the university of texas at tyler dr. marilyn young mana3311 –organizational behavior &...
TRANSCRIPT
The University of Texas at Tyler
Dr. Marilyn Young
MANA3311 –Organizational Behavior & Leadership: Chapters 12, 3,5, 6 & 7
College of Business and Technology
What Managers Do
Managerial Activities
• Make decisions
• Allocate resources
• Direct activities of others to attain goals
Managerial Activities
• Make decisions
• Allocate resources
• Direct activities of others to attain goals
PlanningPlanningControllingControlling
LeadingLeading OrganizingOrganizing
The FunctionsThe Functionsof Managementof Management
The Roles of The Roles of ManagementManagement
InformationalInformationalInterpersonalInterpersonal
DecisionalDecisional
The Skills ThatThe Skills ThatManagers NeedManagers NeedThe Skills ThatThe Skills ThatManagers NeedManagers Need
TechnicalTechnicalTechnicalTechnical HumanHumanHumanHumanConceptualConceptualConceptualConceptual
Katz’s Essential Management Skills
• Technical Skills– The ability to apply specialized knowledge or
expertise
• Human Skills– The ability to work with, understand, and
motivate other people, both individually and in groups
• Conceptual Skills– The mental ability to analyze and diagnose
complex situations
Managerial ActivitiesManagerial Activities
TraditionalTraditionalManagementManagement
NetworkingNetworking
CommunicationCommunication
ManagingManagingHuman ResourcesHuman Resources
The Study of Organizational The Study of Organizational BehaviorBehavior
IndividualIndividual
GroupGroup
OrganizationOrganization
Study ofStudy ofOrganizationalOrganizational
BehaviorBehaviorSocial PsychologySocial Psychology
Political SciencePolitical Science
AnthropologyAnthropology
PsychologyPsychology
SociologySociology
Contributing Disciplines
See E X H I B I T 1–3 for detailsSee E X H I B I T 1–3 for details
Many behavioral sciences have contributed to the development ofOrganizationalBehavior
1-21© 2009 Prentice-Hall Inc. All rights reserved.
Levels of OB AnalysisLevels of OB AnalysisLevels of OB AnalysisLevels of OB Analysis
IndividualsIndividuals GroupsGroups
StructuresStructures
Challenges and Opportunity for OB
• Responding to Economic Pressures
• Responding to Globalization
• Managing Workforce Diversity
• Improving Customer Service
• Improving People Skills
• Stimulating Innovation and Change
• Coping with Temporariness
Challenges and Opportunity for OB
• Working in Networked Organizations
• Helping Employees Balance Work-Life Conflicts
• Improving Ethical Behavior• Creating a Positive Work
Environment• Improving Ethical Behavior
DomesticDomesticPartnersPartners
DomesticDomesticPartnersPartners
Major Workforce Diversity Categories
RaceRaceRaceRaceNon-ChristianNon-ChristianNon-ChristianNon-Christian
NationalNationalOriginOrigin
NationalNationalOriginOrigin
AgeAgeAgeAge
DisabilityDisabilityDisabilityDisability
GenderGenderGenderGender
EmpoweringEmpoweringthe Workforcethe Workforce
Managers
Are GivingAre Giving
Up ControlsUp Controls
Workers AreWorkers Are
AcceptingAccepting
ResponsibilityResponsibility
Coping withCoping with““Temporariness””
The NatureThe Nature
of Work Isof Work Is
ChangingChanging
OrganizationsOrganizations
Are AlsoAre Also
ChangingChanging
Stimulating Innovationand Change
• Maintaining flexibility
• Improving quality
• Introducing new
products and services
Improving Qualityand Productivity
Total QualityTotal QualityManagementManagement
CorporateCorporateReengineeringReengineering
What Is Quality Management?
1. Intense focus on the customer.
2. Concern for continuous improvement.
3. Improvement in the quality of everything the organization does.
4. Accurate measurement.
5. Empowerment of employees. E X H I B I T 1–6
E X H I B I T 1–6
Provide in-house advisers
Create protection mechanisms
Write and distribute codes of ethics
Give seminars, workshops, & training
Improving Ethics
The The DependentDependentVariablesVariables
ProductivityProductivityProductivityProductivity
AbsenteeismAbsenteeismAbsenteeismAbsenteeism
Job SatisfactionJob SatisfactionJob SatisfactionJob Satisfaction
OrganizationalOrganizationalCitizenshipCitizenship
OrganizationalOrganizationalCitizenshipCitizenship
TurnoverTurnoverTurnoverTurnover
Intellectual Abilities
• Number aptitude
• Verbal comprehension
• Perceptual speed
• Inductive reasoning
• Deductive reasoning
• Spatial visualization
• Memory ability
Ability, Intellect, and Intelligence
AbilityAn individual’s capacity to perform the various tasks in a job.
