the triumphs and travails of the jeffersonian republic 1800 – 1812

The Triumphs and Travails of the Jeffersonian Republic

1800 – 1812

Democratic-Republicans Take Over Government

• The election of 1800 seemed to give the voters a clear choice– John Adams (Federalist) campaigned for strong

government and public order– Thomas Jefferson (Democratic-Republican)

campaigned for farmers, liberty, and states’ rights

• Once Democratic-Republicans took power, events of the early 1800s forced them to expand government power, even though they were ideologically opposed to this

Federalist and Republican Mudslingers• Weakness of the Federalists

– The Alien and Sedition Acts had increased the hostility of the Jeffersonians toward them

– Hamiltonians (High Federalists) had split with Adams principally over his decision not to go to war with France

– Federalists had prepared for a war with France, increasing taxes and public debt; these preparations were seen as wasteful and extravagant

Federalist and Republican Mudslingers• Federalists made vicious attacks on

Jefferson– Robbed a widow and children of trust fund– Fathered mulatto children with his female

slaves– Atheist (because of his successful struggle to

separate church and state in Virginia)

The Jeffersonian “Revolution of 1800”

• Jefferson won the election of 1800– 73 to 65 electoral votes primarily in states in the

South and West– Aaron Burr got New York (which had gone to Adams in

1796) to vote for Jefferson by a narrow margin, deciding the election

– The 3/5 clause helped Jefferson win, giving slave states that voted for Jefferson extra electoral votes

• Adams was the last Federalist president– The party soon disappeared around 1816

The Jeffersonian “Revolution of 1800”• Jefferson vs. Burr

– Both received same number of electoral votes in the election of 1800 because Republican supporters had all voted for Jefferson and Burr

• It had been understood that they were voting for Jefferson as president and Burr as his vice president; Burr should have told one of his supporters to vote for Jefferson instead, but because of his ambition he did not

– Before the 12th amendment, each elector had 2 votes; the 2nd place finisher would become vice president


• Following the Constitution, the election went to the House of Representatives (which had a Federalist majority)– Jefferson needed a majority of states (at least 9 of

16) to win– The Federalists hated Jefferson, but on the 36th

ballot, a few Federalists switched to give Jefferson the election

– They realized that in order to have a peaceful transfer of power they had to vote for Jefferson


• Jefferson claimed the election of 1800 was a “revolution” comparable to 1776– A return to principles of the founding of the US,

which had been betrayed (according to Jefferson) by Federalists and especially Hamilton

– Jefferson wanted to stop the growth of government power and the decay of “republican virtue”


• The peaceful transfer of power from 1 party to another was very important– Both sides accepted the outcome– Important achievement for a new nation after the

partisan bitterness under Adams– No other country at that time had a mechanism

like the US that was popularly accepted and worked

Responsibility Breeds Moderation

• March 4, 1801 – Jefferson’s inauguration– In his inaugural address he tried to bring

Democratic-Republicans and Federalists together• “We are all Republicans, we are all Federalists”

– Spoke of majority rule with minority rights– Promised friendship with other nations, but not

entangling alliances


• Jefferson brought more democratic practices to the US– Walked to the capitol from his house in Washington, DC

(did not ride in a carriage) during inauguration– Washington, DC at the time was a small, rural village

compared to Federalist Philadelphia (the previous capitol)

– Seating at dinners was done pell-mell (without regard to rank)

– Sent speeches to Congress to be read by his clerk (the Federalist practice of public appearances was seen as monarchical – king-like)


• Once in office, he was forced to reverse many previous positions– The theories of a philosopher did not always

work in the real world of politics


• Spoils of office– Spoils - goods stolen or taken forcibly from a

person or place– Federalists and Democratic- Republicans

expected Jefferson would remove many Federalist office- holders in favor of Republicans

– Jefferson generally did not do this, which pleased Federalists but angered some office-seeking Democratic-Republicans


• Democratic-Republicans were united only by opposition to the Federalists– Did not have patronage to distribute to

supporters (because Jefferson did not fire many Federalists)

– Well-developed and disciplined parties would not come until later in US history

Jeffersonian Restraint

• Jefferson’s moderate changes– Undid Federalist abuses during anti-French hysteria of

Alien and Sedition Acts:He pardoned those jailed, the government paid back many fines, and passed the Naturalization Act of 1802 (the time for naturalization of aliens reduced from 14 years back to 5 years)

– Repealed excise tax that hurt farmer supporters (which cost government $1 million per year in needed money)


• Jefferson and the national budget– Appointed Albert Gallatin as very good

secretary of the treasury– Substantially reduced the national debt while

balancing the budget through strict cost-cutting measures


• Jefferson did not change much of the Federalists’ framework– Hamilton’s budgetary programs were left intact– The Bank of the US was left alone– The Federalist tariff was not repealed


• Jefferson’s moderation strengthened the “Revolution of 1800”– Showed that a change in the ruling party was

not disastrous for the defeated group– Led the way for the 2-party system in the US

The “Dead Clutch” of the Judiciary

• Judiciary Act of 1801– Last major act of the Federalist Congress (before being

replaced by a Republican majority)– 16 new federal judgeships were created, along with other

judicial offices– Adams signed these judgeships up to last day in office

• Known as the “midnight judges,” which came from a story (which probably isn’t true) that Adams had stayed up late on his last night in office signing the judicial appointments


