience would have no direct knowledge of events at Nymphaeum.[159]

b.   According to Tsatsos, the trials against the guardians lasted until Demosthenes was twenty four.[160] Nietzschereduces the time of the judicial disputes to five years.[161]

c.   According to the tenth century encyclopedia Suda, Demosthenes studied with Eubulides and Plato.[162] Cicero and Quintilian argue that Demosthenes was Plato's disciple.[163] Tsatsos and the philologist Henri Weil believe that

Demosthenes 24

there is no indication that Demosthenes was a pupil of Plato or Isocrates.[164] As far as Isaeus is concerned,according to Jebb "the school of Isaeus is nowhere else mentioned, nor is the name of any other pupil recorded".[24]

Peck believes that Demosthenes continued to study under Isaeus for the space of four years after he had reached hismajority.[122]

d.  "Batalus" or "Batalos" meant "stammerer" in ancient Greek, but it was also the name of a flute-player (in ridiculeof whom Antiphanes wrote a play) and of a song-writer.[165] The word "batalus" was also used by the Athenians todescribe the anus.[166] In fact the word actually defining his speech defect was "Battalos", signifying someone withrhotacism, but it was crudely misrepresented as "Batalos" by the enemies of Demosthenes and by Plutarch's time theoriginal word had already lost currency.[167] Another nickname of Demosthenes was "Argas." According to Plutarch,this name was given him either for his savage and spiteful behavior or for his disagreeable way of speaking. "Argas"was a poetical word for a snake, but also the name of a poet.[168]

e.   Both Tsatsos and Weil maintain that Demosthenes never abandoned the profession of the logographer, but, afterdelivering his first political orations, he wanted to be regarded as a statesman. According to James J. Murphy,Professor emeritus of Rhetoric and Communication at the University of California, Davis, his lifelong career as alogographer continued even during his most intense involvement in the political struggle against Philip.[169]

f.   "Theorika" were allowances paid by the state to poor Athenians to enable them to watch dramatic festivals.According to Libanius, Eubulus passed a law making it difficult to divert public funds, including "theorika," forminor military operations.[48] E.M. Burke argues that, if this was indeed a law of Eubulus, it would have served "as ameans to check a too-aggressive and expensive interventionism [...] allowing for the controlled expenditures on otheritems, including construction for defense". Thus Burke believes that in the Eubulan period, the Theoric Fund wasused not only as allowances for public entertainment but also for a variety of projects, including public works.[170]

As Burke also points out, in his later and more "mature" political career, Demosthenes no longer criticized"theorika"; in fact, in his Fourth Philippic (341–340 BC), he defended theoric spending.[171]

g.   In the Third Olynthiac and in the Third Philippic, Demosthenes characterized Philip as a "barbarian", one of thevarious abusive terms applied by the orator to the King of Macedon.[172] According to Konstantinos Tsatsos andDouglas M. MacDowell, Demosthenes regarded as Greeks only those who had reached the cultural standards ofsouth Greece and he did not take into consideration ethnological criteria.[173] His contempt for Philip is forcefullyexpressed in the Third Philippic 31 in these terms: "...he is not only no Greek, nor related to the Greeks, but not evena barbarian from any place that can be named with honour, but a pestilent knave from Macedonia, whence it wasnever yet possible to buy a decent slave." The wording is even more telling in Greek, ending with an accumulation ofplosive pi sounds: οὐ μόνον οὐχ Ἕλληνος ὄντος οὐδὲ προσήκοντος οὐδὲν τοῖς Ἕλλησιν, ἀλλ᾽ οὐδὲ βαρβάρουἐντεῦθεν ὅθεν καλὸν εἰπεῖν, ἀλλ᾽ ὀλέθρου Μακεδόνος, ὅθεν οὐδ᾽ ἀνδράποδον σπουδαῖον οὐδὲν ἦν πρότερονπρίασθαι.[174]

h.   Aeschines maintained that Demosthenes was bribed to drop his charges against Meidias in return for a paymentof thirty mnai. Plutarch argued the Demosthenes accepted the bribe out of fear of Meidias' power.[175] PhilippAugust Böckh also accepted Aeschines account for an out-of-court settlement, and concluded that the speech wasnever delivered. Böckh's position was soon endorsed by Arnold Schaefer and Blass. Weil agreed that Demosthenesnever delivered Against Meidias, but believed that he dropped the charges for political reasons. In 1956, HartmutErbse partly challenged Böckh's conclusions, when he argued that Against Meidias was a finished speech that couldhave been delivered in court, but Erbse then sided with George Grote, by accepting that, after Demosthenes secureda judgment in his favor, he reached some kind of settlement with Meidias. Kenneth Dover also endorsed Aeschines'account, and argued that, although the speech was never delivered in court, Demosthenes put into circulation anattack on Meidias. Dover's arguments were refuted by Edward M. Harris, who concluded that, although we cannot besure about the outcome of the trial, the speech was delivered in court, and that Aeschines story was a lie.[176]

i.   According to Plutarch, Demosthenes deserted his colors and "did nothing honorable, nor was his performanceanswerable to his speeches".[177]

Demosthenes 25

j.   Aeschines reproached Demosthenes for being silent as to the seventy talents of the king's gold which he allegedlyseized and embezzled. Aeschines and Dinarchus also maintained that when the Arcadians offered their services forten talents, Demosthenes refused to furnish the money to the Thebans, who were conducting the negotiations, and sothe Arcadians sold out to the Macedonians.[178]

k.   The exact chronology of Harpalus' entrance in Athens and of all the related events remains a debated topicamong modern scholars, who have proposed different, and sometimes conflicting, chronological schemes.[179]

l.   According to Pausanias, Demosthenes himself and others had declared that the orator had taken no part of themoney that Harpalus brought from Asia. He also narrates the following story: Shortly after Harpalus ran away fromAthens, he was put to death by the servants who were attending him, though some assert that he was assassinated.The steward of his money fled to Rhodes, and was arrested by a Macedonian officer, Philoxenus. Philoxenusproceeded to examine the slave, "until he learned everything about such as had allowed themselves to accept a bribefrom Harpalus." He then sent a dispatch to Athens, in which he gave a list of the persons who had taken a bribe fromHarpalus. "Demosthenes, however, he never mentioned at all, although Alexander held him in bitter hatred, and hehimself had a private quarrel with him."[180] On the other hand, Plutarch believes that Harpalus sent Demosthenes acup with twenty talents and that "Demosthenes could not resist the temptation, but admitting the present, ... hesurrendered himself up to the interest of Harpalus."[181] Tsatsos defends Demosthenes' innocence, but IrkosApostolidis underlines the problematic character of the primary sources on this issue—Hypereides and Dinarchuswere at the time Demosthenes' political opponents and accusers—and states that, despite the rich bibliography onHarpalus' case, modern scholarship has not yet managed to reach a safe conclusion on whether Demosthenes wasbribed or not.[182]

m.   Blass disputes the authorship of the following speeches: Fourth Philippic, Funeral Oration, Erotic Essay,Against Stephanus 2 and Against Evergus and Mnesibulus,[183] while Schaefer recognizes as genuine onlytwenty-nine orations.[184] Of Demosthenes' corpus political speeches, J.H. Vince singles out five as spurious: OnHalonnesus, Fourth Phillipic, Answer to Philip's Letter, On Organization and On the Treaty with Alexander.[185]

n.   In this discussion the work of Jonathan A. Goldstein, Professor of History and Classics at the University of Iowa,is regarded as paramount.[186] Goldstein regards Demosthenes's letters as authentic apologetic letters that wereaddressed to the Athenian Assembly.[187]

Citations[1] Longinus, On the Sublime, 12.4, 34.4

* D.C. Innes, 'Longinus and Caecilius", 277–279[2] Cicero, Brutus, 35 (http:/ / www. thelatinlibrary. com/ cicero/ brut. shtml#35), Orator, II. 6 (http:/ / www. thelatinlibrary. com/ cicero/ orator.

shtml#6); Quintillian, Institutiones, X, 1. 76 (http:/ / www. thelatinlibrary. com/ quintilian/ quintilian. institutio10. shtml#1)* D.C. Innes, 'Longinus and Caecilius", 277

[3] H. Weil, Biography of Demosthenes, 5–6[4] Aeschines, Against Ctesiphon, 171 (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Perseus:text:1999. 01. 0002:speech=3:section=171)[5][5] E. Badian, "The Road to Prominence", 11[6] Aeschines, Against Ctesiphon, 172 (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Perseus:text:1999. 01. 0002:speech=3:section=172)[7] O. Thomsen, The Looting of the Estate of the Elder Demosthenes, 61[8] Demosthenes, Against Aphobus 1, 4 (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Perseus:text:1999. 01. 0074:speech=27:section=4)

* D.M. MacDowell, Demosthenes the Orator, ch. 3[9] Demosthenes, Against Aphobus 1, 6 (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Perseus:text:1999. 01. 0074:speech=27:section=6)[10] Demosthenes, Against Aphobus 3, 59 (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Perseus:text:1999. 01.

0074:speech=29:section=59)* D.M. MacDowell, Demosthenes the Orator, ch. 3

[11][11] E. Badian, "The Road to Prominence", 18[12] Pseudo-Plutarch, Demosthenes, 847c[13] Aeschines, Against Ctesiphon, 77 (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Perseus:text:1999. 01. 0002:speech=3:section=77)[14] Aeschines, Against Ctesiphon, 162 (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Perseus:text:1999. 01. 0002:speech=3:section=162)

Demosthenes 26

[15] Aeschines, On the Embassy, 149 (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Perseus:text:1999. 01. 0002:speech=2:section=149);Athenaeus, Deipnosophistae, XIII, 63* C.A. Cox, Household Interests, 202

[16] Aeschines, On the Embassy, 148–150 (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Perseus:text:1999. 01.0002:speech=2:section=148), 165–166 (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Perseus:text:1999. 01.0002:speech=2:section=165)* A.W. Pickard, Demosthenes and the Last Days of Greek Freedom, 15

[17] Plutarch, Demosthenes, 11.1 (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Perseus:text:2008. 01. 0039:chapter=11:section=1)[18] D.M. MacDowell, Demosthenes the Orator, ch. 3 (passim); "Demosthenes". Encyclopaedia The Helios. 1952.[19] Plutarch, Demosthenes, 5.1–3 (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Perseus:text:2008. 01. 0039:chapter=5:section=1)[20] F. Nietzsche, Lessons of Rhetoric, 233–235; K. Paparregopoulus, Ab, 396–398[21] Plutarch, Demosthenes, 5.5 (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Perseus:text:2008. 01. 0039:chapter=5:section=5)[22] Lucian, Demosthenes, An Encomium, 12[23] Plutarch, Demosthenes, 5.4 (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Perseus:text:2008. 01. 0039:chapter=5:section=4)[24] R. C. Jebb, The Attic Orators from Antiphon to Isaeos (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Perseus:text:1999. 04.

0077:chapter=19:section=4)[25] Suda, article Isaeus (http:/ / www. stoa. org/ sol-bin/ search. pl?login=guest& enlogin=guest& db=REAL& field=adlerhw_gr&

searchstr=Iota,620)[26] K. Tsatsos, Demosthenes, 83[27] Lucian, The Illiterate Book-Fancier, 4[28] H. Weil, Biography of Demothenes, 10–11[29] Plutarch, Demosthenes, 6.3 (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Perseus:text:2008. 01. 0039:chapter=6:section=3)[30] Plutarch, Demosthenes, 6.4 (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Perseus:text:2008. 01. 0039:chapter=6:section=4)[31] Plutarch, Demosthenes, 7.1 (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Perseus:text:2008. 01. 0039:chapter=7:section=1)[32] H. Yunis, Demosthenes: On the Crown, 211, note 180[33] Aeschines, Against Timarchus, 126 (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Perseus:text:1999. 01. 0002:speech=1:section=126);

Aeschines, The Speech on the Embassy, 99 (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Perseus:text:1999. 01.0002:speech=2:section=99)

[34] Plutarch, Demosthenes, 6–7 (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Perseus:text:2008. 01. 0039:chapter=6:section=1)[35] Cicero, De Oratore, 3. 213 (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Perseus:text:1999. 02. 0120:book=3:section=213)

* G. Kennedy, "Oratory", 517–18[36][36] E. Badian, "The Road to Prominence", 16[37] Demosthenes, Against Zenothemis, 32 (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Perseus:text:1999. 01.

0076:speech=32:section=32)* G. Kennedy, Greek Literature, 514

[38] G. Kennedy, "Oratory", 498–500* H. Yunis, Demosthenes: On The Crown, 263 (note 275)

[39] J Vince, Demosthenes Orations, Intro. xii[40] Aeschines, Against Ctesiphon, 173 (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Perseus:text:1999. 01. 0002:speech=3:section=173);

Aeschines, The Speech on the Embassy, 165 (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Perseus:text:1999. 01.0002:speech=2:section=165)

[41] Plutarch, Demosthenes, 15[42][42] G. Kennedy, "Oratory", 516[43] A.W. Pickard, Demosthenes and the Last Days of Greek Freedom, xiv–xv[44] Packard Humanities Institute, IG Π2 1612.301-10 (http:/ / epigraphy. packhum. org/ inscriptions/ main)

* H. Yunis, Demosthenes: On the Crown, 167[45] S. Usher, Greek Oratory, 226[46] E.M. Burke, "The Early Political Speeches of Demosthenes", 177–178[47] E. Badian, "The Road to Prominence", 29–30[48] J. De Romilly, A Short History of Greek Literature, 116–117[49] D.M. MacDowell, Demosthenes the Orator, ch. 7 (pr.)[50] E.M. Harris, "Demosthenes' Speech against Meidias", 117–118; J.H. Vince, Demosthenes Orations, I, Intro. xii; N. Worman, "Insult and

Oral Excess", 1–2[51] H. Yunis, Demosthenes: On The Crown, 9, 22[52] H. Yunis, Demosthenes: On The Crown, 187[53] E. Badian, "The Road to Prominence", 29–30; K. Tsatsos, Demosthenes, 88[54] E.M. Burke, "The Early Political Speeches of Demosthenes", 174–175[55] E.M. Burke, "The Early Political Speeches of Demosthenes", 180–183

Demosthenes 27

[56] E.M. Burke, "The Early Political Speeches of Demosthenes", 180, 183 (note 91); T.N. Habinek, Ancient Rhetoric and Oratory, 21; D.Phillips, Athenian Political Oratory, 72

[57][57] E. Badian, "The Road to Prominence", 36[58] E.M. Burke, "The Early Political Speeches of Demosthenes", 181–182[59] M.H. Hansen, The Athenian Democracy, 177[60] D. Phillips, Athenian Political Oratory, 69[61] Demosthenes, Against Aristocrates, 121 (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Perseus:text:1999. 01.

0074:speech=23:section=121)[62] Demosthenes, For the Liberty of the Rhodians, 24[63] Demosthenes, First Philippic, 17; On the False Embassy, 319

* E.M. Burke, "The Early Political Speeches of Demosthenes", 184 (note 92)[64] Demosthenes, First Philippic, 11

* G. Kennedy, "Oratory", 519–520[65] Demosthenes, First Philippic, 10[66] E.M. Burke, "The Early Political Speeches of Demosthenes", 183–184[67] First Philippic 28, cited by J. H. Vince, p. 84-5 notea.[68] Demosthenes, First Olynthiac, 3; Demosthenes, Second Olynthiac, 3

* E.M. Burke, "The Early Political Speeches of Demosthenes", 185[69] Demosthenes, On the Peace, 5

* E.M. Burke, "The Early Political Speeches of Demosthenes", 185–187[70] Demosthenes, On the Peace, 5

* E.M. Burke, "The Early Political Speeches of Demosthenes", 174 (note 47)[71] Demosthenes, Against Meidias, 78–80 (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Perseus:text:1999. 01.

0074:speech=21:section=78)[72] J. De Romilly, Ancient Greece against Violence, 113–117[73] H. Yunis, The Rhetoric of Law in 4th Century Athens, 206[74] Demosthenes, Third Philippic, 56

* E.M. Burke, "The Early Political Speeches of Demosthenes", 187[75] Aeschines, The Speech on the Embassy, 34 (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Perseus:text:1999. 01.