Intellectual AbilityThe capacity to do mental activities.
Multiple IntelligencesIntelligence contains four subparts: cognitive, social, emotional, and cultural.
Flexibility
Factors
Flexibility
Factors
Strength
Factors
Strength
Factors
Other
Factors
Other
Factors
Basic Physical AbilitiesBasic Physical Abilities
Physical Abilities
Physical Abilities
The capacity to do tasks demanding stamina, dexterity, strength, and similar characteristics.
Other Factors
7. Body coordination
8. Balance
9. Stamina
Other Factors
7. Body coordination
8. Balance
9. Stamina
Nine Physical AbilitiesStrength Factors
1. Dynamic strength
2. Trunk strength
3. Static strength
4. Explosive strength
Strength Factors
1. Dynamic strength
2. Trunk strength
3. Static strength
4. Explosive strength Flexibility Factors
5. Extent flexibility
6. Dynamic flexibility
Flexibility Factors
5. Extent flexibility
6. Dynamic flexibility
E X H I B I T 2–2E X H I B I T 2–2
Source: Adapted from HRMagazine published by the Society for Human Resource Management, Alexandria, VA.
Ability-JobFit
The Ability-Job Fit
Employee’sEmployee’sAbilitiesAbilities
Job’s AbilityJob’s AbilityRequirementsRequirements
BiographicalBiographicalCharacteristicsCharacteristics
MaritalMaritalStatusStatus
GenderGender
TenureTenure
AgeAge
Biographical Characteristics.
•Age– Older workers bring experience,
judgment, a strong work ethic, and commitment to quality.
•Gender– Few differences between men and
women that affect job performance.•Race (the biological heritage used to identify oneself)– Contentious issue: differences exist, but
could be more culture-based than race-based.
Other Biographical Characteristics
• Tenure– People with job tenure (seniority at a job) are more
productive, absent less frequently, have lower turnover, and are more satisfied.
• Religion– Islam is especially problematic in the workplace in this post-
9/11 world.• Sexual Orientation
– Federal law does not protect against discrimination (but state or local laws may).
– Domestic partner benefits are important considerations.• Gender Identity
– Relatively new issue – transgendered employees.
2-53© 2009 Prentice-Hall Inc. All rights reserved.
SocialSocialLearningLearning
ClassicalClassical
ConditioningConditioning
OperantOperant
ConditioningConditioning
What Is Learning?What Is Learning?
Learning
Learning
• Involves change
• Is relatively permanent
• Is acquired through experience
Learning
• Involves change
• Is relatively permanent
• Is acquired through experience
Theories of Learning
Key Concepts
• Unconditioned stimulus
• Unconditioned response
• Conditioned response
Key Concepts
• Unconditioned stimulus
• Unconditioned response
• Conditioned response
Theories of Learning
Key Concepts
• Reflexive (unlearned) behavior
• Conditioned (learned) behavior
• Reinforcement
Key Concepts
• Reflexive (unlearned) behavior
• Conditioned (learned) behavior
• Reinforcement
Methods ofMethods ofShaping BehaviorShaping Behavior
Methods ofMethods ofShaping BehaviorShaping Behavior
Negative Negative ReinforcementReinforcement
Negative Negative ReinforcementReinforcement
PositivePositiveReinforcementReinforcement
PositivePositiveReinforcementReinforcement
ExtinctionExtinctionExtinctionExtinctionPunishmentPunishmentPunishmentPunishment
Reinforcement contingencies - relationships between a person’s behavior and the consequences resulting from it
Negative reinforcement (avoidance)people learn to perform acts that lead to the
removalof undesired eventsPunishment - decreasing undesirable behavior by
using undesirable consequences
Extinction – no longer reinforced tend to gradually diminish in strength
Positive reinforcement -people learn to perform behaviors leading to the the desired outcomes
Theories of Learning
Key Concepts
• Reinforcement is required to change behavior.
• Some rewards are more effective than others.
• The timing of reinforcement affects learning speed and permanence.
Key Concepts
• Reinforcement is required to change behavior.
• Some rewards are more effective than others.
• The timing of reinforcement affects learning speed and permanence.
