the use of english

8/3/2019 The Use of English

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The Use of English Page 1

THE USE OF ENGLISH

The Importance of English. The successful engineer must be something more

than a skilled mechanic, an artisan or a designer. He must not only be able to

make surveys and prepare plans and designs but he must also make reports to

his clients or superiors, prepare instructions for his assistants and

subordinates, write specifications, prepare agreements, both as a basis for

receiving bids and for making contracts; he must originate, lay out and

supervise or carry out contract works, and supervise the maintenance and

operation of engineering plans.

The ability to prepare clear, logical, forceful and correct English is an

asset of great value to the engineer, and frequently means advancement beyond

others of equal technical ability but without the ability of correct and proper

expression.

Obscure, incorrect and faulty language, used in engineering reports,

instructions, contracts and specifications, frequently involves disputes and

litigations, with the consequent loss of thousands of dollars, and in some cases

misunderstandings which may cause the loss of lives and reputations. Any

element in engineering education, the misuse of which may produce such dire

results or the correct use of which may bring such great results, is worthy of

the most careful consideration and attention.

The command and intelligent use of language is often the best method of

conveying to others an appreciation of the knowledge of the engineer and his

ability to meet and solve engineering problems. For success the engineer must

not only be technically able to solve the engineering problems which come to

him for solution, but others must know and appreciate his ability. It is true

that the best test of ability is the actual performance of the work in question,


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but knowledge of the ability so demonstrated is confined to the clients,

employers, friends, colleagues or employees of the engineer, and a wider

knowledge of that ability can be secured only by the spoken or written word.

Engineering English. Engineering English should and does differ from the

English of literature. Fine writing and picturesque language have little place in

the writings of the engineer. The language should always be clear, definite and

exact; it should often be brief, technical and to the point. In general,

engineering English must be written with the particular parties in mind for

whom it is intended, and their education, training, technical knowledge and

point of view must be fully considered.

Engineering writings may be subdivided into several classes; each more

or less distinct, but such writings may frequently fall between or within more

than one of these classes, and sometimes partake of the character of each.

In general, letters, reports and papers may be written for:

First: Non-technical readers.

Second: Technical readers more or less acquainted with engineering matter but

not particularly versed in the special subject treated.

Third: Supervisors and assistants, those specially acquainted with [the subject

matter treated. Fourth: Contracts and specifications.

The Hearer or Reader. The knowledge and capacity of those to whom written

or spoken language is addressed is an important element to be considered in

the preparation of articles, reports or addresses. Technical matters should be

explained in clear and simple language, so that the persons for whom it is

written will understand the matter involved, the reasons for the plans proposed

and the results to be accomplished. There are few technical matters which

cannot be made so clear in a properly written paper or report that any good


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business man can understand them, and failure to prepare such papers that

they can be so understood is usually due to a lack of understanding of the

matter by the engineer himself.

Papers on technical subjects must therefore be written with the capacity

of the reader in view.

When the paper is prepared for technical readers who have had a certain

technical training, and are known to understand certain scientific principles,

the matter may be presented in a different form and the special matters

described must be so treated as to make them plain to others than the

specialist. In such cases the discussion of the data and the principles on which

the conclusions rest, becomes the important matter to be considered, and the

explanations are needed only of those technical details that are special to the

subject and are not commonly understood by the general professional man.

When those addressed are specialists in the matter discussed, the data

obtained and the methods of their derivation and investigation become of

primary importance. Technical terms properly applied will add to the clearness

of the exposition, and conclusions when drawn must be the obvious deduction

from the data and the facts.

In the writing of contracts and specifications, this in the execution of the

work must usually be interpreted by men of varying capabilities and which

may be and frequently are, subject to the interpretation of the court, the words

should be as carefully chosen to express the exact meaning as are the

mathematical symbols in an equation. There should be but one interpretation

and that the one intended, and the exact meaning of both the common and

technical words and terms used and their local or special significance should

be thoroughly understood and appreciated. Ordinary words and terms must be


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used with great care, and frequently must be modified and defined so as to

assure an exact interpretation of their meaning.

Knowledge of Subject. The absolute prerequisite for clear and accurate

technical writing is a clear and accurate knowledge of the subject which is to

be discussed or described. While this is self-evident, lack of such knowledge is

nevertheless an important reason for much and perhaps most of the obscurity

in reports, technical papers and specifications. If a specification must be

prepared or a technical detail described which is imperfectly understood by the

writer, how then can it be made clear to others? It is impossible to convey a

true idea which is not possessed by the writer, and the idea conveyed can never

be clearer than the writer's understanding of the matter described.