0002:speech=2:section=34)* D.M. MacDowell, Demosthenes the Orator, ch. 12

[76] Demosthenes, Third Philippic, 15* G. Cawkwell, Philip II of Macedon, 102–103

[77] Demosthenes, On the Crown, 25–27* G. Cawkwell, Philip II of Macedon, 102–103

[78] Demosthenes, On the Crown, 30* G. Cawkwell, Philip II of Macedon, 102–103

[79] Demosthenes, On the Crown, 31* G. Cawkwell, Philip II of Macedon, 102–105; D.M. MacDowell, Demosthenes the Orator, ch. 12

[80] Demosthenes, On the Crown, 36; Demosthenes, On the Peace, 10* D.M. MacDowell, Demosthenes the Orator, ch. 12

[81] Demosthenes, On the Crown, 43[82] Demosthenes, On the False Embassy, 111–113

* D.M. MacDowell, Demosthenes the Orator, ch. 12[83] E.M. Burke, "The Early Political Speeches of Demosthenes", 188–189[84] Demosthenes, Second Philippic, 19[85] T. Buckley, Aspects of Greek History 750-323 BC, 480[86] Pseudo-Plutarch, Aeschines, 840c

* D.M. MacDowell, Demosthenes the Orator, ch. 12 (in fine)[87] Demosthenes, Third Philippic, 17[88] Demosthenes (or Hegesippus), On Halonnesus, 18–23 (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Perseus:text:1999. 01.

0070:speech=7:section=18)* D.M. MacDowell, Demosthenes the Orator, ch. 13

[89] K. Tsatsos, Demosthenes, 245[90] Demosthenes, Third Philippic, 65

* D.M. MacDowell, Demosthenes the Orator, ch. 13[91] http:/ / www. livius. org/ aj-al/ alexander/ alexander_pic/ alexander_pics. html[92] Demosthenes, On the Crown, 149, 150, 151

* C. Carey, Aeschines, 7–8

Demosthenes 28

[93] C. Carey, Aeschines, 7–8, 11[94] Demosthenes, On the Crown, 152

* K. Tsatsos, Demosthenes, 283; H. Weil, Biography of Demosthenes, 41–42[95] Demosthenes, On the Crown, 153

* K. Tsatsos, Demosthenes, 284–285; H. Weil, Biography of Demosthenes, 41–42[96] P.J. Rhodes, A History of the Classical World, 317[97] Plutarch, Demosthenes, 18.3 (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Perseus:text:2008. 01. 0039:chapter=18:section=3)

* K. Tsatsos, Demosthenes, 284–285[98] Diodorus, Library, XVI, 87 (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Perseus:text:1999. 01. 0084:book=16:chapter=87:section=1)[99] Demosthenes, On the Crown, 285, 299[100] L.A. Tritle, The Greek World in the Fourth Century, 123[101] P. Green, Alexander of Macedon, 119[102] Demades, On the Twelve Years, 17 (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Perseus:text:1999. 01. 0066:speech=1:section=17)

* J.R. Hamilton, Alexander the Great, 48[103] Plutarch, Phocion, 17 (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Perseus:text:2008. 01. 0057:chapter=17:section=1)[104] K. Tsatsos, Demosthenes, 301; "Demosthenes". Encyclopaedia The Helios. 1952.[105] Demosthenes, On the Crown, 321[106] A. Duncan, Performance and Identity in the Classical World, 70[107] Hypereides, Against Demosthenes, 3 (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Perseus:text:1999. 01.

0140:speech=5:fragment=3); Plutarch, Demosthenes, 25.2–26.4 (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Perseus:text:2008. 01.0039:chapter=25:section=2)* I. Apostolidis, notes 1219, 1226 & 1229 in J.G. Droysen, History of Alexander the Great, 717–726; K. Tsatsos, Demosthenes, 303–309; D.Whitehead, Hypereides, 359–360; I. Worthington, Harpalus Affair, passim

[108] Plutarch, Demosthenes, 27.4 (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Perseus:text:2008. 01. 0039:chapter=27:section=4)* K. Tsatsos, Demosthenes, 311

[109] Plutarch, Demosthenes, 29 (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Perseus:text:2008. 01. 0039:chapter=29:section=1)[110] Pseudo-Plutarch, Demosthenes, 847d[111] Plutarch, Demosthenes, 13. 1 (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Perseus:text:2008. 01. 0039:chapter=13:section=1)[112] Polybius, Histories, 18, 14 (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Perseus:text:1999. 01. 0234:book=18:chapter=14)[113] K. Paparregopoulus, Ab, 396–398[114] C. Carey, Aeschines, 12–14[115] K. Tsatsos, Demosthenes, 318–326[116] A.W. Pickard, Demosthenes and the Last Days of Greek Freedom , 490[117] J. De Romilly, A Short History of Greek Literature, 120–122[118] T.B. Macaulay, On Mitford's History of Greece, 136[119] Plutarch, Demosthenes, 30

* C.Carey, Aeschines, 12–14; K. Paparregopoulus, Ab, 396–398[120][120] G. Kennedy, "Oratory", 514-15[121] Cicero, Orator, 76–101 (http:/ / www. thelatinlibrary. com/ cicero/ orator. shtml#76); Dionysius, On the Admirable Style of Demosthenes,

46* C. Wooten, "Cicero's Reactions to Demosthenes", 39

[122] H.T. Peck, Harpers Dictionary of Classical Antiquities (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Perseus:text:1999. 04.0062:alphabetic+ letter=D:entry+ group=4:entry=demosthenes-harpers)

[123] W. Jaeger, Demosthenes, 123–124[124][124] G. Kennedy, "Oratory", 519[125] Aeschines, Against Ctesiphon, 166 (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Perseus:text:1999. 01. 0002:speech=3:section=139)[126] Dionysius, On the Admirable Style of Demosthenes, 56; Quintillian, Institutiones, VI, 3.2 (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/

text?doc=Perseus:text:2007. 01. 0063:book=6:chapter=3:section=2)[127] Cicero, Orator, 104 (http:/ / www. thelatinlibrary. com/ cicero/ orator. shtml#104); Plutarch, Cicero, 24. 4 (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts.

edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Perseus:text:2008. 01. 0016:chapter=24:section=4)* D.C. Innes, "Longinus and Caecilius", 262 (note 10)

[128] J. Bollansie, Hermippos of Smyrna, 415[129] Plutarch, Demosthenes, 8.1–4 (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Perseus:text:2008. 01. 0039:chapter=8:section=3)[130] C. Wooten, "Cicero's Reactions to Demosthenes", 38–40[131] Cicero, Brutus, 38 (http:/ / www. thelatinlibrary. com/ cicero/ brut. shtml#38), 142 (http:/ / www. thelatinlibrary. com/ cicero/ brut.

shtml#142)[132] F. Nietzsche, Lessons of Rhetoric, 233–235[133] H. Yunis, Demosthenes: On The Crown, 238 (note 232)

Demosthenes 29

[134] Aeschines, Against Ctesiphon, 139 (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ cgi-bin/ ptext?doc=Perseus:text:1999. 01. 0002&query=section=#519); Plutarch, Demosthenes, 9–11 (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Perseus:text:2008. 01.0039:chapter=9:section=1)

[135] D.C. Innes, 'Longinus and Caecilius", passim[136] Juvenal, Satura, X, 119[137][137] C. Wooten, "Cicero's Reactions to Demosthenes", 37[138] Plutarch, Demosthenes, 3 (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Perseus:text:2008. 01. 0039:chapter=3:section=1)[139] A.J.L. Blanshard & T.A. Sowerby, "Thomas Wilson's Demosthenes", 46–47, 51–55; "Demosthenes". Encyclopaedia Britannica. 2002.[140] G. Gibson, Interpreting a Classic, 1[141] W. A. Rebhorn, Renaissance Debates on Rhetoric, 139, 167, 258[142] A.J.L. Blanshard & T.A. Sowerby, "Thomas Wilson's Demosthenes", 46–47, 51–55[143] K. Tsatsos, Demosthenes, 352[144] V. Marcu, Men and Forces of Our Time, 32[145] F. Nietzsche, Beyond Good and Evil, 247

* P.J.M. Van Tongeren, Reinterpreting Modern Culture, 92[146] H. Yunis, Demosthenes: On The Crown, 26; H. Weil, Biography of Demosthenes, 66–67[147] H. Yunis, Demosthenes: On The Crown, 26–27[148] H. Yunis, Demosthenes: On the Crown, 28[149] F. Blass, Die attische Beredsamkeit, III, 2, 60[150] C.A. Gibson, Interpreting a Classic, 1; K.A. Kapparis, Apollodoros against Neaira, 62[151][151] G. Kennedy, "Oratory", 500[152][152] G. Kennedy, "Oratory", 514[153][153] G Kennedy, "Oratory", 510[154] I. Worthington, Oral Performance, 135[155] "Demosthenes". Encyclopaedia The Helios. 1952.; F. Blass, Die Attische Beredsamkeit, III, 1, 281–287[156] E. Cohen, The Athenian Nation, 76[157] E. Cohen, The Athenian Nation, 76; "Demosthenes". Encyclopaedia The Helios. 1952.[158] E.M. Burke, The Looting of the Estates of the Elder Demosthenes, 63[159][159] D. Braund, "The Bosporan Kings and Classical Athens", 200[160] K. Tsatsos, Demosthenes, 86[161] F. Nietzsche, Lessons of Rhetoric, 65[162] Suda, article Demosthenes (http:/ / www. stoa. org/ sol-bin/ search. pl?search_method=QUERY& login=guest& enlogin=guest&

page_num=1& user_list=LIST& searchstr=Demosthenes& field=hw_eng& num_per_page=25& db=REAL)[163] Cicero, Brutus, 121 (http:/ / www. thelatinlibrary. com/ cicero/ brut. shtml#121); Quintilian, Institutiones, XII, 2. 22 (http:/ / www.

thelatinlibrary. com/ quintilian/ quintilian. institutio12. shtml#2)[164] K. Tsatsos, Demosthenes, 84; H. Weil, Biography of Demosthenes, 10–11[165] Plutarch, Demosthenes, 4.4 (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Perseus:text:2008. 01. 0039:chapter=4:section=4)

* D. Hawhee, Bodily Arts, 156[166] Plutarch, Demosthenes, 4.4 (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Perseus:text:2008. 01. 0039:chapter=4:section=4)

* M.L. Rose, The Staff of Oedipus, 57[167] H. Yunis, Demosthenes: On the Crown, 211 (note 180)[168] Plutarch, Demosthenes, 4.5 (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Perseus:text:2008. 01. 0039:chapter=4:section=5)[169] "Demosthenes". Encyclopaedia Britannica. 2002.; K. Tsatsos, Demosthenes, 90; H. Weil, Biography of Demothenes, 17[170][170] E.M. Burke, "The Early Political Speeches of Demosthenes", 175, 185[171] Demosthenes, Fourth Philippic, 35–45 (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Perseus:text:1999. 01.

0070:speech=10:section=35)* E.M. Burke, "The Early Political Speeches of Demosthenes", 188

[172] Demosthenes, Third Olynthiac, 16 and 24; Demosthenes, Third Philippic, 31* D.M. MacDowell, Demosthenes the Orator, ch. 13; I. Worthington, Alexander the Great, 21

[173] D.M. MacDowell, Demosthenes the Orator, ch. 13* K. Tsatsos, Demosthenes, 258

[174] J.H. Vince, Demosthenes I, 242-43[175] Aeschines, Against Ctesiphon, 52 (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Perseus:text:1999. 01. 0002:speech=3:section=52);

Plutarch, Demosthenes, 12. 2 (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Perseus:text:2008. 01. 0039:chapter=12:section=2)* E.M. Harris, "Demosthenes' Speech against Meidias", 118

[176] E.M. Harris, "Demosthenes' Speech against Meidias", passim; H. Weil, Biography of Demosthenes, 28[177] Plutarch, Demosthenes, 20; Pseudo-Plutarch, Demosthenes, 845f[178] Aeschines, Against Ctesiphon, 239–240 (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Perseus:text:1999. 01.

0002:speech=3:section=239); Dinarcus, Against Demosthenes, 18–21 (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.

Demosthenes 30

01. 0082:speech=1:section=18)[179] I. Apostolidis, note 1219 in J.G. Droysen, History of Alexander the Great, 719–720; J. Engels, Hypereides, 308–313; I. Worthington,

Harpalus Affair, passim[180] Pausanias, Description of Greece, 2. 33 (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Perseus:text:1999. 01.

0160:book=2:chapter=33:section=4)[181] Plutarch, Demosthenes, 25.4 (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Perseus:text:2008. 01. 0039:chapter=25:section=4)[182] I. Apostolidis, note 1229 (with further references), in J.G. Droysen, History of Alexander the Great, 725; K. Tsatsos, Demosthenes,

307–309[183] F. Blass, Die attische Beredsamkeit, III, 1, 404–406 and 542–546[184] A. Schaefer, Demosthenes und seine Zeit, III, 111, 178, 247 and 257; H. Weil, Biography of Demosthenes, 66–67[185] J.H. Vince, Demosthenes Orations, 268, 317, 353, 463[186] F.J. Long, Ancient Rhetoric and Paul's Apology, 102; M. Trap, Greek and Latin Letters, 12[187] J.A. Goldstein, The Letters of Demosthenes, 93

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State. ISBN 0-8061-3143-8.• Harris, Edward M. (1989). "Demosthenes' Speech against Meidias". Harvard Studies in Classical Philology

(Department of the Classics, Harvard University) 92: 117–136. JSTOR 311355.• Hawhee, Debra (2005). Bodily Arts: Rhetoric and Athletics in Ancient Greece. University of Texas Press.

ISBN 0-292-70584-0.• Innes, D.C. (2002). "Longinus and Caecilius: Models of the Sublime". Mnemosyne, Fourth Series (BRILL) 55

(3): 259–284. JSTOR 4433333.• Jaeger, Werner (1938). Demosthenes. Walter de Gruyter Company. ISBN 3-11-002527-2.• Jebb, Sir Richard Claverhouse (1876). The Attic Orators from Antiphon to Isaeos. Macmillan and Co..• Kapparis, Konstantinos A. (1999). Apollodoros Against Neaira. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 3-11-016390-X.

Demosthenes 33

• Kennedy, George A. (1985). "Oratory". The Cambridge History of Classical Literature: Greek Literature.Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521210423. ISBN 0-521-21042-9.

• Long, Fredrick J. (2004). Ancient Rhetoric and Paul's Apology. Cambridge University Press.ISBN 0-521-84233-6.

• Macaulay, Thomas Babington (2004). "On Mitford's History of Greece". The Miscellaneous Writings andSpeeches of Lord Macaulay Volume I. Kessinger Publishing. ISBN 1-4191-7417-7.

• MacDowell, Douglas M. (2009) (digital edition). Demosthenes the Orator. Oxford University Press.ISBN 0-19-160873-4.

• Marcu, Valeru (2005). Men and Forces of Our Time. Kessinger Publishing. ISBN 1-4179-9529-7.• Murphy, James J. (2002). "Demosthenes". Encyclopaedia Britannica.• Nietzsche, Friedrich (1909–1913). Beyond Good and Evil. The Complete Works of Friedrich Nietzsche.• Nietzsche, Friedrich (1975). Lessons of Rhetoric. Plethron (from the Greek translation).• Paparrigopoulos, Constantine (1925). Karolidis, Pavlos. ed (in Greek). History of the Hellenic Nation. Ab.

Eleftheroudakis.• Peck, Harry Thurston (1898). Harper's Dictionary Of Classical Literature And Antiquities.• Phillips, David (2004). "Philip and Athens". Athenian Political Oratory: 16 Key Speeches. Routledge (UK).

ISBN 0-415-96609-4.• Pickard, A. W. (2003). Demosthenes and the Last Days of Greek Freedom 384 - 322 B.C. Gorgias Press LLC.

ISBN 1-59333-030-8.• Phillips, David (2004). Athenian Political Oratory. Routledge (UK). ISBN 0-415-96609-4.• Romilly de, Jacqueline (1996). A Short History of Greek Literature. University of Chicago Press.

ISBN 0-8014-8206-2.• Romilly de, Jacqueline (2001). Ancient Greece against Violence (translated in Greek). To Asty.

ISBN 960-86331-5-X.• Rebhorn, Wayne A. (1999). Renaissance Debates on Rhetoric. Cornell University Press. ISBN 0-226-14312-0.• Rhodes, P.J. (2005). "Philip II of Macedon". A History of the Classical Greek World. Blackwell Publishing.