Organizational Applications
• Lotteries to reduce absenteeism
• Well pay versus sick pay
• Employee discipline
• Training programs
• Mentoring programs
• Self-management
Attitudes
Evaluative statements or judgments concerning objects, people, or events.
The emotional or The emotional or feeling segment feeling segment of an attitudeof an attitudeThe opinion or The opinion or
belief segment of belief segment of an attitudean attitude An intention to An intention to
behave in a certain behave in a certain way toward someone way toward someone or somethingor something
What Are Attitudes?What Are Attitudes?
• Cognitive component
• Affective component
• Behavioral component
Attitudes
Attitudes
Evaluative statements or judgments concerning objects, people, or events.
Affective ComponentThe emotional or feeling segment of an attitude.
Cognitive componentThe opinion or belief segment of an attitude.
Behavioral ComponentAn intention to behave in a certain way toward someone or something.
Types of AttitudesTypes of Attitudes
• Job satisfaction
• Job involvement
• Organizational
commitment
Outcomes of Job Satisfaction
• Job Performance– Satisfied workers are more productive AND more productive workers
are more satisfied! – The causality may run both ways.
• Organizational Citizenship Behaviors– Satisfaction influences OCB through perceptions of fairness.
• Customer Satisfaction– Satisfied frontline employees increase customer satisfaction
and loyalty.• Absenteeism
– Satisfied employees are moderately less likely to miss work.
3-71
What are the Major Job Attitudes?
Job SatisfactionA positive feeling about the job resulting from an evaluation of its characteristics
Job InvolvementPsychological identification with the job where perceived performance is important to self-worth
Psychological EmpowermentInfluence over the job, competence, job meaningfulness, and autonomy
And Yet More Major Job Attitudes…
• Perceived Organizational Support (POS)– Degree to which employees believe the organization
values their contribution and cares about their well-being.
– Higher when rewards are fair, employees are involved in decision-making, and supervisors are seen as supportive.
– High POS is related to higher OCBs and performance.
• Employee Engagement– The degree of involvement with, satisfaction with, and
enthusiasm for the job.– Engaged employees are passionate
– Organizational Commitment
Causes of Job Satisfaction
Pay influences job satisfaction only to a point.After about $40,000 a year (in the U. S.), there is no relationship between amount of pay and job satisfaction.
Money may bring happiness, but not necessarily job satisfaction.
Personality can influence job satisfaction.
Negative people are usually not satisfied with their jobs.
ProductivityProductivityProductivityProductivity
AbsenteeismAbsenteeismAbsenteeismAbsenteeism
TurnoverTurnoverTurnoverTurnover
JobJob
SatisfactionSatisfaction
and Employeeand Employee
PerformancePerformance
JobJob
SatisfactionSatisfaction
and Employeeand Employee
PerformancePerformance
The Theory of Cognitive Dissonance
Desire to reduce dissonance depends on
• Importance of elements creating dissonance
• Degree of individual influence over elements
• Rewards involved in dissonance
Desire to reduce dissonance depends on
• Importance of elements creating dissonance
• Degree of individual influence over elements
• Rewards involved in dissonance
Cognitive Dissonance
•Any incompatibility between two or more attitudes or between behavior and attitudes.
•Individuals seek to reduce this gap, or “dissonance”
Does Behavior Always Follow from
Attitudes?
Leon Festinger – No, the reverse is sometimes true!Cognitive Dissonance: Any incompatibility between two or more attitudes or between behavior and attitudes
Individuals seek to reduce this uncomfortable gap, or dissonance, to reach stability and consistency
Consistency is achieved by changing the attitudes, modifying the behaviors, or through rationalization
Desire to reduce dissonance depends on:
Importance of elements
Degree of individual influence
Rewards involved in dissonance
Job Satisfaction
• How Satisfied Are People in Their Jobs?– Job satisfaction declined to 50.7% in
2000– Decline attributed to:
• Pressures to increase productivity• Less control over work
The Effect of Job Satisfaction on Employee Performance
• Satisfaction and Productivity– Satisfied workers aren’t necessarily more
productive.– Worker productivity is higher in organizations
with more satisfied workers.• Satisfaction and Absenteeism
– Satisfied employees have fewer avoidable absences.
• Satisfaction and Turnover– Satisfied employees are less likely to quit.– Organizations take actions to cultivate high
performers and to weed out lower performers.