• The judiciary needed reform, but the Republicans reacted angrily– Seen as an attempt to pack the court with

Federalists– Federalists, who had been voted out of 2

branches, would entrench themselves in 1– Jefferson called it a violation of the people’s

will


• The Republican Congress repealed the Judiciary Act of 1801– The 16 federal justices were not seated


• John Marshall– Appointed by Adams– Had little formal schooling in law (6 weeks), but had a

powerful mind that shaped the Supreme Court for 34 years

– Served in the Revolution at Valley Forge and saw the need for a powerful government

– His decisions increased the power of the federal government


• Marbury v. Madison, the issues– William Marbury (a “midnight judge”) had been

appointed justice of the peace for the District of Columbia

– Sued the new secretary of state (Madison) to have it delivered

– The Court would have had to issue a “writ of mandamus”, forcing Madison to deliver Marbury’s commission, if Marbury had won


• Marbury v. Madison, the decision– Marshall ruled that the part of the Judiciary Act of 1789

on which Marbury based his suit was unconstitutional• The act had attempted to assign to the Supreme Court powers

(original jurisdiction for writs of mandamus) that the Constitution had made appellate

– Marshall dismissed Marbury’s suit• Republicans got what they wanted so they did not oppose

Marshall’s claim that he could declare an act of Congress unconstitutional


• The importance of Marbury v. Madison– It had been controversial who had the final authority to

determine the ultimate meaning of Constitution– Jefferson had argued (in 1798 in the Kentucky

resolutions) that states had final authority– Marshall asserted the principle that the Supreme

Court had the final authority (“judicial review”)– This greatly increased the power of the Supreme

Court


• Republicans took revenge by impeaching Supreme Court justice Samuel Chase– Partisan Federalist who had strictly enforced the

Sedition Act, jailing several Republican editors, he was hated by Republicans

– Impeachment is based on “high crimes, and misdemeanors” (from the Constitution)

– Chase was not guilty of these, and his conviction failed in the Senate


• Importance of Chase’s impeachment– If the precedent had been set that political opponents

could impeach justices, the independence of courts and the separation of powers would have been destroyed

– No serious attempt has been made since then to reshape the Court through impeachment

Jefferson, a Reluctant Warrior

• Jefferson reduced the army to 2,500 officers and men– Done partly to save money, but primarily done out of

Jefferson’s vision of republicanism– The US would avoid bloody wars at home and deal with

the world with “peaceful coercion,” not military power– He distrusted large standing armies as an open

invitation to dictatorship– The navy was not to be feared as much, since it could not

march inland and enslave the people, but still should be limited, so as not to involve the US in foreign wars


• Pirates in the North African Barbary States– Pirates blackmailed and stole from merchant

ships in the Mediterranean– Washington and Adams had paid tribute

(bribes) to the Barbary States for protection


• War in North Africa– 1801 – Tripoli (unhappy with amount of protection

money it got from the US) declared war on the US– Jefferson (noninterventionist, pacifist, critic of a large navy,

political opponent of Federalist shippers) decided to fight– 1801 – 1805 – Tripolitan (Tri·pol’i·tan) War– Jefferson sent Marines to the “shores of Tripoli”– Peace finally came when the US defeated the Africans


• Small gunboats had been used with success in Tripolitan War

• Jefferson decided to build 200– Valuable to protect the US coast– Would not get the US involved in wars on the ocean or in

foreign countries– Would be built in many small workshops, where the

money spent might get Republican votes– Criticized by Federalists as too weak to defend the US

The Louisiana Godsend

• Louisiana– Before 1763 - France claimed Louisiana

– 1763 – 1800 – Louisiana belongs to Spain (France had lost it to Spain after the Seven Years’ War)

– In the Treaty of San Ildefonso (October 1, 1800) Spain ceded the Louisiana Territory back to France


• 1802 – The Spanish at New Orleans withdrew the right of deposit (warehouse) to US farmers– Important because farmers sent produce down the

Mississippi to be loaded onto ships– Americans were very angry; they talked of attacking New

Orleans, that would have put the US into war with Spain and France


• Why French ownership of Louisiana was bad for the US– Spain was weak and did not have any control over the

area (except at New Orleans) and the US could take the area from Spain when it was ready

– France was much more powerful; Napoleon was the greatest military genius at the time

• The US would eventually have to fight to remove Napoleon, probably being forced to ally with a stronger country (like Britain)


• Early 1803 – Jefferson sent James Monroe to work with the US ambassador to France (Robert R. Livingston)– Instructed to buy New Orleans and as much land as

possible for up to $10 million– If this failed, instructed to open negotiations with Britain for

an alliance– Jefferson (a friend of France and hater of alliances) was

willing to ally with Britain (which he hated) to stop France from taking New Orleans


• Napoleon suddenly decided to sell all of Louisiana– Had failed to reconquer Santo Domingo (the

Dominican Republic)– Decided to begin a war (after a 20- month truce)

against Britain again– Hoped the US would eventually be a power that

would defeat Britain


• Had failed to reconquer Santo Domingo (the Dominican Republic)– Louisiana was to serve as the supplier of

food to the sugar-rich island– Slaves under Toussaint L’Ouverture

resisted (although they were eventually defeated)