ISBN 0-631-22564-1.• Rose, M.L. (2003). The Staff of Oedipus. University of Michigan Press. ISBN 0-472-11339-9.• Schaefer, Arnold (1885). Demosthenes und seine Zeit (in German). Third Volume. B. G. Teubner.• Slusser, G. (1999). "Ender's Game". Nursery Realms edited by G. Westfahl. University of Georgia Press.

ISBN 0-8203-2144-3.• Thomsen, Ole (1998). "The Looting of the Estate of the Elder Demosthenes" (http:/ / books. google. com/

?id=2JB_rQpAv80C& pg=PA45& lpg=PA45& dq=Demosthenes,+ Thomsen). Classica et Mediaevalia — RevueDanoise De Philologie et D'Histoire (Museum Tusculanum Press) 49: 45–66. ISBN 978-87-7289-535-2.Retrieved 2006-10-08.

• Trapp, Michael (2003). Greek and Latin Letters. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-49943-7.• Tritle, Lawrence A. (1997). The Greek World in the Fourth Century. Routledge (UK). ISBN 0-415-10583-8.• Tsatsos, Konstantinos (1975). Demosthenes. Estia (in Greek).• Usher, Stephen (1999). "Demosthenes Symboulos". Greek Oratory: Tradition and Originality. Oxford University

Press. ISBN 0-19-815074-1.• Van Tongeren, Paul J. M. (1999). Reinterpreting Modern Culture: An Introduction to Friedrich Nietzsche's

Philosophy. Purdue University Press. ISBN 1-55753-156-0.• Vince, J.H. (1930). "Preface". Demosthenes Orations Vol. 1. Loeb Classical Library.• Weil, Henri (1975). Biography of Demosthenes in "Demosthenes' Orations". Papyros (from the Greek

translation).• Whitehead, David (2000). Hypereides: the Forensic Speeches. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-815218-3.

Demosthenes 34

• Wooten, Cecil (October – November 1977). "Cicero's Reactions to Demosthenes: A Clarification". The ClassicalJournal (The Classical Association of the Middle West and South) 73 (1): 37–43. JSTOR 3296953.

• Worman, Nancy (Spring 2004). "Insult and Oral Excess in the Disputes between Aeschines and Demosthenes".The American Journal of Philology (The Johns Hopkins University Press) 125 (1): 1–25. JSTOR 1562208.

• Worthington, Ian (2003). Alexander the Great: A Reader. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-29187-9.• Worthington, Ian (2004). "Oral Performance in the Athenian Assembly and the Demosthenic Prooemia". Oral

Performance and its Context edited by C.J. MacKie. Brill Academic Publishers. ISBN 90-04-13680-0.• Worthington, Ian (1986). "The Chronology of the Harpalus Affair" (http:/ / www. tandfonline. com/ doi/ abs/ 10.

1080/ 00397678608590798#preview). Symbolae Osloenses (Taylor & Francis) 61 (1): 63–76.doi:10.1080/00397678608590798. Retrieved 2011-11-08.

• Yunis, Harvey (2001). Demosthenes: On the Crown. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-62930-6.• Yunis, Harvey (2005). "The Rhetoric of Law in Fourth-Century Athens". The Cambridge Companion to Ancient

Greek Law edited by Michael Gagarin, David Cohen. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-81840-0.

Further reading• Adams, Charles Darwin (1927). Demosthenes and His Influence. New York: Longmans.• Brodribb, William Jackson (1877). Demosthenes. J.B. Lippincott & co..• Bryan, William Jennings (1906). The world's famous orations (Volume 1). New York: Funk and Wagnalls

Company.• Butcher, Samuel Henry (1888). Demosthenes. Macmillan & co..• Clemenceau, Georges (1926). Demosthène. Plon.• Easterling P. E., Knox Bernard M. W. (1985). The Cambridge History of Classical Literature. Cambridge

University Press. ISBN 0-521-21042-9.• Kennedy, George A. (1963). Art of Persuasion in Greece. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University press.• Murphy, James J., ed. (1967). Demosthenes' "On the Crown": A Critical Case Study of a Masterpiece of Ancient

Oratory. New York: Random House.• Pearson, Lionel (1981). The art of Demosthenes. Chico, CA: Scholars press. ISBN 0-89130-551-3.

External links• Art of Speech (http:/ / library. thinkquest. org/ C001146/ curriculum. php3?action=item_view& item_id=22&

print_view=1)• Britannica, 11th Edition (http:/ / encyclopedia. jrank. org/ DEM_DIO/ DEMOSTHENES. html)• Britannica online (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ eb/ article-9029911)• Lendering, Jona (http:/ / www. livius. org/ de-dh/ demosthenes/ demosthenes. html)• Pickard A.W. (http:/ / www. third-millennium-library. com/ readinghall/ GalleryofHistory/ DEMOSTHENES/

DOOR. html)His era

• Beck, Sanderson: Philip, Demosthenes, and Alexander (http:/ / www. san. beck. org/ EC22-Alexander. html)• Blackwell, Christopher W.: The Assembly during Demosthenes' era (http:/ / www. stoa. org/ projects/ demos/

article_assembly?page=7& greekEncoding=UnicodeC/ )• Britannica online: Macedonian supremacy in Greece (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ eb/ article-261110/

ancient-Greek-civilization)• Smith, William: A Smaller History of Ancient Greece-Philip of Macedon (http:/ / www. ellopos. net/ elpenor/

greek-texts/ ancient-greece/ history-of-ancient-greece-19-philip. asp)Miscellaneous

Demosthenes 35

• SORGLL: Demosthenes, On the Crown 199-208; read by Stephen Daitz (http:/ / www. rhapsodes. fll. vt. edu/demosthenes. htm)

• Libanius, Hypotheses to the Orations of Demosthenes (http:/ / www. stoa. org/ projects/ demos/article_libanius?page=33& greekEncoding=Unicode)

• Works by Demosthenes (http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ author/ Demosthenes) at Project Gutenberg

DinarchusDinarchus or Dinarch (Corinth, c. 361 – c. 291 BC) was a logographer (speech writer) in Ancient Greece. He wasthe last of the ten Attic orators included in the "Alexandrian Canon" compiled by Aristophanes of Byzantium andAristarchus of Samothrace in the third century BC.A son of Sostratus (or, according to the Suda, Socrates), Dinarchus settled at Athens early in life, and when not morethan twenty-five was already active as a logographer—a writer of speeches for the law courts. As a metic, he wasunable to take part in the debates. He had been the pupil both of Theophrastus and of Demetrius Phalereus, and hadearly acquired a certain fluency and versatility of style.In 324 the Areopagus, after inquiry, reported that nine men had taken bribes from Harpalus, the fugitive treasurer ofAlexander. Ten public prosecutors were appointed. Dinarchus wrote, for one or more of these prosecutors, the threespeeches which are still extant: Against Demosthenes, Against Aristogeiton, and Against Philocles.The sympathies of Dinarchus were in favor of an Athenian oligarchy under Macedonian control; but it should beremembered that he was not an Athenian citizen. Aeschines and Demades had no such excuse. In the Harpalus affair,Demosthenes as well as the others accused, were probably innocent. Yet Hypereides, the most fiery of the patriots,was on the same side as Dinarchus.Under the regency of his old master, Demetrius Phalereus, Dinarchus exercised much political influence. The years317–307 were the most prosperous of his life. On the fall of Demetrius Phalereus and the restoration of thedemocracy by Demetrius Poliorcetes, Dinarchus was condemned to death and withdrew into exile at Chalcis inEuboea.About 292, thanks to his friend Theophrastus, he was able to return to Attica, and took up his abode in the countrywith a former associate, Proxenus. He afterwards brought an action against Proxenus on the ground that he hadrobbed him of some money and plate. Dinarchus died at Athens about 291.

Surviving Speeches• Against Demosthenes [1]

• Against Aristogiton [2]

• Against Philocles [3]

References• Minor Attic Orators, II, Lycurgus. Dinarchus. Demades. Hyperides [4], trans. J. O. Burtt, Harvard University

Press, Loeb Classical Library, 1954.• Dinarchus, Hyperides, & Lycurgus [5], trans. Ian Worthington, Craig Cooper, and Edward M. Harris, University

of Texas Press, 2001.This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911).Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.

Dinarchus 36

References[1] http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ cgi-bin/ ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999. 01. 0082& query=head%3D%231[2] http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ cgi-bin/ ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999. 01. 0082& query=head%3D%232[3] http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ cgi-bin/ ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999. 01. 0082& query=head%3D%233[4] http:/ / www. hup. harvard. edu/ catalog/ L395. html[5] http:/ / www. utexas. edu/ utpress/ books/ wordin. html

HypereidesHypereides or Hyperides (Ancient Greek: Ὑπερείδης, Hypereidēs; c. 390 BCE – 322 BCE; English pronunciationwith the stress variably on the penultimate or antepenultimate syllable[1]) was a logographer (speech writer) inAncient Greece. He was one of the ten Attic orators included in the "Alexandrian Canon" compiled by Aristophanesof Byzantium and Aristarchus of Samothrace in the third century BCE.

Rise to powerLittle is known about his early life except that he was the son of Glaucippus, of the deme of Collytus and that hestudied logography under Isocrates. In 360 BCE he prosecuted Autocles for treason.[2] During the Social War(358–355 BCE) he accused Aristophon, then one of the most influential men at Athens, of malpractices,[3] andimpeached Philocrates (343 BCE) for high treason. Although Hypereides supported Demosthenes in the struggleagainst Phillip II of Macedon; that support was withdrawn after the Harpalus affair. After Demosthenes' exileHypereides became the head of the patriotic party (324 BCE).

DownfallAfter the death of Alexander the Great, Hypereides was one of the chief promoters of war against Macedonian rule.His speeches are believed to have led to the outbreak of the Lamian War (323–322 BCE) in which Athens, Aetolia,and Thessaly revolted against Macedonian rule. After the decisive defeat at Crannon (322 BCE) in which Athens andher allies lost their independence, Hypereides and the other orators, were condemned to death by the Atheniansupporters of Macedon.Hypereides fled to Aegina only to be captured at the temple of Poseidon. After being put to death, his body(according to others) was taken to Cleonae and shown to the Macedonian general Antipater before being returned toAthens for burial.

Personality and oratorical styleHypereides was an ardent pursuer of "the beautiful," which in his time generally meant pleasure and luxury. Histemper was easy-going and humorous. Though in his development of the periodic sentence he followed Isocrates, theessential tendencies of his style are those of Lysias. His diction was plain, though he occasionally indulged in longcompound words probably borrowed from Middle Comedy. His composition was simple. He was especiallydistinguished for subtlety of expression, grace and wit.[4]

Hypereides 37

Surviving speeches

The final two columns of P.Lit.Lond. 134, the2nd-century BCE papyrus that transmits the

conclusion to Against Philippides

Seventy-seven speeches have been attributed to Hypereides, of whichseventy-five were regarded as spurious by his contemporaries. It is saidthat a manuscript of most of the speeches survived as late as the 15thcentury in the library of Matthias Corvinus, king of Hungary, but waslater destroyed after the capture of Buda by the Turks in the 16thcentury. Only a few fragments were known until relatively recenttimes. In 1847 large fragments of his speeches, Against Demosthenesand For Lycophron (incidentally interesting for clarifying the order ofmarriage processions and other details of Athenian life, and theAthenian government of Lemnos) and the whole of For Euxenippus (c.330 BCE, a locus classicus on eisangeliai or state prosecutions), werefound in a tomb at Thebes in Egypt. In 1856 a considerable portion of alogos epitaphios, a Funeral Oration over Leosthenes and his comradeswho had fallen in the Lamian war was discovered. Currently this is thebest surviving example of epideictic oratory.

Towards the end of the nineteenth century further discoveries weremade including the conclusion of the speech Against Philippides(dealing with an indictment for the proposal of unconstitutionalmeasure, arising out of the disputes of the Macedonian andanti-Macedonian parties at Athens), and of the whole of AgainstAthenogenes (a perfumer accused of fraud in the sale of his business).

New discoveries

In 2002 Natalie Tchernetska of Trinity College, Cambridge discovered fragments of two speeches of Hypereides,which had been considered lost, in the Archimedes Palimpsest. These were from the Against Timandros and AgainstDiondas. Tchernetska's discovery led to a publication on the subject in the Zeitschrift für Papyrologie undEpigraphik.[5] This prompted the establishment of a working group under the auspices of the British Academy,which includes scholars from the UK, Hungary and the US.[6]

In 2006, the Archimedes Palimpsest project together with imagers at Stanford University used powerful X-rayfluorescence imaging to read the final pages of the Palimpsest, which contained the material by Hypereides. Thesewere interpreted, transcribed and translated by the working group.The new Hypereides revelations include two previously unknown speeches, effectively increasing the quantity ofmaterial known by this author by 20 percent. Previously, most scholars believed only fragments of Hypereides hadsurvived beyond the Classical period.[7]

Hypereides 38

Lost speeches

Jean-Léon Gérôme, Phryne before the Areopagus, 1861

Among the speeches not yet recovered is theDeliacus[8] in which the presidency of the Deliantemple claimed by both Athens and Cos, which wasadjudged by the Amphictyonic League to Athens. Alsomissing is the speech in which he defended theillustrious courtesan Phryne (said to have been hismistress) on a capital charge: according to Plutarch andAthenaeus the speech climaxed with Hypereidesstripping off her clothing to reveal her naked breasts; inthe face of which the judges found it impossible tocondemn her.[9]

Assessment

William Noel, the curator of manuscripts and rare books at the Walters Art Museum in Baltimore, Maryland and thedirector of the Archimedes Palimpsest project, called Hypereides "one of the great foundational figures of Greekdemocracy and the golden age of Athenian democracy, the foundational democracy of all democracy."[7]

Notes[1] Mackey and Mackey, The Pronunciation of 10,000 Proper Names, New York, 1922, p. 138 (http:/ / books. google. com/

books?id=4rp8kMDkizkC& vq=Hyperides& pg=PA138& q=Hyperides& f=false#v=snippet& q=Hyperides& f=false) (penult); John Walker,Critical Pronouncing Dictionary, New York, 1828, p. 61 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=dNkUAAAAYAAJ& vq=Hyperides&pg=PA673#v=snippet& q=Hyperides& f=false) (antepenult); John Hogg in The Gentleman's Magazine, 1857, p. 423 (http:/ / books. google.com/ books?id=ePoIAAAAIAAJ& vq="pronunciation of the word Hyperides"& pg=PA423#v=onepage& q& f=false) (considering bothpossibilities)

[2] (frags. 55–65, Blass)[3] (frags. 40–44, Blass)[4] (De sublimitate, 34) in the phrase-"Hypereides was the Sheridan of Athens"[5] Tchernetska, Natalie (2005). "New Fragments of Hypereides from the Archimedes Palimpsest". ZPE 154: 1–6. JSTOR 20190979.[6] Carey, C.; et al. (2008). "Fragments of Hyperides' Against Diondas from the Archimedes Palimpsest". ZPE 165: 1–19.[7] Lee, Felicia R. (November 27, 2006). "A Layered Look Reveals Ancient Greek Texts" (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2006/ 11/ 27/ arts/

27greek. html). New York Times. .[8] (frags. 67–75, Blass)[9] (Athenaeus, Deipnosophistae, XIII.590)

References• Herrman, Judson (ed., trans. comm.). Hyperides. Funeral oration. Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2009. xiv,

148 p. (American Philological Association. American classical studies, 53).• Whitehead, David (2000). Hypereides: The Forensic Speeches. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-815218-3.This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911).Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.

Isaeus 39

IsaeusIsaeus (Latin; Greek Ἰσαῖος Isaios), fl. early 4th century BC. One of the ten Attic Orators according to theAlexandrian canon. He was a student of Isocrates in Athens, and later taught Demosthenes while working as a meticspeechwriter for others. Only eleven of his speeches survive, with fragments of a twelfth. They are mostly concernedwith inheritance, with one on civil rights. Dionysius of Halicarnassus compared his style to Lysias, although Isaeuswas more given to employing sophistry.