In general, when we think of attitudes and organizations, we think of In general, when we think of attitudes and organizations, we think of
1) Job Satisfaction1) Job Satisfaction
2) Happiness2) Happiness
3) Job Involvement3) Job Involvement
4) Mood at work4) Mood at work
5) Organizational Commitment5) Organizational Commitment
6) 1 and 2 6) 1 and 2
7) 1, 3, and 5 7) 1, 3, and 5
Chapter Check-Up: Attitudes
Ernesto is the known as the Donut Hut King---every day he brings donuts and coffee to theErnesto is the known as the Donut Hut King---every day he brings donuts and coffee to the
1.1. Job satisfactionJob satisfaction
2.2. Organizational citizenship behaviorOrganizational citizenship behavior
3.3. ProductivityProductivity
4.4. Job involvementJob involvement
5.5. ConscientiousnessConscientiousness
Chapter Check-Up: Attitudes
Write down three things someone could do at work that would constitute an OCB. Compare
your list with a neighbor’s.
What is Personality?
The sum total of ways in which an individual reacts and interacts with others; measurable traits a person exhibits.
Personality Traits
Enduring characteristics that describe an individual’s behavior.
Personality
Determinants
• Heredity
• Environment
• Situation
Personality
Determinants
• Heredity
• Environment
• Situation
What Is Personality?What Is Personality?What Is Personality?What Is Personality?
HeredityHeredityHeredityHeredity SituationSituationSituationSituationEnvironmentEnvironmentEnvironmentEnvironment
Personality Traits
Personality Determinants
•Heredity
•Environment
•Situation
Personality Determinants
•Heredity
•Environment
•Situation
Style ofStyle ofDecision MakingDecision Making Judgmental (J)Judgmental (J)
Perceptive (P)Perceptive (P)
Preference forPreference forDecision MakingDecision Making Thinking (T)Thinking (T)
Feeling (F)Feeling (F)
Type of SocialType of SocialInteractionInteraction Introvert (I)Introvert (I)
Extrovert (E)Extrovert (E)
Preference forPreference forGathering DataGathering Data Intuitive (N)Intuitive (N)
Sensing (S)Sensing (S)
Myers-Briggs Type IndicatorMyers-Briggs Type Indicator
The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator
Personality Types
• Extroverted or Introverted (E or I)
• Sensing or Intuitive (S or N)
• Thinking or Feeling (T or F)
• Perceiving or Judging (P or J)
Personality Types
• Extroverted or Introverted (E or I)
• Sensing or Intuitive (S or N)
• Thinking or Feeling (T or F)
• Perceiving or Judging (P or J)
Personality TraitsPersonality Traits
Reserved
Less Intelligent
Affected by Feelings
Submissive
Serious
Expedient
Timid
Tough-Minded
Outgoing
More Intelligent
Emotionally Stable
Dominant
Happy-Go-Lucky
Conscientious
Venturesome
Sensitive
Personality TraitsPersonality Traits
Trusting
Practical
Forthright
Self-Assured
Conservative
Group-Dependent
Uncontrolled
Relaxed
Suspicious
Imaginative
Shrewd
Apprehensive
Experimenting
Self-Sufficient
Controlled
Tense
The “Big Five”Personality Model
ExtraversionExtraversion AgreeablenessAgreeableness
ConscientiousnessConscientiousness
EmotionalEmotionalStabilityStability
Openness toOpenness toExperienceExperience
The The Big Five Big Five
PersonalitPersonality Modely Model
Openness to ExperienceOpenness to Experience
ExtraversionExtraversion
AgreeablenessAgreeableness
ConscientiousnessConscientiousness
Emotional StabilityEmotional Stability
Personality Attributes Personality Attributes and Behaviorand Behavior
RiskRiskTakingTaking
LocusLocusof Controlof Control
Self-EsteemSelf-Esteem
Type AType APersonalityPersonality
Self-MonitoringSelf-Monitoring
MachiavellianMachiavellianTraitsTraits
Measuring Personality
Personality is Measured By
• Self-report surveys
• Observer-rating surveys
• Projective measures – Rorschach Inkblot Test – Thematic Apperception
Test
Narcissism
A Narcissistic Person
•Has grandiose sense of self-importance
•Requires excessive admiration
•Has a sense of entitlement
•Is arrogant
•Tends to be rated as less
effective
Machiavellianism
Conditions Favoring High Machs
• Direct interaction
• Minimal rules and regulations
• Distracting emotions
Conditions Favoring High Machs
• Direct interaction
• Minimal rules and regulations
• Distracting emotions
Type A and B Personalities
Type A Behavior Pattern - a pattern of behavior involving high levels of competitiveness, time urgency, and irritability
Type B behavior pattern - a pattern of behavior characterized by a casual, laid-back style- Type A - overall edge in job performance,
especially tasks involving time pressure or solitary work; impatient with coworkers
- Type B - perform better on complex tasks that require accuracy rather than speed
Which of the following is not a typical personality
trait considered to be organizationally relevant?