– Yellow fever (spread by mosquitoes) killed thousands of French troops

– Since Santo Domingo was not (yet) reconquered in 1803, food from Louisiana was not needed


• Decided to begin a war (after a 20- month truce) against Britain again– Since Britain controlled the sea, it might be

able to take Louisiana anyway– Would use money from the US to fight Britain

in Europe


• Hoped the US would eventually be the power that would defeat Britain– “The sale assures forever the power of the United

States, and I have given England a rival who, sooner or later, will humble her pride.” – Napoleon


• The US ambassador (Livingston) was negotiating with France for New Orleans– Suddenly, the French ambassador asked how much the

US would pay for all of Louisiana– April 30, 1803 – Livingston and the French representatives

sign the treaty to purchase all of Louisiana for $15 million


• Jefferson’s was surprised when he heard of the Louisiana Purchase– The treaties for Louisiana had been

negotiated without his approval– He had only authorized $10 million for New

Orleans, not $15 million for Louisiana


• Jefferson now fought with himself over Louisiana– Strict construction: nowhere in the Constitution

was he authorized to purchase huge new tracts of land

– Land of democracy: the Louisiana purchase would guarantee the US would become “empire of liberty” because of its vast land for independent American farmers


• Jefferson finally submitted the treaty to the Senate– He had privately proposed a constitutional

amendment, but the idea was rejected because Napoleon might withdraw the offer if the US took too long

– The Senate quickly ratified the treaty– The US got 828,000 acres at .03 cents per acre,

an incredible bargain

Louisiana in the Long View

• Effects of the Louisiana Purchase– Had avoided a war with France (and a forced alliance

with Britain)– Huge amount of land allowed the US to expand– Established the precedent for future expansion: foreign

people and land was brought in on an equal partnership with US citizens

– Allowed the US to put into practice the isolationism of Washington’s Farewell Address

• The US could avoid alliances with Europe because the European powers were removed from North America


• Exploring the Louisiana Purchase– Spring 1804 – Meriwether Lewis (Jefferson’s personal

secretary) and William Clark (an army officer), with Sacajawea (a Shoshoni woman who served as a guide) set out on a 2 1/2 year exploration of North America

– Traveled north up the Missouri River, across the Rocky Mountains, to the Columbia River


• The achievements of Lewis and Clark– Scientific observations, maps,

knowledge of Indians– Demonstrated the possibility of traveling

overland to the Pacific


• Zebulon Pike– 1805 – 1806 – traveled north to the

headwaters of Mississippi River– 1806 – 1807 – explored the southern part of

Louisiana Purchase

The Aaron Burr Conspiracies

• Short-term problems with the Louisiana Purchase– This huge new area of the US was

ungovernable by the weak US government– Raised fears of secession and foreign plots


• Aaron Burr and Federalists in New England– Burr had been Jefferson’s 1st term vice president,

but was dropped in 1804– Plotted with the Federalists to have New England and

New York secede from the US– Hamilton exposed Burr’s plan– An angry Burr challenged Hamilton to a duel and

killed him (July 11, 1804)


• Aaron Burr and Louisiana Territory– After being exposed by Hamilton, Burr next plotted with

the Louisiana territory governor General James Wilkinson

– Plots are still not fully known, but they seemed to want to separate Louisiana from the US and invade Spanish-controlled Mexico and Florida

– Burr was betrayed by Wilkinson (after Jefferson had learned of the plot)


• Burr on trial for treason– Marshall insisted that a guilty verdict required

proof of open acts of treason (not just intentions)

• This followed the Constitution (Art III, Sec III) but seemed too lenient on Burr for most Republicans

– Burr was acquitted and fled to Europe where he tried to get Napoleon to stop fighting Britain and invade America

A Precarious Neutrality

• Election of 1804– Charles C. Pinckney and Rufus King were

nominated on the Federalist ticket– The Federalists had no national issue on which

to oppose Jefferson– Jefferson was reelected, 162 to only 14

electoral votes


• 1803 – renewal of the war in Europe between France and Britain

• 1803 – 1805 – US shipped to both countries and made lots of money


• 1805 – Battle of Trafalgar– British admiral Horatio Nelson defeated the French and

Spanish fleet off the coast of Spain– Cemented Britain’s strength on sea

• 1805 – Battle of Austerlitz (Battle of the Three Emperors)– In modern-day Czechoslovakia– Napoleon defeated the combined Russian and

Austrian armies– Cemented France’s strength on land


• 1806 – Orders in Council– Britain closed European ports under French control to

foreign shipping (including American) unless they stopped at British ports first

• Napoleon retaliated with the Continental System– Ordered all merchant ships (including American)

seized that entered British ports

• America had no way to trade with either nation without facing attack from the other


• Impressment– Forcible enlistment of sailors, using clubs and

stretchers (for unconscious men)– Britain especially implicated in

impressing foreign sailors– 1808 – 1811 – over 6,000 US

citizens were impressed by Britain from US merchant ships


• Chesapeake affair (June 1807)– A British warship came upon a US warship (the

Chesapeake) 10 miles off the coast of Virginia– British demanded 4 men they claimed were deserters– Britain had never before asserted the right to take

sailors from a foreign warship; the US commander refused

– British fired at the Chesapeake, severely damaging it, and took the 4 deserters