LifeThe time of his birth and death is unknown, but all accounts agree in the statement that he flourished (ἤκμασε)during the period between the Peloponnesian War and the accession of Philip II of Macedon, so that he livedbetween 420 and 348 BCE.[1] He was a son of Diagoras, and was born at Chalcis in Euboea; some sources say hewas born in Athens, probably only because he came there at an early age and spent the greater part of his life there.He was instructed in oratory by Lysias and Isocrates.[2] He was afterwards engaged in writing judicial orations forothers, and established a rhetorical school at Athens, in which Demosthenes is said to have been his pupil. The Sudastates that Isaeus instructed him free of charge, whereas Plutarch relates that he received 10,000 drachmas;[3] and it isfurther said that Isaeus composed for Demosthenes the speeches against his guardians, or at least assisted him in thecomposition. All particulars about his life are unknown, and were so even in the time of Dionysius, since Hermippus,who had written an account of the disciples of Isocrates, did not mention Isaeus at all.

WorksIn antiquity there were 64 orations which bore the name of Isaeus, but only fifty were recognised as genuine by theancient critics.[4] Of these, only eleven have come down to us; but we possess fragments and the titles of 56 speechesascribed to him. The eleven extant are all on subjects connected with disputed inheritances; and Isaeus appears tohave been particularly well acquainted with the laws relating to inheritance.Ten of these orations had been known ever since the revival of letters in the Renaissance, and were printed in thecollections of Greek orators; but the eleventh, On Menecles' legacy (περὶ τοῦ Μενεκλέους κλήρου), was firstpublished in 1785 from a Florentine manuscript by Tyrwhitt, and later by Orelli in 1814. Also, in 1815 Maidiscovered and published the greater half of Isaeus' oration On Cleonymus' legacy (περὶ τοῦ Κλεωνύμου κλήρου).Isaeus is also known to have written a manual on speechwriting entitled the Technē or Idiai technai (ἰδίαι τέχναι,"Personal skills"), which, however, is lost.[5]

List of extant speeches (available at the Perseus Digital Library [8])1. On The Estate of Cleonymus [6]

2. On the Estate of Menecles [7]

3. On The Estate Of Pyrrhus [8]

4. On the Estate of Nicostratus [9]

5. On the Estate of Dicaeogenes [10]

6. On the Estate of Philoctemon [11]

7. On The Estate of Apollodorus [12]

8. On The Estate of Ciron [13]

9. On the Estate of Astyphilus [14]

10. On The Estate Of Aristarchus [15]

11. On the Estate of Hagnias [16]

12. On Behalf of Euphiletus [17]

Isaeus 40

Oratorical styleAlthough his orations were placed fifth in the Alexandrian canon, still we do not hear of any of the grammarianshaving written commentaries on him, except Didymus of Alexandria.[18] But we still possess the criticism uponIsaeus written by Dionysius of Halicarnassus; and by a comparison of the orations still extant with the opinions ofDionysius, we come to the following conclusion.The oratory of Isaeus resembles in many points that of his teacher, Lysias: the style of both is pure, clear, andconcise; but while Lysias is at the same time simple and graceful, Isaeus evidently strives to attain a higher degree ofpolish and refinement, without, however, in the least injuring the powerful and impressive character of his oratory.The same spirit is visible in the manner in which he handles his subjects, especially in their skilful division, and inthe artful manner in which he interweaves his arguments with various parts of the exposition, whereby his orationsbecome like a painting in which light and shade are distributed with a distinct view to produce certain effects. It wasmainly owing to this mode of management that he was envied and censured by his contemporaries, as if he had triedto deceive and misguide his hearers. He was one of the first who turned their attention to a scientific cultivation ofpolitical oratory; but excellence in this department of the art was not attained until the time of Demosthenes.

Bibliography

Print• Forster, E.S. (ed., tr.) 1927, Isaeus (Cambridge, MA). ISBN 0-674-99222-9• Roussel, P. (ed., tr.) 2003, Isée. Discours, 3rd ed. (1st ed. 1922; Paris). ISBN 2-251-00170-0• Thalheim, Th. (ed.) 1963, Isaei Orationes cum deperditarum fragmentis, 2nd ed. (1st ed. 1903; Stuttgart). ISBN

3-598-71456-4• Wyse, W. (ed.) 1904, The Speeches of Isaeus (Cambridge). - PDF [19]

References[1] Dionysius, Isaeus 1; Plutarch, Lives of the Ten Orators p. 839; Anon., γένος Ἰσαίου.[2] Photius, Bibliotheca cod. 263; Dionysius and Plutarch, locc. citt.[3] Cf. Plutarch de Glor. Ath. p. 350, c.; Photius loc. cit.[4] Plutarch, Lives of the Ten Orators, loc. cit.[5] Plutarch, Lives of the Ten Orators p. 839; Dionysius Epist. ad Ammon. i.2.[6] http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ cgi-bin/ ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999. 01. 0142& query=head%3D%231[7] http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ cgi-bin/ ptext?lookup=Isaeus+ 2+ hypothesis[8] http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ cgi-bin/ ptext?lookup=Isaeus+ 3+ hypothesis[9] http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ cgi-bin/ ptext?lookup=Isaeus+ 4+ hypothesis[10] http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ cgi-bin/ ptext?lookup=Isaeus+ 5+ hypothesis[11] http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ cgi-bin/ ptext?lookup=Isaeus+ 6+ hypothesis[12] http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ cgi-bin/ ptext?lookup=Isaeus+ 7+ hypothesis[13] http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ cgi-bin/ ptext?lookup=Isaeus+ 8+ hypothesis[14] http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ cgi-bin/ ptext?lookup=Isaeus+ 9+ hypothesis[15] http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ cgi-bin/ ptext?lookup=Isaeus+ 10+ hypothesis[16] http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ cgi-bin/ ptext?lookup=Isaeus+ 11+ hypothesis[17] http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ cgi-bin/ ptext?lookup=Isaeus+ 12+ hypothesis[18][18] Harpocrates, s.vv. γαμηλία, πανδαισία.[19] http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=TqUNAAAAIAAJ

Isaeus 41

Sources•  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Smith, William, ed. (1867). "article

name needed". Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology.

Further reading• Lawless, John M. (1991). Law, argument and equity in the speeches of Isaeus. Providence, RI: Brown University

Ph.D. thesis. OCLC 26957676.• Wyse, William (1904). The Speeches of Isaeus with Critical and Explanatory Notes. Cambridge: University

Press.

Isocrates

Bust of Isocrates; plaster cast in thePushkin Museum of the bust

formerly at Villa Albani, Rome

Isocrates (English: /aɪ.ˈsɒk.rɑ.tiːs/; Ancient Greek: Ἰσοκράτης; 436–338 BC), anancient Greek rhetorician, was one of the ten Attic orators. In his time, he wasprobably the most influential rhetorician in Greece and made many contributionsto rhetoric and education through his teaching and written works.

Greek rhetoric is commonly traced to Corax of Syracuse, who first formulated aset of rhetorical rules in the fifth century BC. His pupil, Tisias, was influential inthe development of the rhetoric of the courtroom, and by some accounts was theteacher of Isocrates. Within two generations, rhetoric had become an importantart, its growth driven by the social and political changes, such as democracy andthe courts of law.

Career

Unlike most rhetoric schools of the time, which were taught by itinerant sophists,Isocrates defined himself with his treatise Against the Sophists.[1] This polemicwas written to explain and advertise the reasoning and educational principlesbehind his newly-opened school. He promoted his broad-based education by speaking against two types of teachers:the Eristics, who disputed about theoretical and ethical matters, and the Sophists, who taught political debatetechniques.[2]

Isocrates was born to a wealthy family in Athens and received a first-rate education. He was greatly influenced byhis sophist teachers, Prodicus and Gorgias, and was also closely acquainted with Socrates.[2] After the PeloponnesianWar, Isocrates' family lost its wealth, and Isocrates was forced to earn a living.Isocrates' professional career is said to have begun as a logographer, or a hired courtroom speech writer. Athenian citizens would not hire lawyers because legal procedure required self-representation. Instead, they would speak for themselves and hire people like Isocrates to write speeches for them in exchange for a fee. Isocrates had a great talent for this since he lacked confidence in public speaking. His weak voice motivated him to publish pamphlets and although he played no direct part in state affairs, his written speech influenced the public and provided significant insight on large political issues of the fourth century BC.[3] Around 392 BC he set up his own school of rhetoric, because at the time Athens had no set curriculum for higher education (sophist teachers often travelled), and proved to be not only an influential teacher, but a shrewd businessman. His fees were unusually high, and he accepted no more than nine pupils at a time. Many of them went on to be philosophers, legislators and historians.[2] As a consequence, he amassed a considerable fortune. According to Pliny the Elder (NH VII.30) he could sell a single

Isocrates 42

oration for twenty talents.

Program of rhetoricIsocrates' program of rhetorical education stressed the ability to use language to address practical problems, and hereferred to his teachings as more of a philosophy as opposed to rhetoric. He emphasized that students needed threethings to learn: a natural aptitude which was inborn, knowledge training granted by teachers and textbooks andapplied practices designed by educators.[2] He also stressed civic education, training students to serve the state.Students would practice composing and delivering speeches on various subjects. He considered natural ability andpractice to be more important than rules or principles of rhetoric. Rather than delineating static rules, Isocratesstressed "fitness for the occasion," or kairos (the rhetor's ability to adapt to changing circumstances and situations).His school lasted for over fifty years and taught the basis of liberal arts education as we know it today, includingoratory, composition, history, citizenship, culture and morality.[2]

Because of Plato's attacks on the sophists, Isocrates' school of rhetoric and philosophy came to be viewed asunethical and deceitful. Yet many of Plato's criticisms are hard to substantiate in the work of Isocrates, and at the endof his Phaedrus Plato even has Socrates praising Isocrates, though some scholars take this to be sarcastic. Isocratessaw the ideal orator as someone who must not only possess rhetorical gifts, but possess also a wide knowledge ofphilosophy, science, and the arts. The orator should also represent Greek ideals of freedom, self-control, and virtue.In this, he influenced several Roman rhetoricians, such as Cicero and Quintilian, and also had an influence on theidea of liberal education.On the art of rhetoric, he was also an innovator. He paid closer attention to expression and rhythm far more than anyother Greek writer, but because his sentences were so complex and artistic, he often sacrificed clarity to demonstratehis messages.[3]

Of the 60 orations in his name available in Roman times, 21 were transmitted by ancient and medieval scribes.Another three orations were found in a single codex during a 1988 excavation at Kellis,[4][5] a site in the DakhlaOasis of Egypt. We have nine letters in his name, but the authenticity of four has been questioned. He is said to havecompiled a treatise, the Art of Rhetoric, but it has not survived. In addition to the orations, other works include hisautobiographical Antidosis and educational texts, such as Against the Sophists.

Panathenaicus and Famous QuotationIn Panathenaicus, Isocrates argues with a student about the literacy of the Spartans. In section 250, the studentclaims that the most intelligent of the Spartans owned copies of and admired some of Isocrates' speeches. Theimplication is that some Spartans had books, were able to read them and were eager to do so. The Spartans, however,needed an interpreter to clear up any misunderstandings of double meanings which might lie concealed beneath thesurface of complicated words. This text indicates that some Spartans were not illiterate. If this speech is takenliterally, it would suggest that Spartans could conduct political affairs and that they collected and made use of writtenworks such as speeches. This text is important to scholars' understanding of literacy in Sparta because it indicatesthat Spartans were able to read and that they often put written documents to use in their public affairs."Ἰσοκράτης τῆς παιδείας τὴν ῥίζαν πικρὰν ἔφη, γλυκεῖς δὲ τοὺς καρπούς."[6]

"Isocrates said that the root of education is bitter, but the fruits are sweet."Progymnasmata of Aphthonios. A similar sentence is found in the Progymnasmata of Libanios.

Isocrates 43

Panegyricus 50 and the True Hellene debateIn modern Greece there has been, due to the rise of immigration, debate between nationalists and anti-nationalists onwhat the passage in Panegyricus 50 actually entails. The proposition by anti-nationalists is that Isocrates said that "AGreek is he who shares our common culture" (meaning Greek culture) and understand from that that he was an earlyproponent of multiculturalism who wanted barbarians as well as Greeks becoming a part of the Greek ethnic group.On the other hand nationalists refute that, with some of them claiming that he in fact meant that "It is a shame that aGreek is considered by some one who shares our culture rather than our common kinship" and paint him as aproto-racist.Some claim that Isocrates was merely making an appeal to unite all Hellenes under the hegemony of Athens (whoseculture is implied under the words "our common culture") in a crusade against the Persians rather than theircustomary fighting against each other. That is, Isocrates was referring to Athenian not Greek culture when he saidthat. In any case, on this theory, Isocrates was not extending the appellation Hellene to non-Greeks.[7]

However, he was also not an early proponent of racism either since he did specifically, in Panegyricus, make anappeal to define the Hellenes as a people sharing a common culture, albeit the Athenian one.[8] This was done inorder to boost Athens whose present military weakness meant that its only claim to leadership of the Greeks was itscultural ascendancy.[9][10]

Nonetheless, the misinterpretation of Isocratesis not wholly new. Second Sophistic Greeks, living in a multi-culturalenvironment, had a fresh impetus to re-interpret him and apply his words, if not spirit, to their time.[11]

Quotation of Panegyricus 50

Greek text

[50] τοσοῦτον δ' ἀπολέλοιπεν ἡ πόλις ἡμῶν περὶ τὸ φρονεῖν καὶ λέγειν τοὺς ἄλλους ἀνθρώπους, ὥσθ' οἱ ταύτηςμαθηταὶ τῶν ἄλλων διδάσκαλοι γεγόνασι, καὶ τὸ τῶν Ἑλλήνων ὄνομα πεποίηκε μηκέτι τοῦ γένους ἀλλὰ τῆςδιανοίας δοκεῖν εἶναι, καὶ μᾶλλον Ἕλληνας καλεῖσθαι τοὺς τῆς παιδεύσεως τῆς ἡμετέρας ἢ τοὺς τῆς κοινῆςφύσεως μετέχοντας.[12]

English text

"Our city of Athens has so far surpassed other men in its wisdom and its power of expression that its pupils havebecome the teachers of the world. It has caused the name of Hellene to be regarded as no longer a mark of racialorigin but of intelligence, so that men are called Hellenes because they have shared our common education ratherthan that they share in our common ethnic origin."[13]

Notes[1] Readings in Classical Rhetoric By Thomas W. Benson, Michael H. Prosser Page 43 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=XjrJUcEnBnsC&

pg=PA43& dq=Isocrates+ + against+ the+ sophists#v=onepage& q=Isocrates against the sophists& f=false) ISBN 0-9611800-3-X[2] Matsen, Patricia, Philip Rollinson and Marion Sousa. Readings from Classical Rhetoric. Southern Illinois: 1990. Print.[3] George Law Cackwell (1998). "Isocrates" (http:/ / www. oxfordreference. com. ezprozy. library. yorku. ca/ views/ ENTRY.

html?subview=Main& entry=t133. e343). The Oxford Companion to Classical Civilization. York University: Simon Hornblower and AntonySpawforth | Oxford University Press. . Retrieved October 18, 2011.

[4] "Ancient Kellis" (http:/ / www. lib. monash. edu. au/ exhibitions/ egypt/ xegy. html). Lib.monash.edu.au. 1998-10-02. . Retrieved2012-07-09.

[5] Roger Pearse (2005-09-17). "The texts found at Kellis in the Dakhleh Oasis" (http:/ / www. tertullian. org/ rpearse/ manuscripts/ kellis. htm).Tertullian.org. . Retrieved 2012-07-09.

[6] Christian Walz, Rhetores Graeci (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=AToOAAAAYAAJ& printsec=titlepage& vq=Ï�Ï�ογÏμναÏ�μαÏ�α& source=gbs_summary_r& cad=0#PPA63,M1), p. 63.