Locus of controlLocus of control
Self-monitoringSelf-monitoring
Self-enhancingSelf-enhancing
Self esteemSelf esteem
Machiavellianism Machiavellianism
Chapter Check-Up: Personality
Discuss with your neighbor how each of the three traits above
would influence a college instructor’s behavior, and where you
think your teacher falls with respect to each of them.
Chapter Check-Up: Personality
Alison arrives to class and realizes that she’s forgotten her Alison arrives to class and realizes that she’s forgotten her
homework to turn in. She says “Oh man, it’s just not my lucky homework to turn in. She says “Oh man, it’s just not my lucky
day today.” Alison has ______________.day today.” Alison has ______________.
Alison has a high external locus of control. Alison believes
that things outside of her control determine what happens.
If Alison works on a team with you, and you
have a very high internal locus of control, what
kinds of discussions do you think the two of you
might have? Discuss with a friend.
Julia is known for being a go-getter. She
never leaves a task incomplete, and is
involved in a number of activities. Moreover,
she’s at the top of her class. She’s so busy
that sometimes, she forgets to stop and eat
lunch. Julia can be easily characterized as
someone that has/is a Type ____ Personality.
Chapter Check-Up: Personality
Types of Values
TerminalTerminalValuesValues
TerminalTerminalValuesValues
InstrumentalInstrumentalValuesValues
InstrumentalInstrumentalValuesValues
Generational Values
CohortEntered
WorkforceApproximate Current Age
Dominant Work Values
Veterans 1950-1964 65+ Hard working, conservative, conforming; loyalty to the organization
Boomers 1965-1985 40-60s Success, achievement, ambition, dislike of authority; loyalty to career
Xers 1985-2000 20-40s Work/life balance, team-oriented, dislike of rules; loyalty to relationships
Nexters 2000-Present
Under 30 Confident, financial success, self-reliant but team-oriented; loyalty to both self and relationships
4-113
Millennial Characteristics
• Confident
• Hopeful
• Connect 24/7
• Goal/achievement oriented
• Civic minded
• Team approach
• Fair workplace
Values, Loyalty, and Ethical Behavior
Ethical Climate inEthical Climate inthe Organizationthe Organization
Ethical Climate inEthical Climate inthe Organizationthe Organization
Ethical Values and Behaviors of Ethical Values and Behaviors of LeadersLeaders
Values Across CulturesValues Across CulturesValues Across CulturesValues Across Cultures
Power Distance
Individualism or Collectivism
Quantity or Quality of Life
Uncertainty Avoidance
Long-Term or Short-Term
Hofstede’s Framework for Assessing Cultures
Power Distance
Low distance: relatively equal power between those with status/wealth and those without status/wealth
High distance: extremely unequal power distribution between those with status/wealth and those without status/wealth
Hofstede’s Framework (cont’d)
Collectivism
A tight social framework in which people expect others in groups of which they are a part to look after them and protect them.
Individualism
The degree to which people prefer to act as individuals rather than a member of groups.
Vs.
Hofstede’s Framework (cont’d)
Masculinity
The extent to which the society values work roles of achievement, power, and control, and where assertiveness and materialism are also valued.
Femininity
The extent to which there is little differentiation between roles for men and women.
Vs.
In Country J most of the top management team meets
employees at the local bar for a beer on Fridays, and there
are no reserved parking spaces. Everyone is on a first
name basis with each other. Country J, according to
Hofstede’s Framework, is probably low on what dimension?
Chapter Check-Up: Values
• CollectivismCollectivism
• Long Term OrientationLong Term Orientation
• Uncertainty AvoidanceUncertainty Avoidance
• Power DistancePower DistanceHow would a College or University in Country J differ from your
College or University? Identify 3 differences and discuss with a
neighbor.