Accurate and complete knowledge requires study, application, effort and

reflection. These, technical writers frequently fail to exercise, either from

indolence, carelessness or lack of time, any one of which is a reason for

obscure language, but no one of which can be considered as a valid excuse for

such language.

A knowledge of spelling, punctuation, grammar, rhetoric and

composition, and even a broad experience in the writing of technical English

will not supply lack of knowledge of the subject matter. While these subjects

are necessary elements of good English, and are indispensable for clear and

exact English, and while the principles of rhetoric and composition are

desirable and even essential for the best productions, they are all secondary to

the idea or ideas which it is desired to convey. Failure to possess or to exercise

knowledge of these subjects shows lack of cultivation and are undesirable, and

in important cases highly objectionable. The exercise of such knowledge is

desirable as a means to an end, but it cannot, without collateral knowledge of

the subject matter, attain that end.


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For technical writing of every description, the essential feature is to have

the subject well and thoroughly understood, to have something to say, and

then to say it in the simplest, plainest, clearest language of which the writer is

capable, keeping clearly in mind the capacity of the readers for whom the

matter is intended.

Knowledge of the subject is fundamental to success, and indispensable

for clear technical exposition; and secondary, but yet very important, comes

knowledge of spelling, punctuation, grammar, rhetoric, composition, and the

meaning of words both common and technical.

Logical Arrangement. While a clear statement of facts or requirements is

essential to convey the ideas and meaning desired, when the matter discussed

requires considerable space for its full consideration, the logical arrangement of

the material becomes hardly less important.

All technical writings are intended to convey to the reader knowledge of

what the writer knows or desires, in such a manner that he shall clearly

understand the subject discussed or the requirements described, as completely

as necessary or desirable for the purpose in view. The subject should be

considered with this end in view. Lit should be outlined in general and then

discussed in detail, and the discussion should proceed logically from the

fundamental and essential features to those that are subordinate and less

important.

The subject should first be analyzed and its fundamental and essential

features separated and arranged in logical sequence. Each feature should be

further considered, and the subordinate but essential qualifying factors

arranged in a similar manner. When the entire subject has been treated in this


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manner, and an outline has been prepared, the preparation of the written

matter can then proceed.

The subject should first be discussed in a general way so as to give at

once a concrete conception of the matter to be treated. Following this each

feature can be taken up in the order determined and discussed as fully as its

importance demands. The main ideas underlying the treatment should be:

first, the arrangement of the entire subject in logical order both as regards

main features and subordinate factors; and second, the discussion of each

feature and each subordinate factor in a connected manner but at the same

time so distinctly and separately as to accurately define to the mind of the

reader its relative importance and its modifying effect on the entire subject.

One main idea and one only should be developed in a paragraph, and the

subject may and should be divided into such sections and subsections and

such chapters or other subdivisions as may be necessary to accomplish the

clear and logical presentation of the subject. As the subject is distinct from

other subjects, so should the main divisions be separate and distinct from each

other, and each should be devoted to the complete consideration of that

particular feature to which it is assigned. In the same manner, each

subdivision should be devoted exclusively to that one of the principal features

of the main subject which is discussed therein, and each subordinate idea or

qualifying influence should be assigned a section or a paragraph, as its

importance warrants.

With due study, reflection and practice, the development of a subject

along the lines indicated is readily accomplished and if carried out with

reasonable intelligence, will result in a clear exposition of the entire subject.


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The Outline. The general idea of the construction of the outline which should

precede the writing of any extended technical paper can be readily acquired by

the examination of the table of contents of any well written technical book or by

the study of any well prepared specifications.

In the preparation of an outline it must be understood that the purpose

for which the paper is prepared may not require complete or even a well

balanced treatment of the subject. These must receive more elaborate

treatment, and matters of minor importance must be subordinated to the

general purpose and more briefly treated or altogether ignored, as their

importance, relative to the main object, warrants.

What ideas are to be developed, what facts are to be presented, and what

order of presentation will be the best and most logical and will most easily

convey the meaning which it is desired to impress on the reader, are matters

which depend on the purpose for which the paper is prepared and the readers

to whom it will be presented. In general, the purpose and the reader must be

kept continuously in mind, and all diversions which will tend to obscure the

main object of the paper or distract the attention of the reader from that object,

must be avoided.

The outline should be regarded only as a means to an end, and should

be changed or modified as the necessity for alteration may develop during the

preparation of the paper. Facts and illustrations, which it may at first seem

desirable to utilize, may be found, during the preparation of the paper, not to

yield to satisfactory treatment, and others may be substituted to advantage.

An outline should be prepared which will exhibit at a glance the plan of

construction of the paper selected for study. Such an analytical outline will give

the student a clear idea of the basis presumably used by the best writers in the


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preparation of their papers and will serve as a guide to the preparation of an

outline for the subject at hand.