• US reaction to the Chesapeake affair– Britain was in the wrong, which London

admitted– US was angry and ready for war– It was up to Jefferson whether to fight or not

The Hated Embargo

• The US was unprepared for war– The army and navy were both weak, partly due

to Jefferson’s cuts– A defeat by British would weaken America

The Hated Embargo

• Europe depended on the US for raw materials and food– Jefferson believed that if the US cut off

exports, Britain and France would be forced to give in and respect US shipping rights

The Hated Embargo

• Late 1807 – the Embargo Act passed– Forbade export of all goods from the US, in US

or foreign ships– Jefferson called this “peaceful coercion”– If this worked, a new way of conducting

foreign affairs would be opened; if not, the US might be dragged into European wars

The Hated Embargo

• The Embargo Act backfired, severely hurting all parts of the US economy– Shipbuilders, shippers, and merchants in New

England– Farmers in the South and West who could not export

produce– Widespread illegal trade was carried out across

Canadian border– Americans called the embargo “O Grab Me” and cursed

the “Dambargo”

The Hated Embargo

• Jefferson got Congress to pass strict enforcement laws for the embargo– Many saw these as very intrusive and tyrannical

• The Federalist party was revived– Some even talked of nullification of the embargo law

• New England even spoke of secession

The Hated Embargo

• March 1, 1809 – Congress repealed the embargo

• Non-Intercourse Act passed in its place– Reopened trade with all nations but Britain and

France

The Hated Embargo

• Why Jefferson’s embargo failed– Underestimated the determination of British– Overestimated dependence of Europe

on US trade• British used their own produce and trade with Latin

America• France controlled the European continent

– Underestimated the difficulty of enforcing such an unpopular law

The Hated Embargo

• Long-term benefits to American industry– Factories reopened and new ones built to replace

goods from England– Laid the foundations of US industry

Madison’s Gamble

• Election of 1808– Republicans nominated James Madison and

George Clinton– Federalists nominated Charles C. Pinckney and Rufus

King (the same ticket as 1804)– Madison won with 122 of 175 electoral votes– Despite their loss, the Federalists gained strength in

Congress by campaigning against the unpopular embargo

Madison’s Gamble

• Madison inherited a very unpopular foreign policy– Especially the embargo and Non- Intercourse Act

against Europe

Madison’s Gamble

• Macon’s Bill No. 2 (1810)– Would reopen trade with all the world

(including Britain and France)– If either promised to respect neutral shipping,

the US would halt trade with the other

Madison’s Gamble

• Madison’s view of Macon’s Bill No.2– Shameful surrender to Europe– Would mean that the US admitted it could not

live without European trade– Left the choice of who the US would ally with

to European powers

Madison’s Gamble

• Napoleon’s maneuvering– France promised to respect US shipping

(agreeing to the terms of Macon’s Bill No. 2)– In reality France just wanted to force the US to be

hostile toward Britain; really had no intention of respecting US shipping rights

Madison’s Gamble

• Britain’s reaction– According to the law, they had 3 months to lift the Orders

of Council, opening Atlantic to neutral trade– Britain refused to bargain since they controlled the

seas– Madison was forced to reestablish the embargo

against Britain– This was the end of US neutrality and the final step to

war

Tecumseh and the Prophet

• “war hawks” in Congress– The 1810 elections had brought in many young

Republicans from the South and West– They wanted the US to stand up to British

violations on the sea and against Indians to the west


• Tecumseh and his brother Tenskwatawa (known as “the Prophet” to whites) united Indians east of the Mississippi– They called for a rejection of white clothing,

alcohol, and treaties


• War hawks believed the British were inciting Indians

• Fall 1811 – William Henry Harrison (governor of Indiana territory) organized an army– Attacked Tecumseh’s headquarters at Wabash

and Tippecanoe rivers– The Prophet and his army were defeated by

whites


• Effects of the Battle of Tippecanoe– Made Harrison a national hero– Drove Tecumseh into an alliance with they British

• These Indians fought fiercely with the British during the War of 1812

– The dream of an Indian confederacy died

Mr. Madison’s War

• Madison came to believe war with Britain was inevitable because of:– British arming of hostile Indians in the west– War hawks’ cries for war and attack on and annexation

of Canada– Belief that only war could restore American rights

• The US had tried to avoid war and had been insulted by European powers; if the US could not defend itself, the nation was doomed

Mr. Madison’s War

• June 1, 1812 – Madison called for a declaration of war– House vote: 79 to 49 for war– Senate vote: 19 to 13 for war

• Support for the war came from the South and West and Republicans in populous middle states

• Federalists opposed the war; strongest in New England

Mr. Madison’s War

• Why Federalists opposed the war that was fought (in part) to protect their shipping– Pro-British Federalists sympathized with Britain

and opposed Napoleon and Republican support for him

– Federalists did not want to annex Canada• Would add more farming land and increase the

strength of Republicans

Mr. Madison’s War

• Some Federalists even committed treason during the war– Loaned money to the British– Sent supplies to Canada, allowing Britain to

invade New York

• The US had to fight against some of its citizens, while fighting the world’s most powerful empire