Factors ThatFactors ThatInfluence PerceptionInfluence Perception
SituationSituationTargetTarget PerceiverPerceiver
ContrastContrastEffectEffect
ContrastContrastEffectEffect
SelectivePerceptionSelective
Perception
StereotypingStereotyping
Halo EffectHalo Effect
ProjectionProjection
Frequently Used Shortcuts When Judging Others
Perceptual Errors/Biases Fundamental Attribution Error Halo Effect Similar-to-me Stereotyping Selective Perception Perceptual Readiness Projection First Impression Contrast
Perceptual Errors/Biases Fundamental Attribution Error Halo Effect Similar-to-me Stereotyping Selective Perception Perceptual Readiness Projection First Impression Contrast
Frequently Used Shortcuts in Judging Others
• Selective Perception– People selectively interpret what they see on the
basis of their interests, background, experience, and attitudes
• Halo Effect– Drawing a general impression about an individual
on the basis of a single characteristic• Contrast Effects
– Evaluation of a person’s characteristics that are affected by comparisons with other people recently encountered who rank higher or lower on the same characteristics
Another Shortcut: Stereotyping
Judging someone on the basis of one’s perception of the group to which that person belongs – a prevalent and often useful, if not always accurate, generalization
•Profiling– A form of stereotyping in which members of a
group are singled out for intense scrutiny based on a single, often racial, trait.
Errors and Biases in Attributions
• Fundamental Attribution Error– The tendency to underestimate the influence of
external factors and overestimate the influence of internal factors when making judgments about the behavior of others
– We blame people first, not the situation
• Self-Serving Bias– The tendency for individuals to attribute their own
successes to internal factors while putting the blame for failures on external factors
– It is “our” success but “their” failure
© 2009 Prentice-Hall Inc. All rights reserved. 5-138
Specific Applications in Specific Applications in OrganizationsOrganizations
• Employment interview
• Performance expectations
• Performance evaluation
• Employee effort
• Employee loyalty
Specific Shortcut Applications in Organizations
• Employment Interview– Perceptual biases of raters affect the accuracy of interviewers’
judgments of applicants– Formed in a single glance – 1/10 of a second!
• Performance Expectations– Self-fulfilling prophecy (Pygmalion effect): The lower or higher
performance of employees reflects preconceived leader expectations about employee capabilities
• Performance Evaluations– Appraisals are often the subjective (judgmental) perceptions of
appraisers of another employee’s job performance – Critical impact on employees
Rational Model of Decision Making
Problem
Identify andDefine Problem
DevelopAlternatives
A1
A2
A3
A4
An
EvaluateAlternatives
+
A1 A1
A2 A2
An An
Criteria
Weightthe Criteria
T E C H
Set DecisionCriteria
Choice
Make OptimalDecision
The Three Components of Creativity
Creativity
The ability to produce novel and useful ideas.
Three-Component Model of Creativity
Proposition that individual creativity requires expertise, creative-thinking skills, and intrinsic task motivation.
E X H I B I T 5–4E X H I B I T 5–4
Source: T.M. Amabile, “Motivating Creativity in Organizations,” California Management Review, Fall 1997, p. 43.
Intuitive Decision Making
High uncertainty levels Little precedent Hard to predictable variables Limited facts Unclear sense of direction Analytical data is of little use Several plausible alternatives Time constraints
Chapter Checkup: What biases might have affected Martha Stewart’s judgment?
Discuss with a classmate.
The Motivation ProcessThe Motivation ProcessThe Motivation ProcessThe Motivation Process
UnsatisfiedUnsatisfiedNeedNeed
UnsatisfiedUnsatisfiedNeedNeed TensionTensionTensionTension
BehaviorBehaviorBehaviorBehaviorDrivesDrivesDrivesDrives
SatisfiedSatisfiedNeedNeed
SatisfiedSatisfiedNeedNeed
ReductionReductionof Tensionof TensionReductionReductionof Tensionof Tension
Maslow’s HierarchyOf Needs
Maslow’s HierarchyOf Needs
Self Self ActualizationActualization
EsteemEsteem
SocialSocial
SafetySafety
PhysiologicalPhysiological
Early Theories of Motivation
These early theories may not be valid, but they do form the basis for contemporary theories and are still used by practicing managers.
•Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory – Alderfer’s ERG (Existence, Relatedness, and
Growth)
•McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y•Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory•McClelland’s Theory of Needs
Maslow’s Hierarchy of NeedsThere is a hierarchy of five needs. As each need is substantially satisfied, the next need becomes dominant.
Assumptions– Individuals cannot
move to the next higher level until all needs at the current (lower) level are satisfied
– Must move in hierarchical order
Lower OrderExternal
Higher OrderInternal
Herzberg’s Two-Factor TheoryKey Point: Satisfaction and dissatisfaction are not
opposites but separate constructs
Extrinsic and Related to
Dissatisfaction
Intrinsic and Related to Satisfaction
• Cognitive Evaluation Theory
• Goal-Setting Theory– Management by Objectives (MBO)
• Self-Efficacy Theory– Also known as Social Cognitive Theory or
Social Learning Theory
• Reinforcement Theory
• Equity Theory
• Expectancy Theory
Contemporary Theories of Motivation
6-156
Bandura’s Self-Efficacy Theory
• An individual’s belief that he or she is capable of performing a task. – Higher efficacy is related to:
• Greater confidence• Greater persistence in the face of difficulties• Better response to negative feedback (work harder)
– Self-Efficacy complements Goal-Setting Theory.