[7] Greeks and Barbarians (Edinburgh Readings on the Ancient World, Edinburgh University Press (25 Oct 2001), ISBN 978-0-7486-1270-3, σελ.139-140 "It has been widely assumed in the past that the word Hellene began by having a ‘national’ sense and later, especially in Hellenistic times, came to mean ‘possessing Greek culture’. For instance, in Ptolemaic and Roman Egypt the Hellenes were also known as ol

Isocrates 44

ôô to y4lvuaiou, ‘those from the gymnasium’) and frequently had non- Greek names. From Tebtunis we have a list of five E)Avwv ycwpyIvI,‘Greek farmers’, of whom only one has a Greek name.’ And it has been thought that the beginning of this extension in the meaning of the wordcan be traced to the fourth century, when Isocrates wrote,”‘Athens has become the teacher of the other cities, and has made the name of Greek(to tcwE?.Xvwv övopa) no longer a mark of race (yvoç) hut of Intellect (6tãvota), so that it is those who share our upbringing (tiçltau5c6aEwç) rather than our common nature (tiç coiviIc pioç) who are called Hellcnes.’ This passage has attracted great attention, Jaegergoing so far as to claim it as° ‘a higher justification for the new national imperialism, in that it identifies what is specifically Greek with whatis universally human’. ‘Without the idea which [Isocrates] here expresses for the first time’, he continues, ‘... there would have been noMaccdonian Greek world-empire, and the universal culture which we call Hellenistic would never have existed.’ Unfortunately for this claim,it has been shown” that in this passage Tsocrates is not extending the term Helene to non-Greeks, hut restricting its application; he is in effectsaying, ‘Hellenes are no longer all who share in the yévoç and common qnai; of the Greek people, as hitherto, but only those who have gone toschool to Athens; henceforth Greece” is equivalent to Athens and her cultural following.’ Thus Isocrates gives the term a cultural value; but hecannot be regarded as initiating a wider concept of Hellas."

[8] Jeffrey Walker, Rhetoric and poetics in antiquity, Oxford University Press US, 2000, 0195130359, 9780195130355, p.178, "And so far hasour city outpaced all others in thought and speech that her students have become the teachers of the rest, so that the word “Hellenes” suggestsno longer A race but a way of thought, and the tide “Hellenes” applies to those who share our culture rather than those who share a commonblood. (48—50; my emphasis) In this cnthymcme of great persuasive force and enormous cultural power, Isocrates presents the vision thatwill define the Greek ideal of paideia for centuries to come, This enthymeme’s power derives not only from a quasi-syllogistic marshalling ofevidence to justify a conclusion: the claim that Athens has become the “school” of all Greece because it has most honoured eloquence is, intruth, weakly supported here, though earlier passages do give it some evidential ground. Rather, much of this enthymeme’s power lies in itsuse of emotively significant oppositions human/animal, wise/foolish, cultured/ignorant, achievement/luck, and so forth), defining eloquence asthe distinguishing feature of human-ness and the distinctive sign of an accomplished and wise intelligence, in order to motivate the audience’sadmiration and desire—the wish that Athens should indeed be the school of Greece-—a desire that, if it is evoked, will drive or simply beadherence with Isocrares’ vision of a cosmopolitan cultural identity defined by ways of thought (the distinctly human, the discursivelyconstructed) rather than by blood (the animal and accidental).

The Athenian paideia as Isocrares defines it is a good thing, and should define Hellenic” identity, for the reasonsembodied in the network of emotively significant, evaluative oppositions that his argument has mobilized. Thisenthyincme, in turn, is meant to motivate audience adherence with his larger theme,"[9] James I. Porter, Classical pasts: the classical traditions of Greece and Rome Classical pasts, Princeton University Press, 2006, 0691089426,

9780691089423, p.383-384, "The telos towards which the whole encomium is directed is neither military nor material, but cultural, and inparticular linguistic: •toiio4ia (in Isocrates’, not in Plato’s sense) is Athens’s gift to the world, and eloquence, which distinguishes men fromanimals and liberally educated men (τους ευθύς εξαρχής ελευθέρως τεθραμμένους) from uncultured ones, is honoured in that city more thanin any other.3° Thus Isocrates can claim that it is above all in the domain of language that Athens has become the school for the rest of theworld: “And so far has our city distanced the rest of mankind in thought and in speech that her pupils have become the teachers of the rest ofthe world; and she has brought it about that the name ‘Hellenes’ suggests no longer a race but an intelligence, and thin the title ‘Hellenes’ isapplied rather to those who share our culture than to those who share a common blood:’3’ Like Pericles’ funeral oration in Thucydides, uponwhich this section of the Panegyricus is closely modelled,32 Isocrates’ panegyric emphasizes abstract cultural values but its ultimate goal is infact more concretely military: the speech as a whole aims at convincing the other Greek cities to grant Athens hegemony and leadership in anexpedition against the Pεrsians, which will reunite the Greeks by distracting them from their internecine warfare.

But Athens’s present military weakness in the wake of the Peace of Antalcidas (387 B.C.E.) deprives Isocrates of theeasiest argument, that leadership should be given to the city that has the greatest military strength. Hence he mustappeal to past military and culturall glories in order to justify present claims—indeed, his evident reuse of themesfrom Pericles’ funeral oration is part of the same rhetorical strategy, designed as it is to remind fourth-centurypan-Hellenic readers of Athens’s fifth-century glory. But what passes itself off here as the disinterested praise of acity is in fact the canny self-advertisement of a successful businessman, and Isocrates’ climactic celebration ofAthenian philosophy and eloquence is little more than a thinly disguised panegyric for what he saw as his very owncontribution to Athenian, Greek and world culture. For φιλοσοφία and eloquence were in fact the slogans ofIsocrates’ own educational program.[10] Takis Poulakos, David J. Depew, Isocrates and civic education, University of Texas Press, 2004, 0292702191, 9780292702196, p.63-64,

"He crafts onto his predecessor’s analogy Athens as a school of Hellas an enduring bond among the Hellenes and a great divide between them and the Persians: Athens’ pupils have become the teachers of the rest of the world” and “the title ‘Hellenes’ is applied rather to those who share our culture than to those who share a common blood” (50). The cultural links Pericles had named as uniting Athenians and their allies lies together are refigured here rhetorically, and in a way that forges a symbolic unification among all the cities of Hellas, including Sparta and its allied states. Relying on and at the same time changing Pericles’ wise words, Isocrates creates the perception of Athens as having been unified with all Greek city-stares from the very beginning, and thereby makes this perception part and parcel of Athens’ glorious history. As a result of this rhetorical engagement of conventional wisdom, current concerns about pan-Hellenism find their way into the city’s timeless traditions. Capitalizing on the propensity of epideictic language to amplify and to augment, lsocrates finesses the stable doxa of the community and

Isocrates 45

enlarges its boundaries 90 as to accommodate the less stable doxa of the present".[11] Apologetics in the Roman Empire: pagans, Jews, and Christians, Mark J. Edwards, Martin Goodman, S. R. F. Price, Christopher Rowland,

Oxford University Press, 1999, 0198269862, 9780198269861, σελ. 185, "I want now to pursue the relation between Apollonius and Hellenismand the East by looking at Apollonius’ relations with the sages and some other matters. In the court of the Persian king Vardanes, Apolloniuslectures Damis on the difference between Hellenic and barbarian morals. ‘To a wise man Hellas is everywhere’ (i . 3c). The origin of the tag isIsocrates, Panegyric, 50 (‘the name “Hellenes” [is the name of] those who share our culture rather than a common nature’). Isocrates wasspeaking of Athenian culture in particular; but he was well aware of the power of Hellenic culture to civilize barbarians (such as Cyprians/Phoenicians at Evagoras, 47—SO). Second-sophistic Greeks took the outlook of Isocrates very much to heart. For Philostratus, it is essentialto present Hellenism as a universally appreciated ideal. Thus the court of Vardanes is thoroughly philhellenic (i. 29, 32;2. 1 7, etc.), and thestatement of Hellenism’s appeal follows Apollonius’ exposition of Pythagoreanism" (t. 32).

[12] yricus.htm Panegyricus 50 Greek Text (http:/ / users. uoa. gr/ ~nektar/ history/ tri)[13] Prof. John P. Adams, Modern and Classical Languages and Literatures (2009-05-25). "Panegyricus 50 English Translation" (http:/ / www.

csun. edu/ ~hcfll004/ GkVirtue. html). Csun.edu. . Retrieved 2012-07-09.

Further reading• Benoit, William L. (1984). "Isocrates on Rhetorical Education". Communication Education: 109–119.• Bizzell, Patricia; Herzberg, Bruce, eds. (2001). The rhetorical tradition : readings from classical times to the

present (2nd ed.). Boston: Bedford/St. Martin's. ISBN 0-312-14839-9.• Bury, J.B. (1913). A History of Greece (http:/ / www. archive. org/ details/

AHistoryOfGreeceToTheDeathOfAlexanderTheGreat). Macmillan: London.• Eucken, von Christoph (1983) (in German). Isokrates : seine Positionen in der Auseinandersetzung mit den

zeitgenössischen Philosophen. Berlin: W. de Gruyter. ISBN 3-11-008646-8.• Golden, James L.; Berquist, Goodwin F.; Coleman, William E. (2007). The rhetoric of Western thought (9th ed.).

Dubuque, IA: Kendall / Hunt. ISBN 0-7575-3838-X.• Grube, G.M.A. (1965). The Greek and Roman Critics. London: Methuen.• Haskins, Ekaterina V. (2004). Logos and power in Isocrates and Aristotle. Columbia, SC: University of South

Carolina Press. ISBN 1-57003-526-1.• Isocrates (1968). Isocrates. Loeb Classical Library. George Norlin, Larue van Hook, trans. Cambridge, MA.:

Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-99231-8.• Isocrates (2000). Isocrates I. David Mirhady, Yun Lee Too, trans. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press.

ISBN 0-292-75237-7.• Isocrates (2004). Isocrates II. Terry L. Papillon, trans. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press.

ISBN 0-292-70245-0.• Livingstone, Niall (2001). A commentary on Isocrates' Busiris. Boston: Brill. ISBN 90-04-12143-9.• Papillon, Terry (1998). "Isocrates and the Greek Poetic Tradition" (http:/ / www. otago. ac. nz/ classics/

scholiagfx/ v07p041-061. pdf). Scholia 7: 41–61.• Poulakos, Takis; Depew, David J., eds. (2004). Isocrates and civic education. Austin: Univ. of Texas Press.

ISBN 0-292-70219-1.• Poulakos, Takis (1997). Speaking for the polis : Isocrates' rhetorical education. Columbia, SC: Univ. of South

Carolina Press. ISBN 1-57003-177-0.• Romilly, Jacqueline de (1985). Magic and rhetoric in ancient Greece. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

ISBN 0-674-54152-9.• Smith, Robert W.; Bryant, Donald C., eds. (1969). Ancient Greek and Roman Rhetoricians: A Biographical

Dictionary. Columbia, MO: Artcraft Press.• Too, Yun Lee (2008). A commentary on Isocrates' Antidosis. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

ISBN 978-0-19-923807-1.• Too, Yun Lee (1995). The rhetoric of identity in Isocrates : text, power, pedagogy. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ.

Press. ISBN 0-521-47406-X.

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• Usener, Sylvia (1994) (in German). Isokrates, Platon und ihr Publikum : Hörer und Leser von Literatur im 4.Jahrhundert v. Chr.. Tübingen: Narr. ISBN 3-8233-4278-9.

•• Robin Waterfield's Notes to his translation of Plato's 'Phaedrus', Oxford University Press, 2002.

External links• Speeches of Isocrates (Perseus Project) (http:/ / old. perseus. tufts. edu/ cgi-bin/ ptext?lookup=Isoc. + 1+ 1)• English Translation of various texts (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ searchresults?q=isocrates)• "Plutarch", Life of Isocrates (attalus.org) (http:/ / www. attalus. org/ old/ orators1. html#Isocrates)• B. Keith Murphy (Fort Valley State University) – Isocrates (http:/ / www. keithmurphy. info/ 399/ Isoc. htm)• Isocrates (436 – 338 B.C.) (http:/ / people. morehead-st. edu/ fs/ w. willis/ isocrates. html)

Lycurgus of AthensLycurgus (Greek: Λυκοῦργος, Lykourgos; 396–323 BC) was a logographer in Ancient Greece. He was one of theten Attic orators included in the "Alexandrian Canon" compiled by Aristophanes of Byzantium and Aristarchus ofSamothrace in the third century BCE.Lycurgus was born at Athens about 396 BC, and was the son of Lycophron, who belonged to the noble family of theEteobutadae.[1] He should not be confused with the quasi-mythological Spartan lawgiver of the same name.

LifeIn his early life he devoted himself to the study of philosophy in the school of Plato, but afterwards became one ofthe disciples of Isocrates, and entered upon public life at a comparatively early age. He was appointed threesuccessive times to the office of manager of the public revenue, and held his office each time for four years,beginning with 337 BC. The conscientiousness with which he discharged the duties of this office enabled him toraise the public revenue to the sum of 1200 talents.This, as well as the unwearied activity with which he laboured both for increasing the security and splendour of thecity of Athens, gained for him the universal confidence of the people to such a degree, that when Alexander theGreat demanded, in 335 BC, among the other opponents of the Macedonian interest, the surrender of Lycurgus also,who had, in conjunction with Demosthenes, exerted himself against the intrigues of Macedonia even as early as thereign of Philip, the people of Athens clung to him, and boldly refused to deliver him up.[2]

He was further entrusted with the superintendence (φυλακη) of the city and the keeping of public discipline; and theseverity with which he watched over the conduct of the citizens became almost proverbial.[3]

He had a noble taste for every thing that was beautiful and grand, as he showed by the buildings he erected orcompleted, both for the use of the citizens and the ornament of the city. His integrity was so great, that even privatepersons deposited with him large sums of money, which they wished to be kept in safety. He was also the author ofseveral legislative enactments, of which he enforced the strictest observance. One of his laws forbade women to ridein chariots at the celebration of the mysteries; and when his own wife transgressed this law, she was fined;[4] anotherordained that bronze statues should be erected to Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides, that copies of their tragediesshould be made and preserved in the public archives.The Lives of the Ten Orators erroneously ascribed to Plutarch[5] are full of anecdotes and characteristic features ofLycurgus, from which we must infer that he was reputed one of the noblest specimens of old Attic virtue, and aworthy contemporary of Demosthenes. He often appeared as a successful accuser in the Athenian courts, but hehimself was as often accused by others, though he always, and even in the last days of his life, succeeded in silencinghis enemies.

Lycurgus of Athens 47

Thus we know that he was attacked by Philinus[6], Dinarchus[7], Aristogeiton, Menesaechmus, and others. He diedwhile holding the office of director (επιστατης) of the theatre of Dionysus, in 323 BC. A fragment of an inscription,containing the account which he rendered to the state of his administration of the finances, is still extant. At his deathhe left behind three sons, including one named Abron or Habron,[8] by his wife Callisto, who were severelypersecuted by Menesaechmus and Thrasycles, but were defended by Hypereides and Democles.[5] Among thehonours which were conferred upon him, we may mention, that the archon Anaxicrates ordered a bronze statue to beerected to him in the Ceramicus, and that he and his eldest son should be entertained in the prytaneum at the publicexpense.The ancients mention fifteen orations of Lycurgus as extant in their days[2], but we know the titles of at least twenty.With the exception, however, of one entire oration against Leocrates, and some fragments of others, all the rest arelost, so that our knowledge of his skill and style as an orator is very incomplete. Dionysius and other ancient criticsdraw particular attention to the ethical tendency of his orations, but they censure the harshness of his metaphors, theinaccuracy in the arrangement of his subject, and his frequent digressions.His style was said to be noble and grand, but neither elegant nor pleasing.[9] His works seem to have beencommented upon by Didymus of Alexandria.[10] Theon[11] mentions two declamations, Encomium of Helen andDeploration of Eurybatus, as the works of Lycurgus; but this Lycurgus, if the name be correct, must be a differentpersonage from the Attic orator. The oration Against Leocrates, which was delivered in 330 BC[12], was first printedby Aldus Manutius in his edition of the Attic orators.

References• Schmitz, Leonhard (1867), "Lycurgus" [13], in Smith, William, Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and

Mythology, 2, Boston, MA, pp. 858• A.E. Haigh, The Attic Theatre. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1898.• Sir Arthur Pickard-Cambridge. The Theatre of Dionysus at Athens, 1946.