The Second War for Independence and the Upsurge of Nationalism

1812 – 1824

Effects of War of 1812

• Primarily lesson was the foolishness of leading a divided people into war

• Brought a stronger sense of nationalism to the US that led to increased economic activity and greater power of the federal government

On to Canada over Land and Lakes

• The state of the US army in 1812– Poorly trained and disciplined– Supplemented by an even worse militia– Led by old generals from the Revolutionary War


• Fighting in Canada– Attacked by the US because Britain was weakest there– If the US had had an effective offense, and had taken Montreal,

Britain might have been beaten out of Canada

– Instead, the 3-pronged invasion (from Detroit, Niagara, and Lake Champlain) was quickly beaten back

– Britain fought much better: they captured US Fort Michilimackinac (which controlled the Great Lakes area) and defended against US invasions


• In 1813 the 2nd group of US attacks on Canada are stopped by the British


• US Navy during the war of 1812– US had fewer, but better ships than Britain

– US had better crews (many on British ships had been pressed for service)

– US had several important ships (especially the Constitution – “Old Ironsides”) with thicker sides and better guns than Britain


• Control of the Great Lakes was very important during the war– September 1813 – Oliver Hazard Perry built ships on

the shores of Lake Erie and captured a British force on the lake


• After Perry’s important victory, Britain was forced to retreat from Detroit and Fort Malden

• October 1813 – Battle of Thames– General Harrison pursued the retreating British and

defeated them


• April 1814 – Napoleon defeated for the 1st time– Britain could now concentrate on fighting in the US

• Britain set up a tight blockade over the entire US coast by 1814– Started at the mid-Atlantic and move north and south

from there


• September 1814 – Britain transported 10,000 troops down Lake Champlain for an attack on New York– A weaker US fleet under Thomas Macdonough barely

defeated the British– Britain was then forced to retreat– This victory saved New York from attack and New

England from possible secession; it also gave the US a stronger negotiating position for a peace treaty in Europe

Washington Burned and New Orleans Defended

• August 1814 – 4,000 British troops landed in the Chesapeake area– 6,000 US militia were easily defeated at

Bladensburg– Washington, DC was burned (including the Capitol

and the White House)– Fort McHenry (at nearby Baltimore) did not

surrender, despite heavy bombardment by British ships

– Fort McHenry inspired Francis Scott Key to write “The Star Spangled Banner”

Washington Burned and New Orleans Defended

• 1814 – 1815 – Britain attacked at New Orleans– Andrew Jackson and 7,000 US soldiers defended

this vital US port• January 8, 1815 – a British force of 8,000 made the

mistake of a frontal assault on entrenched US shooters• Britain lost 2,000 men in 1/2 an hour (compared to

70 for the US)This battle was fought 2 weeks after the Treaty of Ghent had been signed, ending the war; this news had not reached New Orleans in time

– Effects of the battle:• Jackson became national hero• US nationalism and pride greatly increased

The Treaty of Ghent

• 1812 – negotiations began after Alexander I (czar of Russia) pushed Britain to do so– Alexander wanted Britain to concentrate on

Napoleon, not waste strength in the US– Britain made strong demands

• Wanted a neutral Indian buffer state in Great Lakes region (between the US and British Canada)

• Control of Great Lakes and Maine (conquered by British)– US rejected the British terms and the talks

stalemated

The Treaty of Ghent• 1814 – British losses at New York and Baltimore,

along with a lack of support at home, led Britain to compromise

• December 24, 1814 – Treaty of Ghent (negotiated in Belgium)– Both sides agreed to stop fighting and

restore conquered territory– Neither side had defeated the other; neither

side could impose its will on the other– There was nothing about US grievances for which

war had been fought, including:• British arming of the Indians• British violations on sea (seizing US

ships, impressment of US soldiers)

Federalist Grievances and the Hartford Convention

• The Election of 1812– Federalists nominated DeWitt Clinton, an

antiwar Republican– Republicans re-nominated Madison– Results

• Madison won, 128 to 89 electoral votes• Clinton carried most of New England, New Jersey and New

York (showing the increasing sectionalism of American politics)

• It was a close election – if Clinton had carried Pennsylvania, he would have won


• Problems in New England– Shippers and merchants made money during the war

through illegal trade with Canada (the enemy of the US)

– A minority proposed secession or a separate peace with Britain

– “Blue Light” Federalists were rumored to flash lights on the shore to alert British ships to escapes of US ships


• December 15, 1814 – January 5, 1815 – the Hartford Convention

– Secret meeting at Hartford, Connecticut called by Massachusetts

– Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Island, New Hampshire, Vermont sent representatives

– A few radicals talked of secession, but actual demands were moderate


• Final report of the Hartford Convention– Demanded financial assistance from Washington for

lost trade– Proposed that constitutional amendments require a

2/3 vote in Congress before an embargo could be imposed, new states admitted, or war declared

– Other demands reflected Federalist fears that the South was too strong in national politics:

• Abolish 3/5 clause, limit presidents to 1 term, and prohibit successive presidents from same state (because Washington, Jefferson, and Madison were all from Virginia)


• Hartford Convention representatives arrived in Washington after news of the Battle of New Orleans and Treaty of Ghent– US was focusing on its victory