Given Hard Goal
Higher Self-Set Goal
Increased Confidence
Higher Performance
Increasing Self-Efficacy
• Enactive mastery– Most important source of efficacy– Gaining relevant experience with task or job– “Practice makes perfect”
• Vicarious modeling– Increasing confidence by watching others perform the task– Most effective when observer sees the model to be similar to him- or
herself
• Verbal persuasion– Motivation through verbal conviction– Pygmalion and Galatea effects - self-fulfilling prophecies
• Arousal– Getting “psyched up” – emotionally aroused – to complete task– Can hurt performance if emotion is not a component of the task
Theory XTheory XWorkersWorkers
Dislike WorkDislike Work
Avoid ResponsibilityAvoid Responsibility
Little AmbitionLittle Ambition
Theory YTheory YWorkersWorkers
Enjoy WorkEnjoy Work
Accept ResponsibilityAccept Responsibility
Self-DirectedSelf-Directed
Theory X(traditional approach)
Theory Y(modern approach)
DistrustingAccepting, promotes
bettermentOrientation
toward people
Low (disinterested) High(very interested)
Interest in working
Basically LazyNeed to achieve
and be responsibleAssumptionsabout people
Work when pushedWork when
appropriately trainedand recognized
Conditions underwhich people
will work hard
Theory X Versus Theory Y
Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
Hygiene FactorsHygiene Factors Motivational FactorsMotivational Factors
• Quality of supervision• Rate of pay• Company policies• Working conditions• Relations with others• Job security
• Quality of supervision• Rate of pay• Company policies• Working conditions• Relations with others• Job security
• Career Advancement
• Personal growth
• Recognition
• Responsibility
• Achievement
• Career Advancement
• Personal growth
• Recognition
• Responsibility
• Achievement
High HighJob Dissatisfaction Job Satisfaction0
Two-Factor Theory of Job Satisfaction
• Quality of supervision• Pay• Company policies• Physical working conditions• Relations with others• Job security
Hygiene factors
Job Dissatisfaction
• Promotion opportunities• Opportunities for personal growth• Recognition• Responsibility• Achievement
Motivators
Job Satisfaction
Job enrichment – • a high degree of control• determine how to do their jobs•vertical job loading
Job enlargement • expansion of the content of a job• more variety• does not increase responsibility nor skills
horizontal job loading• may help to improve job performance
Job Design
Alderfer’s ERG TheoryAlderfer’s ERG TheoryAlderfer’s ERG TheoryAlderfer’s ERG Theory
ExistenceExistenceExistenceExistence GrowthrowthGrowthrowth
RelatednessRelatednessRelatednessRelatedness
ERG Theory
Core Needs
Existence: provision of basic material requirements.
Relatedness: desire for relationships.
Growth: desire for personal development.
Core Needs
Existence: provision of basic material requirements.
Relatedness: desire for relationships.
Growth: desire for personal development.
Concepts:
More than one need can be operative at the same time.
If a higher-level need cannot be fulfilled, the desire to satisfy a lower-level need increases.
Concepts:
More than one need can be operative at the same time.
If a higher-level need cannot be fulfilled, the desire to satisfy a lower-level need increases.
The TheoryThe Theoryof Needsof Needs
DavidDavidMcClellandMcClelland
The TheoryThe Theoryof Needsof Needs
DavidDavidMcClellandMcClelland
Need forNeed forAchievementAchievement
(nAch)(nAch)
Need forNeed forAchievementAchievement
(nAch)(nAch)
Need forNeed forPowerPower(nPow)(nPow)
Need forNeed forPowerPower(nPow)(nPow)
Need forNeed forAffiliationAffiliation
(nAff)(nAff)
Need forNeed forAffiliationAffiliation
(nAff)(nAff)
Self-Efficacy
Self Esteem, which is….
Individuals’ degree of liking or disliking themselves.
•An individual’s feeling that s/he can complete a task (e.g. “I know I can!”)