Notes[1] Pseudo-Plutarch, Moralia, "Lives of the Ten Orators", p. 841 (http:/ / www. attalus. org/ old/ orators1. html#841); Suda, s.v. "Lykourgos"

(http:/ / www. stoa. org/ sol-bin/ search. pl?login=guest& enlogin=guest& db=REAL& field=adlerhw_gr& searchstr=lambda,825); Photius,Bibliotheca, cod. 268

[2] Pseudo-Plutarch, ibid. (http:/ / www. attalus. org/ old/ orators1. html#841); Photius, ibid.[3] Cicero, Epistulae, "Ad Atticum", i. 13 (http:/ / agoraclass. fltr. ucl. ac. be/ concordances/ cicero_atticusI/ lecture/ 2. htm); Plutarch, Parallel

Lives, "Flaminus", 12 (http:/ / penelope. uchicago. edu/ Thayer/ E/ Roman/ Texts/ Plutarch/ Lives/ Flamininus*. html#12); AmmianusMarcellinus, Res gestae, xxii. 9 (http:/ / agoraclass. fltr. ucl. ac. be/ concordances/ Ammien_histXXII/ lecture/ 9. htm), xxx. 8 (http:/ /agoraclass. fltr. ucl. ac. be/ concordances/ Ammien_histXXX/ lecture/ 8. htm)

[4] Aelian, Varia Historia, xiii. 24 (http:/ / remacle. org/ bloodwolf/ historiens/ elien/ 13. htm)[5] Pseudo-Plutarch, p. 842 (http:/ / www. attalus. org/ old/ orators1. html#842)[6] Harpocration, Lexicon of the Ten Orators, s.v. "theorika".[7] Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Dinarchus, 10.[8] Smith, William (1867), "Abron" (http:/ / www. ancientlibrary. com/ smith-bio/ 0012. html), in Smith, William, Dictionary of Greek and

Roman Biography and Mythology, 1, Boston, MA, pp. 3,[9] Dionysius, On the ancient orators, v. 3; Hermogenes of Tarsus, De Formis Oratoriis, v; Dio Chrysostom, Or. 18.11 (http:/ / penelope.

uchicago. edu/ Thayer/ E/ Roman/ Texts/ Dio_Chrysostom/ Discourses/ 18*. html#11)[10][10] Harpocration, s.vv. "pelanos", "prokovia", "stroter".[11] Theon, Progymnasmata[12] Aeschines, Speeches, "Against Ctesiphon", 93[13] http:/ / www. ancientlibrary. com/ smith-bio/ 1966. html

Lycurgus of Athens 48

External links• Lycurgus, Against Leocrates (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ cgi-bin/ ptext?lookup=Lyc. + 1+ hypothesis) (both

Greek text and English translation at Perseus (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu))

Sources•  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Smith, William, ed. (1867). "article

name needed". Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology.

Lysias

Lysias by Jean Dedieu (Gardens of Versailles)

Lysias (Greek: Λυσίας) (ca. 445 BC – ca. 380 BC) was a logographer(speech writer) in Ancient Greece. He was one of the ten Attic oratorsincluded in the "Alexandrian Canon" compiled by Aristophanes ofByzantium and Aristarchus of Samothrace in the third century BC.

Life

According to Dionysius of Halicarnassus and the author of the lifeascribed to Plutarch, Lysias was born in 459 BC, which would accordwith a tradition that Lysias reached, or passed, the age of eighty. Thisdate was evidently obtained by reckoning back from the foundation ofThurii (444 BC), since there was a tradition that Lysias had gone thereat the age of fifteen. Modern critics, in general, place his birth later, ca.445 BC, and place the trip to Thurii around 430 BC.[1]

Cephalus, his father, was a native of Syracuse, and on the invitation ofPericles had settled at Athens. The opening scene of Plato's Republic isset at the house of his eldest son, Polemarchus, in Piraeus. The tone ofthe picture warrants the inference that the Sicilian family were wellknown to Plato, and that their houses must often have been hospitableto such gatherings. Further, Plato's Phaedrus opens with Phaedrus coming from conversation with Lysias at thehouse of Epicrates of Athens: he meets Socrates, with whom he will read and discuss the speech of Lysias he heard.

At Thurii, the colony newly planted on the Tarentine Gulf, the boy may have seen Herodotus, now a man in middlelife, and a friendship may have grown up between them. There, too, Lysias is said to have commenced his studies inrhetoric—doubtless under a master of the Sicilian school possibly, as tradition said, under Tisias, the pupil of Corax,whose name is associated with the first attempt to formulate rhetoric as an art. In 413 BC the Athenian armament inSicily was annihilated. The desire to link famous names is illustrated by the ancient ascription to Lysias of arhetorical exercise purporting to be a speech in which the captive general Nicias appealed for mercy to the Sicilians.The terrible blow to Athens quickened the energies of an anti-Athenian faction at Thurii. Lysias and his elder brotherPolemarchus, with three hundred other persons, were accused of Atticizing. They were driven from Thurii andsettled at Athens (412 BC).Lysias and Polemarchus were rich men, having inherited property from their father, Cephalus; and Lysias claims that, though merely resident aliens, they discharged public services with a liberality which shamed many of those who enjoyed the franchise (Against Eratosthenes xii.20). The fact that they owned house property shows that they

Lysias 49

were classed as isoteleis (ἰσοτελεῖς), i.e. foreigners who paid only the same tax as citizens, being exempt from thespecial tax (μετοίκιον) on resident aliens. Polemarchus occupied a house in Athens itself, Lysias another in thePiraeus, near which was their shield manufactory, employing a hundred and twenty skilled slaves.In 404 the Thirty Tyrants were established at Athens under the protection of a Spartan garrison. One of their earliestmeasures was an attack upon the resident aliens, who were represented as disaffected to the new government. Lysiasand Polemarchus were on a list of ten singled out to be the first victims. Polemarchus was arrested, and compelled todrink hemlock. Lysias had a narrow escape, with the help of a large bribe. He slipped by a back-door out of thehouse in which he was a prisoner, and took a boat to Megara. It appears that he had rendered valuable services to theexiles during the reign of the tyrants, and in 403 Thrasybulus proposed that these services should be recognized bythe bestowal of the citizenship. The Boule, however, had not yet been reconstituted, and hence the measure could notbe introduced to the ecclesia by the requisite preliminary resolution (προβούλευμα). On this ground it wassuccessfully opposed.The Athenian political climate during Lysias’s life cannot be looked upon in modern terms. Modern politics meansconstant and open competition between organized rival factions with their own ideologies and memberships. Themembers of these parties label themselves a certain name which implies that they will vote and pay dues to a certainorganization who share the same basic social and political outlooks on society. The terms that best render politicalopposites at the time were “Oligarch” and “Democratic.” Politics as described by Lysias meant that “no human beingis by nature oligarchical or democratic, but whatever constitution brings advantage to an individual is the one hewould like to see established.” This passage illustrates that whatever ideology a person chose to support is not basedon their core beliefs or principles. Overall, two of the key terms of Athenian politics were popular participation andcollective rule. Every male Athenian citizen, irrespective to birth, occupation, and with a few exceptions, economicstatus, had the right to wield power as an official or Council member and actively participate in the decision-makingprocess at the Assembly whether or not he currently held any official position. Voting was egalitarian—‘one man,one vote’—and because Athens was a direct democracy, voting outcomes remained relatively unpredictable. A Greekperson was likely to support one or the other at any given time based on specific economic and social cases.[2] [3]

During his later years Lysias—now probably a comparatively poor man owing to the rapacity of the tyrants and hisown generosity to the Athenian exiles—appears as a hard-working member of a new profession—that oflogographer, writer of speeches to be delivered in the law-courts. The thirty-four extant are but a small fraction.From 403 to about 380 BC his industry must have been incessant. The notices of his personal life in these years arescanty. In 403 he came forward as the accuser of Eratosthenes, one of the Thirty Tyrants. This was his only directcontact with Athenian politics. The story that he wrote a defence for Socrates, which the latter declined to use,probably arose from a confusion. Several years after the death of Socrates the sophist Polycrates composed adeclamation against him, to which Lysias replied.[4]

A more authentic tradition represents Lysias as having spoken his own Olympiacus at the Olympic festival of 388BC, to which Dionysius I of Syracuse had sent a magnificent embassy. Tents embroidered with gold were pitchedwithin the sacred enclosure; and the wealth of Dionysius was vividly shown by the number of chariots which he hadentered. Lysias lifted up his voice to denounce Dionysius as, next to Artaxerxes, the worst enemy of Hellas, and toimpress upon the assembled Greeks that one of their foremost duties was to deliver Sicily from a hateful oppression.The latest work of Lysias which we can date (a fragment of a speech For Pherenicus) belongs to 381 or 380 BC. Heprobably died in or soon after 380 BC.

Lysias 50

StyleLysias displays literary tact, humour, and attention to character in his extant speeches, and is famous for using hisskill to conceal his art. It was obviously desirable that a speech written for delivery by a client should be suitable tohis age, station and circumstances. Lysias was the first to make this adaptation really artistic. His language is craftedto flow easily, in contrast to his predecessor Antiphon's pursuit of majestic emphasis, to his pupil (and close followerin many respects) Isaeus' more conspicuous display of artistry and more strictly logical manner of argumentation,[5]

and later to the forceful oratory of Demosthenes.Translated into terms of ancient criticism, he became the model of the plain style (ἰσχνὸς χαρακτήρ,ἰσχνὴ/λιτὴ/ἀφελὴς λέξις: genus tenue or subtile). Greek and then Roman critics distinguished three styles ofrhetorical composition—the grand (or elaborate), the plain and the middle, the plain being nearest to the language ofdaily life. Greek rhetoric began in the grand style; then Lysias set an exquisite pattern of the plain; and Demosthenesmight be considered as having effected an almost ideal compromise.The vocabulary of Lysias is relatively simple and would later be regarded as a model of pure diction for Atticists.Most of the rhetorical figures are sparingly used—except such as consist in the parallelism or opposition of clauses.The taste of the day not yet emancipated from the influence of the Sicilian rhetoric probably demanded a large use ofantithesis. Lysias excels in vivid description; he has also the knack of marking the speakers character by lighttouches. The structure of his sentences varies a good deal according to the dignity of the subject. He has equalcommand over the periodic style (κατεστραμμένη λέξις) and the non-periodic or continuous (εἰρομένη,διαλελυμένη). His disposition of his subject-matter is always simple. The speech has usually four parts: introduction(προοίμιον), narrative of facts (διήγησις), proofs (πίστεις), which may be either external, as from witnesses, orinternal, derived from argument on the facts, and, lastly, conclusion (ἐπίλογος).It is in the introduction and the narrative that Lysias is seen at his best. In his greatest extant speech—that AgainstEratosthenes—and also in the fragmentary Olympiacus, he has pathos and fire; but these were not characteristicqualities of his work. In Cicero's judgment (De Orat. iii. 7, 28) Demosthenes was peculiarly distinguished by force(vis), Aeschines by resonance (sonitus); Hypereides by acuteness (acumen); Isocrates by sweetness (suavitas); thedistinction which he assigns to Lysias is subtilitas, an Attic refinement—which, as he elsewhere says (Brutus, 16,64) is often joined to an admirable vigour (lacerti). Nor was it oratory alone to which Lysias rendered service; hiswork had an important effect on all subsequent Greek prose, by showing how perfect elegance could be joined toplainness. Here, in his artistic use of familiar idiom, he might fairly be called the Euripides of Attic prose. His stylehas attracted interest from modern readers, because it is employed in describing scenes from the everyday life ofAthens.

Works

Table of extant speechesFrom Lysias we have thirty-four speeches. Three fragmentary ones have come down under the name of Lysias; onehundred and twenty-seven more, now lost, are known from smaller fragments or from titles. In the Augustan agefour hundred and twenty-five works bore his name, of which more than two hundred were allowed as genuine by thecritics.The table below shows the name of the speech (in the ordered listed in the Lamb translation), the suggested date ofthe speech, the primary rhetorical mode, the main point of the speech, and comments. Forensic is synonymous withjudicial and denotes speeches made in law courts. Epideictic is ceremonial and involves the praise or, less often, thecriticism, of the subject. Deliberative denotes speeches made in legislatures. Notes (e.g., A1, B3, etc.) refer to thelist of qualifications below the table.

Lysias 51

Speech Suggesteddate

Primary rhetoricalmode

Main point of speech Comment

1. On the Murder ofEratosthenes

uncertain forensic, in publiccases [A6]; in privatecases [B4]

Euphiletos tries to prove that the murderhe committed was not premeditated

2. Funeral Oration ca. 392 BCE?

epideictic Praise of fallen soldiers, purported to havebeen spoken during the Corinthian War.

Authorship uncertain (style andapproach are very different fromLysias' other speeches).

3. Against Simon 393 BCE orlater

forensic, in publiccases [A6]; in privatecases [B4]

4. On a Wound byPremeditation

uncertain forensic, in publiccases [A6]

Defendant is on a charge of wounding hisfriend, with intent to kill.

5. For Callias uncertain forensic, in publiccases [A7]

A friend defends Callias againstaccusations of impiety.

Preserved fragmentarily.

6. Against Andocides 400/399 BCE forensic, in publiccases [A7]

certainly spurious, but perhapscontemporary; beginning lost

7. Defense in the Matter ofthe Olive Stump

396 BCE orlater

forensic, in publiccases [A7]

8. Accusation of Calumny uncertain forensic, in privatecases [B3]

spurious

9. For the Soldier ca. 395-387BCE

forensic, in publiccases [A3]

10. Against Theomnestus1

ca. 384–383BCE

Forensic, in privatecases [B1]

11. Against Theomnestus2

ca. 384–383BCE

Forensic, in privatecases [B1]

an epitome (abstract) of Lys. 10

12. Against Eratosthenes 403 BCE orsoon after

forensic, in publiccases [A6]

Perhaps a pamphlet meant for circulation(reading).

13. Against Agoratus ca. 399 BCE forensic, in publiccases [A6]

14. Against Alcibiades 1 395 BCE forensic, in publiccases [A5]

15. Against Alcibiades 2 395 BCE forensic, in publiccases [A5]

16. In Defense ofMantitheus

ca. 392-389BCE

forensic, in publiccases [A4]

before the Council (Boule)

17. On The Property OfEraton

ca. 397 BCE forensic, in privatecases [B3]

18. On The Property OfThe Brother Of Nicias:Peroration

ca. 396 BCE forensic, in publiccases [A2]

19. On the Property ofAristophanes

ca. 388-387BCE

forensic, in publiccases [A3]

20. For Polystratus ca. 410 BCE forensic, in publiccases [A1]

Polystratus is prosecuted for his actsagainst democracy. Polystratus' sondefends him.

Lysias 52

21. Defense Against aCharge of Taking Bribes

403/2 BCE forensic, in publiccases [A1]

Defendant pleads the court not to condemnhim for corruption.

22. Against theCorn-Dealers

386 BCE forensic, in publiccases [A1]

23. Against Pancleon uncertain(400/399?)

forensic, in privatecases [B4]

24. On the Refusal of aPension

soon after403 BCE

forensic, in publiccases [A4]

An allegedly disabled man defendshimself against accusations of not beingeligible for a pension before the Council(Boule).

25. Defense Against aCharge of Subverting theDemocracy

ca. 401-399BCE

forensic, in publiccases [A4]

A man defends himself against a charge oftreason; he is accused of being a supporterof the Thirty Tyrants.

26. On the Scrutiny ofEvandros

382 BCE forensic, in publiccases [A4]

27. Against Epicrates andhis Fellow-Envoys

ca. 390 BCE forensic, in publiccases [A1]

28. Against Ergocles 388 BCE forensic, in publiccases [A1]

29. Against Philocrates 388 BCE forensic, in publiccases [A3]

30. Against Nicomachus 399 BCE forensic, in publiccases [A1]

31. Against Philon ca. 403–398BCE

forensic, in publiccases [A4]

Philon have been elected to the council bylot. The speaker objects his election.

32. Against Diogeiton 399/8 BCE? forensic, in privatecases [B2]

A guardian is accused of holding out themoney belonging to his wards.

33. Olympic Oration 388 BCE epideictic

34. Against the Subversionof the AncestralConstitution

403 BCE deliberative Lysias speaks against a proposal thatcitizenship of Athens should only beconfined to land owners.

NOTES "A": FORENSIC, RELATING TO PUBLIC CASES1.1. Relating to Offences directly against the State (γραφαὶ δημοσίων ἀδικημάτων); such as treason, malversation in

office, embezzlement of public moneys.2.2. Cases relating to Unconstitutional Procedure (γραφὴ παρανόμων)3.3. Cases relating to *Claims for Money withheld from the State (ἀπογραφαί).4.4. Cases relating to a Scrutiny (δοκιμασία); especially the Scrutiny, by the Senate, of Officials Designate5.5. Cases relating to Military Offences (γραφαὶ λιποταξίου, ἀστρατείας)6.6. Cases relating to Murder or Intent to Murder (γραφαὶ φόνου, τραύματος ἐκ προνοίας)7.7. Cases relating to Impiety (γραφαὶ ἀσεβείας)NOTES "B": FORENSIC, RELATING TO PRIVATE CASES1. Action for Libel (δίκη κακηγορίας)2.2. Action by a Ward against a Guardian (δίκη ἐπιτροπῆς)3.3. Trial of a Claim to Property (διαδικασία)4.4. Answer to a Special Plea (πρὸς παραγραφήν)

Lysias 53

MiscellaneousTo his Companions, a Complaint of Slanders, viii. (certainly spurious).The speech attributed to Lysias in Plato's Phaedrus 230e–234. This speech has generally been regarded as Plato'sown work; but the certainty of this conclusion will be doubted by those who observe:• the elaborate preparations made in the dialogue for a recital of the erōtikos which shall be verbally exact,•• the closeness of the criticism made upon it.If the satirist were merely analysing his own composition, such criticism would have little point. Lysias is the earliestwriter who is known to have composed erōtikoi; it is as representing both rhetoric and a false erōs that he is theobject of attack in the Phaedrus.