– New England’s complaints seemed petty (and even treasonous)

– Failure of the convention ended the strength of the Federalist party


• Long-term impact of Federalist disunity– Until 1815 – far more talk in North about

nullification and secession than in South• The North’s ignoring the embargo and hurting the war effort

were the most serious instances of nullification prior to the Civil War

– The South followed the North’s lead to secession (leading to the Civil War)

The Second War for American Independence

• Globally, the War of 1812 was unimportant– European theater (against Napoleon) was far more

important and involved many more men (and deaths)


• US showed it would fight when it was wronged– Other nations developed a respect for the US military

– Strengthened US ambassadors with foreign nations


• Increased nationalism and decreased sectionalism– New England Federalists (associated with

sectionalism) were destroyed as a party


• New war heroes– Andrew Jackson (Battle of New Orleans)

– William Henry Harrison (various battles around the Great Lakes, especially Thames and Tippecanoe)

– Jackson and Harrison both became president later


• Indians– Deserted by the British after the war

– Forced to make peace with the US on the best terms possible; had to give up huge tracts of land north of the Ohio River


• Manufacturing– Strengthened in the US because of the embargo and

British blockade

– This made the US less dependent on factories in Europe


• Increase in nationalism in Canada leading to less positive feelings toward the British

• Canada felt betrayed by the Treaty of Ghent:– No Indian buffer zone between US and Canada– No British control of Great Lakes


• Continued conflict on the US-Canadian border– Canadians expected the US to invade

– Led to a small naval arms race on the Great Lakes after war

– Ended with the Rush-Bagot Treaty (1817) which limited naval warships on the Great Lakes

– Better relations with Canada led to a long demilitarized border by 1870s


• Increased US isolationism– Europe after Napoleon (defeated in June 1815)

returned to the conservative rule of kings with restrictions on freedom

– The US avoided these events; ignored Europe and looked West instead

Nascent Nationalism

• Nationalism – a spirit of national consciousness or national oneness

• America emerged from war as 1 nation, which showed in its national culture– 1820s – James Fenimore Cooper and Washington

Irving became internationally recognized authors, using American settings and themes

– School textbooks had been British; now they were written in America

– Painters painted American landscapes

Nascent Nationalism

• Government and nationalism– The Bank of the United States was rechartered in 1816

(after being disbanded in 1811)

– Washington, DC was rebuilt

– The army was expanded to 10,000 men– 1815 – the navy beat North African pirates in the

Mediterranean

“The American System”

• Americans were very proud of post war manufacturing– After the war, British manufacturers sold inventory in

the US at below cost to get rid of excess inventory and stop the spread of factories (and competition) in the US

– Tariff of 1816 passed which put a 20% – 25% rate on imports

• The first tariff raised primarily for protection, not revenue• Not high enough to fully protect US industry, but a big first

step

“The American System”

• Henry Clay’s “American System” to establish a profitable home market– Strong banking system for easy and abundant credit– Protective tariff to allow manufacturing to spread

(especially in the Northeast)– Network of roads and canals (especially in the Ohio

Valley)• Paid for by tariffs• Raw materials shipped from South and West to North• Finish goods shipped from North to South and West

“The American System”• Many around the country wanted government-

financed roads• Attempts to get federal financing for roads

were blocked– 1817 – Republican constitutional concerns stopped a plan to

distribute $1.5 million to the states for internal improvements (vetoed by Madison as unconstitutional)

– New England opposed federal aid for internal improvements because they would take population from the Northeast and create new states to west

• States were forced to carry out their own improvements– 1825 – the Erie Canal was completed by New York

The So-Called Era of Good Feelings

• Election of 1816– James Monroe swept over weak Federalist

opposition, 183 to 34 electoral votes

– Madison's election continued the Virginia domination of the presidency

– Federalist opponent Rufus King lost badly; he was the last Federalist candidate to run for president


• James Monroe– Least impressive of the first 8 presidents

– But he was an experienced, rational executive who interpreted the will of the people well

– 1817 – took goodwill tour of the US, pushing deep into politically hostile New England

• Received warm welcome; newspaper called this the “Era ofGood Feelings”


• Why the era was not one of “good feelings” in reality– Prosperity and peace were there after the war– But difficult new issues appeared at the same time,

including:• Tariff, Bank of the US, internal improvements, sale of public

lands, sectionalism, conflict over slavery

The Panic of 1819 and the Curse of Hard Times

• 1819 – an economic panic occurred that brought deflation, depression, bankruptcies, bank failures, unemployment, soup kitchens, and debtors’ prisons– First panic since Washington had taken office

• Why the panic occurred– Largest cause was overspeculation in land in west– The Bank of the US had helped cause this through

easy lending and speculating itself

The Panic of 1819 and the Curse of Hard Times

• Impact of the depression– Nationalism declined– The West was hurt the

most• Bank of the US forced western banks (built on

speculation) to pay debts owed to the Bank of the US

• Western banks then would be forced to foreclose on farms to get money to pay the Bank of the US

