The Tetralemma as ‘Yes!’, ‘No!’, The Tetralemma as ‘Yes!’, ‘No!’, ‘Both Yes and No!’, and ‘Both Yes and No!’, and

‘Neither Yes nor No!’, can in a ‘Neither Yes nor No!’, can in a practical, and human ‘fuzzy’ practical, and human ‘fuzzy’

sense, be found in Latin sense, be found in Latin American history, from the American history, from the

time of the conquest.time of the conquest.

Conformity And Conformity And An Enthusiastic An Enthusiastic Embrace: Embrace:

‘Yes!’ ‘Yes!’

The New World as the end of the world made it the The New World as the end of the world made it the opportune landing for the New Jerusalem’s descent opportune landing for the New Jerusalem’s descent from the sky. Meditating on the conquered from the sky. Meditating on the conquered Tenochtitlán, Motolinía wrote, ‘You were once Babylon, Tenochtitlán, Motolinía wrote, ‘You were once Babylon, full of confusion and evil; now you are another full of confusion and evil; now you are another Jerusalem, the mother of provinces and kingdoms’. Jerusalem, the mother of provinces and kingdoms’. Elaboration of the Amerindians as descendants of the Elaboration of the Amerindians as descendants of the lost tribes of Israel reinforced the link between the New lost tribes of Israel reinforced the link between the New World and the New Jerusalem, notably in the ponderings World and the New Jerusalem, notably in the ponderings of Agustín de Betancur at the end of the 17th century. of Agustín de Betancur at the end of the 17th century. Following a tally of twelve religious ‘families’ in Mexico, Following a tally of twelve religious ‘families’ in Mexico, Betancur mixed metaphors to celebrate his noble city as Betancur mixed metaphors to celebrate his noble city as ‘a new Jerusalem with twelve gates through which to ‘a new Jerusalem with twelve gates through which to enter the Jerusalem of triumph’. The ‘twelve tribes of enter the Jerusalem of triumph’. The ‘twelve tribes of Israel’ are ‘twelve precious stones’ that ‘shine like stars Israel’ are ‘twelve precious stones’ that ‘shine like stars in the crown of the woman of Apocalypse’. With such in the crown of the woman of Apocalypse’. With such noble encouragement, the Amerindians were baptized noble encouragement, the Amerindians were baptized in droves.in droves.

Liberation theologists continue this Liberation theologists continue this tradition into the present when they tradition into the present when they unambiguously assert that ‘Europe is unambiguously assert that ‘Europe is no longer the center of Christian no longer the center of Christian history. Latin America is’. The history. Latin America is’. The ‘recuperated’ New World was ‘recuperated’ New World was romanticized as a promised land in a romanticized as a promised land in a flurry of benedictions from José Martí’s flurry of benedictions from José Martí’s ‘Our America’ (and its extension into ‘Our America’ (and its extension into the Cuban Revolution) to José the Cuban Revolution) to José Vasconcelos’s explicit description of Vasconcelos’s explicit description of America as ‘the true Christian America as ‘the true Christian promised land’. For Rubén Darío, promised land’. For Rubén Darío, America was ‘the future of the world’.America was ‘the future of the world’.

Resistance And Resistance And Reaction Against: Reaction Against:

No!’No!’

Conspicuous during the 1680 revolt of Conspicuous during the 1680 revolt of the Pueblo Amerindians in northern the Pueblo Amerindians in northern New Mexico was a sustained effort to New Mexico was a sustained effort to extirpate all vestiges of Christianity. extirpate all vestiges of Christianity. One writer witnessing the rebellion One writer witnessing the rebellion reported that the pueblo Amerindians reported that the pueblo Amerindians ‘profaned the holy Christian temples, ‘profaned the holy Christian temples, burning them and the images from burning them and the images from their altars, mocking at the things their altars, mocking at the things belonging to divine worship, wearing belonging to divine worship, wearing the priestly vestments in their the priestly vestments in their idolatrous dances, and making trophies idolatrous dances, and making trophies of them, as well as of the sacred of them, as well as of the sacred vessels’.vessels’.

The Pueblos persevered as The Pueblos persevered as reluctant converts to Catholicism reluctant converts to Catholicism even after the 1692 reconquest. A even after the 1692 reconquest. A missionary report almost a century missionary report almost a century later was still lamenting how the later was still lamenting how the Pueblos preferred their native Pueblos preferred their native names, ‘and when we call them by names, ‘and when we call them by their saints’ names they usually their saints’ names they usually have their joke among themselves, have their joke among themselves, repeating the saint’s name to each repeating the saint’s name to each other as if in ridicule’.other as if in ridicule’.

Synthesizing, Neither Synthesizing, Neither Conformity Nor Conformity Nor

Resistance: Resistance: ‘Yes ‘Yes and No!’and No!’