FragmentsThree hundred and fifty-five of these are collected by Hermann Sauppe, Oratores Attici, ii. 170–216. Two hundredand fifty-two of them represent one hundred and twenty-seven speeches of known title; and of six the fragments arecomparatively large. Of these, the fragmentary speech For Pherenicus belongs to 381 or 380 BC, and is thus thelatest known work of Lysias. In literary and historical interest, the first place among the extant speeches of Lysiasbelongs to that Against Eratosthenes (403 BC), one of the Thirty Tyrants, whom Lysias arraigns as the murderer ofhis brother Polemarchus. The speech is an eloquent and vivid picture of the reign of terror which the Thirtyestablished at Athens; the concluding appeal, to both parties among the citizens, is specially powerful.Next in importance is the speech Against Agoratus (388 BC), one of our chief authorities for the internal history ofAthens during the months which immediately followed; the defeat at Aegospotami. The Olympiacus (388 BC) is abrilliant fragment, expressing the spirit of the festival at Olympia, and exhorting Greeks to unite against theircommon foes. The Plea for the Constitution (403 BC) is interesting for the manner in which it argues that thewell-being of Athens—now stripped of empire—is bound up with the maintenance of democratic principles. Thespeech For Mantitheus (392 BC) is a graceful and animated portrait, of a young Athenian hippeus, making a spiriteddefence of his honor against the charge of disloyalty. The defence For the Invalid is a humorous character-sketch,The speech Against Pancleon illustrates the intimate relations between Athens and Plataea, while it gives us somepicturesque glimpses of Athenian town life. The defence of the person who had, been charged with destroying amona, or sacred olive, places us amidst the country life of Attica. And the speech Against Theomnestus deservesattention for its curious evidence of the way in which the ordinary vocabulary of Athens had changed between 600and 400 BC.

References• This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911).

Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.

Notes[1] Debra Nails, The People of Plato (Hackett, 2002), p. 190, and S.C. Todd, "Lysias," in Oxford Classical Dictionary 3rd ed. (1996).[2][2] Gabriel Hermann, Morality and Behaviour in Democratic Athens. Cambridge University Press (2006) 52[3][3] Flensted-Jensen, P., T.H. Nielsen, and L. Rubinstein. Polis and Politics:Studies in Ancient Greek History. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum

Press, 2000[4] John Addington Symonds, A problem in Greek Ethics, XII, p.64[5] Cf. Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Isaeus 61 and Jebb, Attic Orators (1893), vol. 2, pp. 290ff.

Lysias 54

BibliographyEditions by• Aldus (Editio princeps, Venice, 1513)• with variorum notes, by J. J. Reiske (1772)• Immanuel Bekker (1823)• W. S. Dobson (1828) in Oratores Attici• Johann Georg Baiter and Hermann Sauppe, Oratores Attici, vol. 1, Zurich, 1839, pp. 59 (http:/ / books. google.

com/ books?id=W8RAAAAAcAAJ& pg=PA59#v=onepage& q& f=false) ff.•• C. Scheibe (1852)• T. Thalheim (1901, Teubner series, with bibliography) – PDF (http:/ / books. google. com/

books?vid=OCLC08418449& id=SkcMAAAAIAAJ)• C. G. Cobet (4th ed., by J. J. Hartman, 1905)• Karl Hude (da), Oxford Classical Texts, 1912• W.R.M. Lamb, Loeb Classical Library, 1930•• Umberto Albini, Greek text and Italian translation, Florence: Sansoni, 1955• Louis Gernet and Marcel Bizos (fr), Collection Budé, 2 vols., 1959–1962• Enrico Medda, Greek text and Italian translation, 2 vols., Milan: BUR, 1992–1995•• Christopher Carey, Oxford Classical Texts, 2007Editions of select speeches by•• J. H. Bremi (1845)• R. Rauchenstein (1848, revised by C. Fuhr, 1880–1881)• H. Frohberger (1866–1871)•• H. van Herwerden (1863)•• Andreas Weidner (1888)• Evelyn Shirley Shuckburgh (1882) – PDF (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=YrwDAAAAQAAJ)• A. Westermann and W. Binder (1887–1890)•• G. P. Bristol (1892)• M. H. Morgan (1895) – PDF (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=OakNAAAAIAAJ)• W. H. Wait (1898) – PDF (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=IakNAAAAIAAJ)• C. D. Adams (1905) – PDF (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=tbANAAAAIAAJ)There is a special lexicon to Lysias by D. H. Holmes (Bonn, 1895, online (http:/ / books. google. com/books?id=PWn6RpMy3-EC)). See also Jebb's Attic Orators (1893, vol. 1 (http:/ / books. google. com/books?id=x40NAAAAIAAJ), vol. 2 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=So0NAAAAIAAJ)) and Selections fromthe Attic Orators (2nd ed.; 1st ed. online (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=QMYkAAAAMAAJ)). The firstvolume of a full commentary on the speeches is S. C. Todd, A Commentary on Lysias, Speeches 1–11. Oxford:Oxford University Press, 2007. Pp. ix, 783. ISBN 978-0-19-814909-5.

External links• Works by Lysias (http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ author/ Lysias) at Project Gutenberg

55

Appendices

Logographer (legal)The title of logographer (from the Ancient Greek λογογράφος, logographos, a compound of λόγος, logos, 'word',and γράφω, grapho, 'write') was applied to professional authors of judicial discourse in Ancient Greece. The modernterm speechwriter is roughly equivalent.In the Athens of antiquity, the law required a litigant to make his case in front of the court with two successivespeeches. Lawyers were unknown, and the law permitted only one friend or relative to aid each party. If a litigant didnot feel confident to make his own speech, he would seek the service of a logographer (also called a λογοποιός,logopoios, from ποιέω, poieo, 'to make'), to whom he would describe his case. The logographer would then write aspeech which the litigant would learn by heart and recite in front of the court. Antiphon (480 BC–410 BC) wasamong the first to practice this profession; the orator Demosthenes (384–322) was also a logographer. Practice indefending the targets of politicized prosecutions built the foundations of a later career in politics for manylogographers.

Role of the logographerLogographers played a pivotal role in the larger interactions of the Athenian court system. Athenian courts differfrom modern examples of legal systems in several significant ways. In Classical Athens, no class of legal expertsexisted. The absence of prosecution and defense attorneys meant cases were decided mainly upon the basis of thespeeches given by plaintiff and defendant. Litigants were expected to deliver their own speeches in court, but oftenrelied on professional speech writers to craft their words. To support the arguments made in these speeches, theparties involved in litigation often produced several witnesses. In Classical Athens, the social status, wealth, andesteem of a witness determined the strength and potential impact of his (typically a male's) testimony and notnecessarily the accuracy of his account. Unlike in modern legal systems, these "character witnesses" wieldedconsiderable influence over juries. The Athenian court system was characterized by a lack of state intervention.Pursuing litigation, collecting evidence, and prosecuting were all functions of the legal process left to theresponsibility of the litigant. The juries which decided the outcome of these cases were large assemblies of Atheniancitizens, not state-appointed judges.

List of well-known logographers•• Antiphon•• Demosthenes•• Dinarchus•• Hypereides•• Isocrates•• Lysias

Logographer (legal) 56

BibliographyTodd, S.C. A Commentary on Lysias: Speeches 1-11. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007.

List of oratorsAn orator, or oratist, is a (public) speaker.An orator may also be called an oratorian - literally, "one who orates".

EtymologyIt is recorded in English since c.1374, meaning "one who pleads or argues for a cause", from Anglo-French oratour,Old French orateur (14th century), Latin orator ("speaker"), from orare ("speak before a court or assembly; plead"),derived from a Proto-Indo-European base *or- ("to pronounce a ritual formula").The modern meaning of the word, "public speaker", is attested from c.1430.

HistoryIn ancient Rome, the art of speaking in public (Ars Oratoria) was a professional competence especially cultivated bypoliticians and lawyers. As the Greeks were still seen as the masters in this field, as in philosophy and most sciences,the leading Roman families often either sent their sons to study these things under a famous master in Greece (as wasthe case with the young Julius Caesar), or engaged a Greek teacher (under pay or as a slave).In the young revolutionary French republic, Orateur (French for "orator", but compare the Anglo-Saxonparliamentary speaker) was the formal title for the delegated members of the Tribunat to the Corps législatif, tomotivate their ruling on a presented bill.In the 19th century, orators and lecturers, such as Mark Twain, Charles Dickens, and Col. Robert G. Ingersoll weremajor providers of popular entertainment.The term pulpit orator denotes Christian authors, often clergymen, renowned for their ability to write and/or deliver(from the pulpit in church, hence the word) rhetorically skilled religious sermons.In some universities, the title 'Orator' is given to the official whose task it is to give speeches on ceremonialoccasions, such as the presentation of honorary degrees.

OratorsThe following are, by necessity, those who have been noted as famous specifically for their oratory abilities,and/or for a particularly famous speech or speeches. Most religious leaders and politicians (by nature of their office)may perform many speeches, as may those who support or oppose a particular issue. To include them all would beprohibitive.

Classical era• The ten Attic orators (Greece)

• Demosthenes, champion of the Philippic•• Aeschines•• Andocides•• Antiphon•• Dinarchus•• Hypereides

List of orators 57

•• Lysias•• Isaeus•• Isocrates•• Lycurgus of Athens

•• Aristogeiton• Claudius Aelianus, meliglossos, 'honey-tongued'•• Cicero•• Corax of Syracuse•• Gaius Scribonius Curio•• Gorgias• Hegesippus, Athenian• Julius Caesar, Roman dictator• Licinius Macer Calvus, Roman poet and orator• Marcus Antonius (orator), Roman• Nicetas of Smyrna, 1 century AC, Greek sophist and orator• Pericles, Athenian statesman•• Quintus Hortensius

Modern era• Allied and Axis leaders of World War II noted for their speeches:

• Winston Churchill (UK PM)• Charles de Gaulle (Free French general; President of France)•• Joseph Goebbels• Adolf Hitler (Führer of Nazi Germany)• Douglas MacArthur - Farewell Speech to Congress•• Benito Mussolini• Franklin D. Roosevelt (US President)

• The Great Triumvirate:•• Henry Clay•• John C. Calhoun•• Daniel Webster

• William Jennings Bryan - Cross of Gold speech• Frederick Douglass - Self-Made Men• Ralph Waldo Emerson - The American Scholar• Patrick Henry - Give me Liberty, or give me Death!•• John O'Connor Power, Irish Nationalist• John F. Kennedy (US President) - Inaugural Address• Martin Luther King, Jr. - I Have A Dream• Abraham Lincoln (US President) - Gettysburg address• Richard M. Nixon (US Vice-President) - Checkers speech• Barack Obama (US President) - The Audacity of Hope; A More Perfect Union• Ronald Reagan (US President) - First Inaugural Address; Mr. Gorbachev, tear down this wall!• Sojourner Truth[1] - Ain't I a Woman?• Malcolm X - The Ballot or the Bullet

List of orators 58

Notes[1][1] African American Orators: A Bio-Critical Sourcebook, edited by Richard W. Leeman, Greenwood Publishing Group, 1996. ISBN

0-313-29014-8

Sources and references(incomplete)• American Rhetoric (http:/ / www. americanrhetoric. com)• EtymologyOnLine (http:/ / www. etymonline. com/ index. php?search=orator& searchmode=none)• Catholic Encyclopaedia (passim)•• 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica (passim)• Californian mason site (http:/ / www. calmason. com/ orator. htm)•• African American Orators: A Bio-Critical Sourcebook, edited by Richard W. Leeman, Greenwood Publishing

Group, 1996. ISBN 0-313-29014-8•• The Will of a People: A Critical Anthology of Great Speeches by African Americans, edited with critical

introductions by Richard W. Leeman and Bernard K. Duffy, Southern Illinois University Press, 2012. ISBN-10:0809330571 | ISBN-13: 978-0809330577

•• American Orators of the Twentieth Century: Critical Studies and Sources, edited by Bernard K. Duffy andHalford R. Ryan, Greenwood, 1987. ISBN-10: 0313248435 ISBN-13: 978-0313248436

•• American Orators Before 1900: Critical Studies and Sources, edited by Bernard K. Duffy and Halford R. Ryan,Greenwood, 1987. ISBN-10: 0313251290 ISBN-13: 978-0313251290

•• American Voices: An Encyclopedia of Contemporary Orators, edited by Bernard K. Duffy and Richard W.Leeman, Greewnood, 1987. ISBN-10: 0313327904 ISBN-13: 978-0313327902

•• Women Public Speakers in the United States, 1800-1925: A Bio-Critical Sourcebook, edited by Karlyn KohrsCampbell, Greenwood, 1993. ISBN-10: 0313275335 ISBN-13: 978-0313275333

•• American Voices, Significant Speeches in American History: 1640-1945, edited by James Andrews and DavidZarefsky, Longman Publishing Group, 1989. ISBN-10: 080130217X ISBN-13: 978-0801302176

•• Contemporary American Voices: Significant Speeches in American History, 1945-Present, edited by James R.Andrews and David Zarefsky, Longman Publishing Group, 1991. ISBN-10: 0801302188 ISBN-13:978-0801302183

•• Contemporary American Public Discourse. 3rd Edition. edited by Halford Ross Ryan, Waveland Press, 1991.ISBN-10: 0881336297 | ISBN-13: 978-0881336290

Article Sources and Contributors 59

Article Sources and ContributorsAttic orators  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=501823285  Contributors: Adamsan, Aldux, Betacommand, Bgwhite, Catalographer, Clavicule, Deucalionite, Eastlaw,El-Ahrairah, F.chiodo, Froid, Goregore, Hmains, Jlg4104, Kolja21, Lilliputian, Matterngroup5, Obey, PigFlu Oink, Psmith, Pufacz, Schlossberg, SimonP, 11 anonymous edits

Aeschines  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=515211857  Contributors: Acr8tiv, Alcmaeonid, Aldux, AllanBz, AndreasJS, Argos'Dad, Bearcat, Binot, Catalographer, CharlesMatthews, Chicheley, ChrisO, Cyrpressd, Daderot, Damac, Davidiad, Dblk, Delta 51, Deucalionite, EamonnPKeane, FeanorStar7, Filipo, Flauto Dolce, Fordmadoxfraud, Funhistory, FuturePerfect at Sunrise, G.W., Haiduc, Hectorian, Isokrates, JLCA, Jaraalbe, John K, JorgeB2000, Ketiltrout, Koranjem, Kross, Ksnow, Leuko, Magioladitis, Makemi, Michalis Famelis, Mizpah14,Moe Epsilon, Morel, Moreschi, Omnipaedista, Paul venter, Pjmc, Pmanderson, Proofreader, Sardanaphalus, SatyrTN, Sumahoy, Tagishsimon, Tatufan, TheresaSG, TwoMightyGods, UtherSRG,Viriditas, WVhybrid, Wareh, William percy, Woohookitty, 22 anonymous edits

Andocides  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=514115237  Contributors: 216.99.203.xxx, Adam Bishop, AndreasJS, Care, Catalographer, Charles Matthews, Cleduc, Conversionscript, Cplakidas, Davidiad, Dblk, Dimadick, El-Ahrairah, Fer.filol, Goregore, Hectorian, JLCA, Jaraalbe, Jlg4104, Kalogeropoulos, Klemen Kocjancic, Kubigula, Llywrch, MichaelTinkler,Michalis Famelis, Murtasa, Paul August, Rich Farmbrough, Serinde, Viriditas, Wareh, WhisperToMe, 5 anonymous edits