• The West came to see the Bank of the US as evil– Poor people who experienced the worst of the

depression eventually became part of Andrew Jackson’s constituency

– Led to legislation against imprisonment of debtors

Growing Pains of the West

• By 1819 – 9 states had been added to the original 13– Most added alternately (free / slave) to preserve the

balance between free and slave states


• Why the west expanded– Continuation of westward

expansion since 1607– Cheap land (especially for

European immigrants)– Increased immigration from

Europe– Land exhaustion (because of

tobacco)– Many speculators only required a small down payment to buy

land– Economic problems for many during the embargo years– Defeat of the Indians in the North (Harrison) and South

(Jackson) opened up large areas of land– Better transportation

• Cumberland Road (Maryland to Illinois) and steamships


• The West was too weak politically (becauseof its small population), so it had to ally itself with other sections (North and South)– Demanded cheap land, cheap transportation,

cheap money– The Land Act of 1820 – authorized buying 80

acres at $1.25 per acre ($15.05 in 2005 dollars)

– Internal improvements (canals, roads) were slowly built– Cheap money issued by local (“wildcat”)banks; westerners fought the power of the Bank of the US for cheap money

Slavery and the Sectional Balance

• 1819 – Missouri requested admission as a slave state– Revealed sectional tension between the North (free)

and South (slave) over control of the West– The House of Representatives passed the

Tallmadge amendment• No more slaves could be brought into Missouri and

provided for the gradual emancipation of children of slaves already there

• Eventually defeated in the Senate


• Southern view of the sectional balance– In 1788, the North and South had been equal

in population and wealth– 1788 – 1819 – the North grew more

populous and richer– The North grew in strength in the House

of Representatives– However, the North and South both had 11

states each in the Union, allowing for equality in the Senate

• South could stop any Northern effort to stop expansion of slavery


• South’s concern over future of slavery– Tallmadge Amendment might set a precedent for rest

of Louisiana Purchase area (because it was the first state to be carved entirely out of the Louisiana Purchase)

– If Congress could stop slavery in Missouri, could it try to do the same in the South itself?

• North’s concern over the future of slavery– Small (but loud) agitators began to question the

morality of slavery; wanted to stop the spread of slavery into the territories

The Uneasy Missouri Compromise

• 1820 – collection of 3 compromises worked out (primarily by Henry Clay, representative from Kentucky)– Congress agreed to admit Missouri as a slave state– Maine (which had been part of Massachusetts)

admitted as a free state to preserve the balance between slave and free states

– Slavery prohibited north of the 36° 30’ line except for Missouri


• Gains and losses from the Missouri Compromise– The South won Missouri as a slave state– The North got the concession that Congress could forbid slavery

in the remaining territories (in the future)• Southerners had accepted the argument that slaves were not like other

forms of property that could be moved around at will by the owner– Separately, the North also got Congress to forbid slavery

in the territory north of the 36° 30’ line– The South accepted restrictions since prairie land in the West

did not seem suited to slavery– Most southern congressmen still voted against the

Compromise


• Effects of the Missouri Compromise– Neither side was completely happy, but the

compromise lasted 34 years

– Dispute over slavery predicted eventual Civil War• The morality of slavery was an issue that would not go away• Missouri Compromise avoided the issue of slavery; it did

not resolve it


• Election of 1820– Monroe was popular despite the Panic of 1819

• He was reelected against John Quincy Adams, 231 to 1 electoral votes

– Federalists as a force in national politics were finished

John Marshall and Judicial Nationalism

• John Marshall’s decisions on the Supreme Court reinforced the strong sense of nationalism after the War of 1812


• McCulloch v. Maryland (1819)– Involved an attempt by Maryland to tax a

branch of the Bank of the US– Marshall ruled a state could not tax an agency

of the federal government (the Bank)• “the power to tax involves the power to destroy”• A state can’t destroy part of the federal

government– Marshall declared bank constitutional, using the

doctrine of “implied powers”


• Marshall in the McCulloch decision gave an important explanation of “loose construction”– Government (based on the Constitution, which rested on the

consent of the people) could act for the benefit of the people, even if not specifically authorized by the Constitution

– The Constitution was “intended to endure for ages to come and, consequently, to be adapted to the various crises of human affairs”

– “Let the end be legitimate, let it be within the scope of the Constitution, and all means which are appropriate, which are plainly adapted to that end, which are not prohibited, but consist with the letter and spirit of the Constitution, are constitutional.”


• Cohens v. Virginia (1821)– Cohens was found guilty of illegally selling lottery

tickets by Virginia courts– The Supreme Court upheld Cohens’ conviction– Marshall asserted the right of the Supreme Court to

review decisions of state supreme courts in all questions involving powers of the federal government


• Gibbons v. Ogden (1824)– New York had granted a monopoly to a company

to conduct commerce across the Hudson River to New Jersey

– Marshall ruled that only Congress could regulate interstate commerce

– Struck down the New York monopoly, opening commerce to other companies

Judicial Dikes Against Democratic Excesses

• John Marshall’s decisions also reinforced a strong sense of property rights


• Fletcher v. Peck (1810)– The Georgia legislature (after being bribed)

granted 35 million acres in the Yazoo Riverarea (Mississippi) to speculators

– The next legislature cancelled the transaction– Marshall ruled that a legislative grant was a

contract' the Constitution forbids state laws “impairing” contracts

– Importance• Further protection of private property from

popular pressures• An early assertion that the Supreme Court

hadpower to invalidate state laws conflicting with the Constitution


• Dartmouth College v. Woodward (1819)– College had been granted a charter by King George