•Enhances probability that goals will be achieved
Not to be confused with:
Cognitive EvaluationCognitive Evaluation
IntrinsicMotivatorsIntrinsic
MotivatorsExtrinsic
MotivatorsExtrinsic
Motivators
• SpecificitySpecificity
• ChallengeChallenge
• FeedbackFeedback
• ParticipationParticipation
• CommitmentCommitment
• Self-efficacySelf-efficacy
• CharacteristicsCharacteristics
• CultureCulture
Goal-Setting TheoryGoal-Setting Theory
Reinforcement TheoryReinforcement Theory
ConsequencesConsequences
RewardsRewards
No RewardsNo Rewards
PunishmentPunishment
BehaviorBehavior
Reinforcement Theory
• Similar to Goal-Setting Theory, but focused on a behavioral approach rather than a cognitive one.
– Behavior is environmentally caused– Thought (internal cogitative event) is not important
• Feelings, attitudes, and expectations are ignored
– Behavior is controlled by its consequences – reinforcers
– Is not a motivational theory but a means of analysis of behavior
– Reinforcement strongly influences behavior but is not likely to be the sole cause
Adams’ Equity Theory
• Employees compare their ratios of outcomes-to-inputs of relevant others.– When ratios are equal: state of equity exists
– there is no tension as the situation is considered fair
– When ratios are unequal: tension exists due to unfairness
• Underrewarded states cause anger• Overrewarded states cause guilt
– Tension motivates people to act to bring their situation into equity
Ratio Comparison*
Employee’sPerception
Outcomes A
Inputs A
Outcomes A
Inputs A
Outcomes A
Inputs A
Outcomes B
Inputs B
Outcomes B
Inputs B
Outcomes B
Inputs B
<
=
>
Inequity (Under-Rewarded)
Equity
Inequity (Over-Rewarded)
*Where A is the employee, and B is a relevant other or referent.
Equity TheoryEquity Theory
Equity Theory (cont’d)
Choices for dealing with inequity:
1. Change inputs (slack off)
2. Change outcomes (increase output)
3. Distort/change perceptions of self
4. Distort/change perceptions of others
5. Choose a different referent person
6. Leave the field (quit the job)
Choices for dealing with inequity:
1. Change inputs (slack off)
2. Change outcomes (increase output)
3. Distort/change perceptions of self
4. Distort/change perceptions of others
5. Choose a different referent person
6. Leave the field (quit the job)
SocialComparison
PersonA
PersonB
Outcomes
Inputs
Outcomes
InputsAngry
Guilty
Underpaymentinequity
for Person A Overpaymentinequity
for Person B
LessThan
Outcomes
Inputs
Outcomes
InputsSatisfied Satisfied
Equitablepayment
for Person A
Equitablepayment
for Person B
EqualTo
Equity Theory
Overpaymentinequity
for Person A
Underpaymentinequity
for Person B
GreaterThan
Outcomes
Inputs
Outcomes
Inputs
Guilty
Angry
Vroom’s Expectancy Theory
The strength of a tendency to act in a certain way depends on the strength of an expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of the outcome to the individual.
Expectancy of performance
success
Instrumentality of success in
getting reward
Valuation of the reward in
employee’s eyes
Expectancy Theory
3. Rewards-personal goals relationship
1. Effort-performance relationship
2. Performance-rewards relationship
IndividualIndividualEffortEffort
IndividualIndividualPerformancePerformance
PersonalPersonalGoalsGoals
OrganizationalOrganizationalRewardsRewards
1 2
3
Performance DimensionsPerformance Dimensions
OpportunityOpportunityMotivationMotivation
AbilityAbility
PerformancePerformance
Self-Efficacy
Self Esteem, which is….
Individuals’ degree of liking or disliking themselves.
•An individual’s feeling that s/he can complete a task (e.g. “I know I can!”)
•Enhances probability that goals will be achieved
Not to be confused with:
Elizabeth’s boss starts out the day each
morning saying, “Bet you wish you
didn’t have to be here, huh?” Knowing
this, which theory gives us insight as to
why Elizabeth may not be motivated at
work?
Chapter Check-Up: Motivation
Elizabeth’s boss may well be a
Theory X manager, as s/he
assumes employees don’t like
work and/or want to be there.
Chapter Check-Up: Motivation
If you study really hard and only get a
B on an exam, but your classmate
barely studies at all and gets an A, what
theory will help explain why you feel
less motivated to go to class?
Chapter Check-Up: Motivation
What theory would say that this man, who
knows he works hard and is performing well,
will be motivated by a gym membership for
being a high performer?
Chapter Check-Up: Motivation