Antiphon (person)  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=516937501  Contributors: Abrahami, Alfreddo, Altenmann, Aratiti, Bansp, Binabik80, Bolivian Unicyclist, CharlesMatthews, Clarice Reis, Cortical, Dario Zornija, David ekstrand, Davidiad, Dblk, Dimadick, Everyking, Fellini8, Fer.filol, Gaius Cornelius, Giftlite, Goregore, Headbomb, Ikokki, Isokrates,Jaraalbe, Jbergquist, John K, Kicking222, Kripkenstein, Larry R. Holmgren, Leandrod, Lestrade, Linas, Megapixie, Nikadama, Nono64, Onodevo, Oracleofottawa, Paul August, Pearle,Peruvianllama, Phoebe, Pjoef, Puuropyssy, Pwqn, RJFJR, RayKiddy, Selfworm, Serinde, Simastrick, Stevenmitchell, Sumahoy, ThreePD, TimBray, TreasuryTag, Viriditas, Woohookitty, Xgoni,18 anonymous edits

Demosthenes  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=522269485  Contributors: (, 1121331a, 15lsoucy, 3i2h0p, 97 Bonnie and Clyde, A. B., Abdullais4u, Acelor, Adam Bishop,Adrian.benko, AdultSwim, Aherunar, Akendall, Alansohn, Aldux, Altenmann, Anonymous Dissident, Anwynd, Ariobarzan, Art LaPella, Athenean, Atrivedi, Avicennasis, Bearcat, Benda2,Bender235, Bhoward mvus, BillDeanCarter, Binabik80, Blanchardb, Bobblewik, Brainmuncher, Brandmeister (old), Brastite, Briaboru, Brighterorange, Brion VIBBER, Burpolon25, Bzuk,CUSENZA Mario, CambridgeBayWeather, Canderson7, Catalographer, Centrx, Chaleyer61, Charles L. Smith, Chaser, Chowbok, Christopher Parham, Cobaltbluetony, Commit charge,Coredesat, CountZ, Cynwolfe, CyrilB, DBaba, Damac, Damian Yerrick, Danny, Darkwind, Darwinek, Das Baz, Dast, Davemcarlson, Davidiad, Dblk, Debivort, Delldot, Deucalionite, Dewaard,Dezidor, Dicklyon, Didaskalosmrm, Diderot, Dimadick, Dimboukas, Discospinster, Dkechag, Dlswo33, Dnakos, Douglasvburgeson, Dougweller, DrSlump, Drewfg, Ducknish, Duncancumming,EALacey, ENeville, Eastlaw, EauLibrarian, Ellywa, Erebus555, Everyking, Eyeless in Gaza, Fat&Happy, FeanorStar7, Ffirehorse, Flounderer, Fordmadoxfraud, ForeignerFromTheEast,FrancoGG, Froth, Fumblebruschi, Future Perfect at Sunrise, GK1973, Gaius Cornelius, Gavinplarsen, Gemini1980, Geoffg, Georgequizbowl08, Ghirlandajo, Gkklein, Good Olfactory, Grafen,GrahamHardy, Guer9208, Gurch, Gustavb, H, Hadal, HaeB, Haham hanuka, Haiduc, Hajor, Headbomb, HereKITTYkittyKiTTy11, Hermitage, Hut 8.5, Hyacinth, Igorwindsor, Ipatrol,Ireland101, Iridescent, Ivan Bajlo, J.delanoy, JForget, JJoans33, JW1805, Jacek Kendysz, Jagged, Japanese Searobin, Jaraalbe, Jdemosth, Jguk 2, JoDonHo, John K, John of Reading, Joseph A.Spadaro, Josephk, Jpbowen, Jsmack, Jubjub235, Jugander, Jusdafax, Jyounger0945, KGasso, Karam.Anthony.K, Karen Johnson, Katharineamy, Kevin B12, Kgrad, Kimchi.sg, King of Hearts,Kingboyk, Kingturtle, Komank, Konstable, Koranjem, Kostisl, Koyaanis Qatsi, Krellis, Kross, Kruckenberg.1, Kungfuadam, Kuralyov, Kwamikagami, Kylesutherland, L.djinevski, LFaraone,Laocoont, Laveol, Lee Daniel Crocker, Lehla, Lightmouse, Lincher, Lkinkade, Lololthis, LuisHernandez123, Luna Santin, MER-C, MK8, Macedonian, MajorStovall, Maksym Ye., Mallaccaos,Markussep, Maziotis, McCronion, Mcuringa, Mel Etitis, Memberx0, Micaelus, Michael Devore, Michael Hardy, Mike Rosoft, Mirv, Misfit, MisfitToys, Mkassassin, Morwen, Muhandes,Mwanner, Nakon, NatusRoma, Neddyseagoon, Neilc, Newmanbe, Niceguyedc, Nihiltres, Nihonjoe, Omnipaedista, Orangutan, OreL.D, Otto4711, Paul August, Paul Barlow, Paul venter,Peirigill, PenguiN42, Peter Kaminski, Pgan002, Phenz, Phgao, Philip Trueman, PiCo, Piotrus, Pjoef, Plange, Plourdm, Pmanderson, Prodego, Protarion, Pruy0001, Publius, Pufferfish101, Qarel,Quadell, Quale, R parker jr, R'n'B, Raven in Orbit, Rcsprinter123, Redchaos12, Rhrad, Rich Farmbrough, Rjwilmsi, RobertG, Robertismyfather, Robth, Rolinator, Ronnlund, Rory096,Rottenberry, Rreagan007, Ruhrfisch, Samsara, SeventyThree, Shauni, Shoeofdeath, Sikader, Sir Gawain McGarson, Sriharsh1234, Starbook, Stevenj, StoptheDatabaseState, Sumahoy,SummerWithMorons, Taxman, Tcwd, Teentje, The TRUE Goldfish, TheRequiem13, Thumperward, TimBentley, Toby42, Traumerei, Treisijs, Tucker 2323, UberCryxic, UberScienceNerd,Ursobk, Veronique50, Vicki Rosenzweig, Vipinhari, Viriditas, Vivisel, WAS 4.250, Wareh, Wayne Slam, Wetman, Wiki alf, WolfmanSF, Womble, Xiner, Xxpor, Xxyzdefoff, Yanksox,Yannismarou, Yooden, ZooFari, Δρακόλακκος, 488 anonymous edits

Dinarchus  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=502322758  Contributors: Alaniaris, Care, Catalographer, Davidiad, Dblk, Dejvid, Dimadick, Jaraalbe, Jlg4104, KnightRider,Popszes, RogDel, Serinde, Stan Shebs, The Man in Question, Varlaam, Veronique50, Viriditas, 8 anonymous edits

Hypereides  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=502322618  Contributors: *Kat*, Aldux, Allstarecho, AnonMoos, Bab dz, Bender235, Caesar Rodney, Catalographer, Cenedi,Chewings72, CommonsDelinker, Cornell2010, Csobankai Aladar, Davidiad, Dblk, Dimadick, EamonnPKeane, FeanorStar7, Hmains, Jaraalbe, Jlg4104, John K, Michael Hardy, Mild Bill Hiccup,Ning-ning, Pascal666, Popszes, Remy B, Rich Farmbrough, Richard Arthur Norton (1958- ), RogDel, SaxTeacher, Terrasidius, Tomisti, Viriditas, Wahunter94, Wareh, Woohookitty,Yannismarou, Zhinz, 26 anonymous edits

Isaeus  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=521980156  Contributors: Adamsan, Aldux, Alec it, Bender235, Catalographer, Davidiad, Dblk, Deucalionite, Dimadick, Dorieo,Dsmdgold, El-Ahrairah, EliasAlucard, F.chiodo, Ferengi, Flauto Dolce, Hooperbloob, Jaraalbe, Jlg4104, KRBN, Petrouchka, Pjoef, PoptartKing, Stan Shebs, Sumahoy, Telestylo, The Sage ofStamford, Viriditas, WBardwin, Waacstats, Wareh, Wlodzimierz, 3 anonymous edits

Isocrates  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=520606797  Contributors: A. Parrot, AlexanderMalmberg, Alma Pater, Amurray5, Anothroskon, Asmith44, Auntof6, Bender235,Binabik80, Bwfrier, CUSENZA Mario, Catalographer, Charles Matthews, Clarafury, D. Webb, Davidiad, Dblk, Deucalionite, Docsophist, Dpaking, Duk, EauLibrarian, Eric Kvaalen, Everyking,Fordmadoxfraud, Future Perfect at Sunrise, Ireland101, J.delanoy, Jaraalbe, JimsMaher, Josephk, Kalogeropoulos, Leszek Jańczuk, Lightmouse, Llywrch, Lolewis24, Lotje, Lysdexia,Mattbarton.exe, Mersenne, Michael Hardy, Micione, Never give in, NewEnglandYankee, Nhprman, Omnipedian, Pmanderson, RJFJR, Rjwilmsi, Rosspz, Sapita, Sburke, Serinde, Shakko,Shaneraymond321, Shauni, Snori, Stefanomione, Stern, Sumahoy, Tr606, Tregonsee, Viriditas, Vrenator, Waacstats, Wetman, Zdravko mk, 48 anonymous edits

Lycurgus of Athens  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=512244535  Contributors: ADM, Albmont, Aldux, Anirvan, Bender235, Bill Thayer, Catalographer, DCEdwards1966,Davidiad, Dblk, Deucalionite, Dimadick, EamonnPKeane, Erud, Fordmadoxfraud, Jaraalbe, Jlg4104, Kauczuk, Mu, RogDel, StAnselm, Tomisti, Vald, Viriditas, Wikiklrsc, Yannismarou, 13anonymous edits

Lysias  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=514215025  Contributors: Akhilleus, Altenmann, Banazir, Binabik80, Biscuittin, CCS81, Care, Catalographer, Charles Matthews,Cjc13, Coyau, Davidiad, Dblk, Dimadick, Doc glasgow, Edbrims, GTBacchus, Galifardeu, Gkerkvliet, Gogogrl, Haiduc, Isokrates, JLCA, Jaraalbe, Jldoyle, Jlg4104, Judgefloyd, KRBN,Koranjem, Krivic, La goutte de pluie, Ltbuni, Magnus Manske, Martynas Patasius, Matterngroup5, Michael Hardy, Mjuarez, Moreschi, Nagelfar, Nbvint, Newkai, Nick Number, Panairjdde, PaulAugust, Pearle, PeterMottola, Pufacz, Regnator, Riffle, RogDel, Stan Shebs, Stefanomione, Sumahoy, Sun Creator, Viriditas, Wareh, Washdivad, 37 anonymous edits

Logographer (legal)  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=488497703  Contributors: Aquarius Rising, BarretB, BioPupil, Care, Catalographer, Davidiad, Dpr, Erud, Geekdiva,Goregore, JarvisReuben, LilHelpa, Matterngroup5, PaulHanson, Ruszewski, Slathering, Tabbelio, Willking1979, 7 anonymous edits

List of orators  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=514798950  Contributors: 1121331a, 97198, Aborlan, Akanosina, Altenmann, Amtiss, Andre Engels, AndreasJS, AndriEgilsson, André Teixeira Lima, Andycjp, Angela, Annalise, Arda Xi, Babygrand1, Barbara Shack, Beatnick, BrianKnez, Calliopejen1, CanisRufus, Chanakal, ChristopherWillis, Christophorus,Coldacid, Conductress, Dacxjo, Darobat, DeadEyeArrow, Desertus Sagittarius, Dhartung, Djharrity, Doktor Waterhouse, Doniago, Donkeypump, Doug Coldwell, Drex15, Dwarf Kirlston, EgraS,El-Ahrairah, Eley, Ewlyahoocom, Extraordinary, Fastifex, Fatmcguire, Flyspeck, Furfish, Gail, Gandalf1491, Ghosts&empties, Gianfranco, Ground Zero, Guymontague, Hairy Dude,Happyme22, Hydrox, IZAK, Inluminetuovidebimuslumen, Ionutzmovie, JASpencer, JMAPGGGonzalo, Jachin, Jaytirth, Jc37, Jcbarr, Jeff-the-riffer, Jim.henderson, JohnGabriel1, Joseph Solis inAustralia, KaiKemmann, Kchishol1970, Kinema, Kleinburgerei, Koavf, Kralizec!, Lawrence142002, Legaleagle86, Lemonhead99, Loren.wilton, MSJapan, Maelfreda, Materialscientist, Matijap,MercyBreeze, Michael Romanov, Milton Stanley, Mithent, Mon08, MrOllie, Mrg3105, Mzajac, Nanzilla, Neddyseagoon, Nofrak, Oracleofottawa, Ortolan88, Pegship, Phantumkilla2, Phthoggos,Pigman, Pinethicket, Polylerus, R'n'B, RandomStringOfCharacters, Rich Farmbrough, Richardkselby, Robofish, Rockear, Rrburke, Samuel Bayes, Scolaire, Shoreranger, Sibelius bh, SimonP,Sionus, SlackerMom, Srini au eee, Stev2k, Steven Hepting, Stevepeterson, TOR, Tassedethe, Tcncv, Tewapack, Texture, That Guy, From That Show!, The Thing That Should Not Be,Thismightbezach, Tide rolls, Trademark123, Tragic Baboon, Trefusius, Tregoweth, Utcursch, Vaballer237, Valodzka, Verdatum, Vishvax, WelshMan1990, WikHead, Wine Guy, Wknight94,Woohookitty, Wooyi, WouterVH, Yostiria, ZimZalaBim, 212 anonymous edits

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 60

Image Sources, Licenses and ContributorsImage:DemosthPracticing.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:DemosthPracticing.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Arthur Laisis, Kilom691, Mattes, Nagy, 3anonymous editsFile:Aeschines_bust.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Aeschines_bust.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:ChrisOFile:P.Oxy. XI 1364 fr. 1, cols. v-vii.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:P.Oxy._XI_1364_fr._1,_cols._v-vii.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Cardiffchestnut,Doug Coldwell, QuadellFile:Demosthenes orator Louvre.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Demosthenes_orator_Louvre.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 Contributors: User:Sting, User:StingFile:Bust Demosthenes BM 1840.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bust_Demosthenes_BM_1840.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:JastrowImage:Philip II of Macedon CdM.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Philip_II_of_Macedon_CdM.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:JastrowImage:Gallipoli peninsula from space.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Gallipoli_peninsula_from_space.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: ArjanH,Denisutku, RokeImage:Chaeronea map.gif  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Chaeronea_map.gif  License: Copyrighted free use  Contributors: Evil berry, Filipo, Moumou82, YannismarouImage:BattleofIssus333BC-mosaic-detail1.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:BattleofIssus333BC-mosaic-detail1.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:user:RuthvenFile:Temple of Poseidon Poros.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Temple_of_Poseidon_Poros.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:RonnlundImage:Herma Demosthenes Glyptothek Munich 292.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Herma_Demosthenes_Glyptothek_Munich_292.jpg  License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Bibi Saint-PolImage:AeschinesDemosthenes.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:AeschinesDemosthenes.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Kilom691, Shakko, Yannismarou,1 anonymous editsImage:wikisource-logo.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Wikisource-logo.svg  License: logo  Contributors: Guillom, Jarekt, MichaelMaggs, NielsF, Rei-artur,Rocket000image:P.Lit.Lond. 134.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:P.Lit.Lond._134.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: CardiffchestnutImage:Jean-Léon Gérôme, Phryne revealed before the Areopagus (1861) - 01.jpg  Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Jean-Léon_Gérôme,_Phryne_revealed_before_the_Areopagus_(1861)_-_01.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:PopszesFile:PD-icon.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:PD-icon.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Alex.muller, Anomie, Anonymous Dissident, CBM, MBisanz, PBS,Quadell, Rocket000, Strangerer, Timotheus Canens, 1 anonymous editsFile:Isocrates pushkin.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Isocrates_pushkin.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: user:shakkoFile:Parc de Versailles, Rond-Point des Philosophes, Lysias, Jean Dedieu inv1850n°9452 03.jpg  Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Parc_de_Versailles,_Rond-Point_des_Philosophes,_Lysias,_Jean_Dedieu_inv1850n°9452_03.jpg  License: Creative CommonsAttribution-Sharealike 3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0  Contributors: A.Savin, Andrew.Lorenzs, Coyau, Edelseider, Shakko

License 61

LicenseCreative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported//creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/