III in 1769– The New Hampshire legislature changed the charter– Dartmouth appealed the case to the Supreme Court– Marshall ruled that the original charter must stand

because the Constitution protected contracts againstinfringement by states

– Importance• Protected businesses against control by state

governments• Eventually allowed corporations to escape any form of public control


• Daniel Webster– Nationalist Senator, similar to Marshall

– Argued many cases (including Dartmouth) before the Marshall Court

– Marshall usually ruled for Webster’s side


• John Marshall– Increased power of the federal government

– Created a stable, nationally uniform environment where business could do well

– Decreased power of elected state legislatures, in spite of the national mood in favor of greater democracy

Sharing Oregon and Acquiring Florida

• Monroe and secretary of state John Quincy Adams teamed to bring nationalism to US foreign policy


• Treaty of 1818 with Britain– Permitted the US to share

Newfoundland fisheries with Canada

– Northern limits of Louisiana set at the 49th

parallel (from Minnesota to the Rocky Mountains)

– 10-year joint occupation of Oregon country; under this agreement, Britain and the US did not give up their claims to Oregon


• Florida– US believed Florida was destined to be part

of the US– 1810 – US settlers took over part of West

Florida– 1812 – 1813 – US took more of West Florida

(around Mobile, Alabama) during the War of 1812 (when Spain was an ally of Britain)

– 1816 – 1818 – revolutions against Spanish rule in Argentina, Venezuela, Chile forced Spanish forces to leave Florida to put down rebellions


• Jackson then took the rest of Florida– Jackson used the pretext of Seminole Indians

hiding fugitive slaves in Florida to get orders to attack Florida

– His orders said he had to respect Spanish- controlled areas while there

– 1818 – Jackson marched into Florida; he attacked the 2 most important Spanish posts in Florida (St. Marks and Pensacola) and deposed the Spanish governor


• All of Monroe's cabinet except for nationalist John Quincy Adams wanted to discipline Jackson for disobeying orders

• The Florida Purchase Treaty of 1819 in spite of this– Spain ceded Florida to the US and gave

up claims to Oregon– US gave up claims to Texas– The line between Mexico and Louisiana was

drawn up to the 42nd parallel, and then to the Pacific Ocean, dividing Oregon from Mexico

The Menace of Monarchy in America

• After French Revolution and NapoleonicEra, European kings worked to restore order and stop democracy from spreading– Also were looking to America to retake

colonies that had rebelled against Spain• Russian, Austrian, Prussian, French armies would

act together to put Spain back in charge• US feared California would be taken by

Russia– Russian tsar already claimed jurisdiction over

open sea down to 51° around Alaska and British Columbia

– Had trading posts down to San Francisco


• Britain refused to participate with other European powers in reconquering Latin America for Spain– British traders (along with Americans) made good

money by trading between new Latin American countries and Europe

– Before their rebellion, Spain had enjoyed a monopoly over trade with these countries


• August 1823 – British foreign secretary George Canning proposed a US-British joint declaration– Both would renounce any interest in taking territory

in Latin America

– Would warn Europe against retaking any Latin American countries that had rebelled

Monroe and His Doctrine

• Secretary of State John Quincy Adams’ believed an alliance would be undignified – like a tiny American “cock-boat” (a very small boat) sailing “in the wake of the British man-of-war” (a very large warship)– Thought Britain was trying to stop future US

expansion in the Caribbean (especially Cuba)– Believed an alliance was unnecessary

• European powers had no definite plans to invade Latin America

• Even if they did, the British navy would stop them to protect its valuable trade with South America

Monroe and His Doctrine

• December 2, 1823 – the Monroe Doctrine announced by the president to Congress– Noncolonization

• The colonial era was over in the New World; whatEurope held they could keep, but they could not takemore

• Primarily directed against Russian expansion in Northwest

– Nonintervention• Warned Europe to not interfere with new Latin

American republics• The US would not intervene in the war for

independence Greece was fighting against Turkey

Monroe’s Doctrine Appraised

• Europeans offended by Monroe’s declaration

– Recognized that the US could not back up its doctrine with military might

– The reality was that the British navy enforced the Monroe Doctrine

• Latin Americans recognized the US was looking after its own self-interest

– It was defending itself against future invasion, not looking out for them


• Importance of the Monroe Doctrine– Not important until the mid-1800s when it was revived

by President Polk

– Russia had already decided to move back from California

• The Russo-American Treaty of 1824 fixed the southern limits of Russian-controlled area in America at the 54° 50’ line (the present-day southern tip of Alaskan panhandle)


• Reality was that the Monroe Doctrine was about self-defense– The US wanted to keep foreign powers out of Latin

America

– It was only as strong as the power of the US to stop the intruding country


• The Monroe Doctrine and subsequent presidents– Was never domestic or international law

– Subsequent presidents ignored and changed the doctrine – mainly by adding new interpretations


• Monroe Doctrine and isolationism– Deepened the illusion of isolationism from Europe

– Americans came to believe that the US was cut off from European dangers just because Monroe said so

the triumphs and travails of the jeffersonian republic 1800 – 1812

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