Among the Tzeltals and Tzotzils of Chiapas, Among the Tzeltals and Tzotzils of Chiapas, Mexico, unlike most indigenous groups, did Mexico, unlike most indigenous groups, did not strive to restore a prehispanic ideal but not strive to restore a prehispanic ideal but rather to practice the Catholic faith in a rather to practice the Catholic faith in a manner consonant with indigenous manner consonant with indigenous traditions. An initial quest for syncretic traditions. An initial quest for syncretic synthesis became extremist because it met synthesis became extremist because it met wit an authoritarian, repressive response wit an authoritarian, repressive response from the clergy. Once the cult was from the clergy. Once the cult was prohibited and ostracized, its adherents prohibited and ostracized, its adherents took the offensive to safeguard their faith took the offensive to safeguard their faith and to fin in the Virgin’s silent discourse an and to fin in the Virgin’s silent discourse an articulation of their millennial aspirations.articulation of their millennial aspirations.

In 1780 José Gabriel Condorcanqui of Peru took In 1780 José Gabriel Condorcanqui of Peru took the name Túpac Amaru and rose in revolt the name Túpac Amaru and rose in revolt against colonial abuse of the Amerindians. against colonial abuse of the Amerindians. Túpac Amaru II claimed direct descent from Túpac Amaru II claimed direct descent from Juana Pilcorvaco, daughter of the Túpac Amaru Juana Pilcorvaco, daughter of the Túpac Amaru who had been executed in 1572, and viceregal who had been executed in 1572, and viceregal authorities recognized this claim. In nativist authorities recognized this claim. In nativist perspective he held a hereditary claim to perspective he held a hereditary claim to legitimate reign, but Inca nobility had mutated legitimate reign, but Inca nobility had mutated over centuries of colonial rule and by 1780 was over centuries of colonial rule and by 1780 was more Hispanic than indigenous in its lifestyle. more Hispanic than indigenous in its lifestyle. The new Túpac Amaru, a mestizo born in 1740, The new Túpac Amaru, a mestizo born in 1740, had considerable wealth and education, lived had considerable wealth and education, lived ostentatiously, and was married to a Creole. ostentatiously, and was married to a Creole. The corregidor considered him a ‘fraudulent The corregidor considered him a ‘fraudulent Amerindian’.Amerindian’.

Conformity And Resistance: Conformity And Resistance: ‘Neither Yes Nor ‘Neither Yes Nor No!’ No!’ (The Problem: (The Problem: Millennialism, something Millennialism, something totally new, a New Age)totally new, a New Age)

After 1492, Edenic and golden-age ideals were After 1492, Edenic and golden-age ideals were projected onto the pristine landscape and ‘noble projected onto the pristine landscape and ‘noble savages’ of the Americas, particularly in the savages’ of the Americas, particularly in the tropics. Some chronicles, such as that of an tropics. Some chronicles, such as that of an Augustinian describing Mexico, privileged the Augustinian describing Mexico, privileged the biblical model: ‘Just as in Paradise He created the biblical model: ‘Just as in Paradise He created the plants in growth and the fruits all ripened, so in plants in growth and the fruits all ripened, so in the gardens of this new Paradise He did not delay the gardens of this new Paradise He did not delay in ordering the imperfect to the perfect’. In 1514 in ordering the imperfect to the perfect’. In 1514 Peter Martyr favored the Greek model when he Peter Martyr favored the Greek model when he observed that the natives of Hispaniola ‘go naked observed that the natives of Hispaniola ‘go naked and know neither weights nor measures, nor that and know neither weights nor measures, nor that source of all misfortune, money: living in a golden source of all misfortune, money: living in a golden age, without laws, without lying judges, without age, without laws, without lying judges, without books’. Everything among them was common books’. Everything among them was common property and all happily shared the abundance property and all happily shared the abundance because there was no sense of ‘mine and thine’.because there was no sense of ‘mine and thine’.

The Mixtón war in Michoacan, Mexico, begun in 1540, is The Mixtón war in Michoacan, Mexico, begun in 1540, is exemplary in its representation of the major motifs of exemplary in its representation of the major motifs of nativist millennialism. The prophets represented this nativist millennialism. The prophets represented this total war as a feat of supernatural omnipotence, but the total war as a feat of supernatural omnipotence, but the always imminent, never actualized return of the deity always imminent, never actualized return of the deity leaves the implementation to the earthly agents. The leaves the implementation to the earthly agents. The people’s will (to eliminate the Spaniards, to return to people’s will (to eliminate the Spaniards, to return to tradition) is rerouted by the prophets and returns tradition) is rerouted by the prophets and returns transcendentalized, hyperebolic, and oracular. Once transcendentalized, hyperebolic, and oracular. Once that roundabout authorization is accomplished, and that roundabout authorization is accomplished, and once the claim is made that the deity will accomplish once the claim is made that the deity will accomplish the mission with supernatural intervention, then the the mission with supernatural intervention, then the people go to war. The deity serves as a means to people go to war. The deity serves as a means to objectify, sanction, legitimate, consolidate, and objectify, sanction, legitimate, consolidate, and empower he will of the people. The ancestral, pain-free empower he will of the people. The ancestral, pain-free paradise anticipated beyond victory is likewise paradise anticipated beyond victory is likewise conditioned by the doubled monologue that echoes conditioned by the doubled monologue that echoes between community and deity.between community and deity.

For a more secular, less For a more secular, less millennial form of millennial form of Neither Yes Nor No: Neither Yes Nor No: Brazilian Capoeira and Brazilian Capoeira and Candomblé (or Candomblé (or Caribbean Santería) Caribbean Santería)