Style. The education of technical men is largely scientific, and precision and

efficiency are among the most important principles of their training. Such

education is not complete until the value of literary ability is appreciated.

The fundamental principle of expression either written or spoken is to

secure efficiency in the comprehension of ideas by the person addressed, with

the least possible mental effort. The engineer recognizes that in machinery,

simplicity in design and the proper arrangements of parts are necessary for

efficiency in power transmission. Complication in parts, unnecessary

transformation and inconvenient arrangement result in needless loss of energy,

and all losses in the machinery reduce the amount of energy which can be

delivered for useful work, and such losses must therefore be reduced as far as

possible.

The same principles apply in the use of language. The mental power of

the reader is to be utilized for the transmission of ideas by the mechanism of

words. The amount of mental energy available for the purpose is limited. With

this energy the reader must recognize and interpret the words used, arrange

'and combine the images suggested, and finally must realize the thoughts

conveyed.

Simplicity in language, when practicable, results in the highest efficiency

in comprehension. A gesture or an exclamation frequently conveys a more

accurate idea of the thought or feelings than a sentence or paragraph, and the

spoken word is more efficient than the written.


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The careful choice of words, the accurate use of technical terms, correct

grammatical construction, logical arrangement of ideas, clear methods of

expression, the presentation of the matter in an attractive manner, are all

desirable to secure and hold the attention of the reader and to convey the

meaning clearly. Poor spelling, improper punctuation, ungrammatical

construction and involved language draw the attention to subordinate matters

and lead the reader to surmise that the conclusions presented may be as

erroneous as the form in which they appear.

The subject matter should not be sacrificed to the style, but the style

should be utilized to develop and illuminate the subject matter. Technical

matters may often be dry and, to other than technical men, uninteresting and

obscure. The careful choice of words simplifies the subject, clarifies the idea

and crystallizes the thought in the mind of the reader. The careful selection of

expressions and the adaptation of a suitable literary style attract and retain the

attention, simplify the subject matter, and often interest the reader in subjects

of which he would otherwise weary.

The language should be brief and exact and the words should be simple

but carefully chosen. The point of view and the extent of knowledge of the

reader must determine the degree of simplicity with which the subject must be

treated.

The Choice of Words. Accuracy of expression demands a careful choice of

words. Words are never exactly synonymous in their meaning. Even when

words are derived from foreign words of exactly synonymous meaning, they are

adapted in the English to express ideas more or less different. In the growth

and development of language words often acquire other special meanings

perhaps quite foreign to that conveyed by the original signification. These

changes grow from the original meanings based on physical likeness,


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association, similarity of relation, use of a part for the whole, adaptation of the

mental for the physical, and idiomatic metaphors.

Take for example the changes and extension in meaning of the common

word head: 2

1. The original physical meaning: Head.

2. From physical likeness : The head of a river ; or the consummation of a

development to come to a head.

3. From association : The head of a bed.

4. Similarity of relation : The head of a business.

5. The part for the whole : A hundred head of horses.

6. Mental for physical : A clear head.

7. Metaphorical : Over head in debt. To make h*cad against obstacles.

Most common words have numerous meanings which are often difficult to

differentiate even when properly used. Frequently such meanings are

unauthorized by good usage, and such use should be discouraged and

discountenanced as it obscures the language and makes necessary an accurate

definition of the special meaning .in which it is to be understood in important

papers.

Take for example the following thirteen uses of the word rock and the

difficulties attendant on its specific use in the limited sense as further

discussed in Chapter XVII. It may have meanings

in accordance with its various uses as follows:

Geologically: Any mass of mineral matter, in its natural bed of which the

earth's crust is composed, whether solid or fragmentary.

Popular:

1. A stone of any size, even a pebble.

2. A mass of indurated stone, forming a promontory or cliff.

3. Natural crystals or candy in crystalline form.


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Figurative: 1. A foundation, support or refuge. 2. A source of peril.

Technical: I. Indurated formation of different degrees of hardness. 2. A kind of

soap. 3. A kind of hard cheese. 4. Ore (used among the Michigan copper

mines).

Slang: 1. Money or wealth. 2. Rough, uncouth (feelings or appearance).

Association: Rock fish rock dove.

As words are used to convey ideas, those words should be chosen which

both accurately express the idea to be conveyed and are most familiar to those

to whom the words are addressed.

Most of the English words in constant daily use, and most intimately

connected with the personal and familiar affairs of life, are of Saxon origin.

They are understood more quickly and move the hearer more forcibly than

similar words of Latin origin. Latin words, however, are more elaborate, more

scholarly, and more exact. Words of Latin origin must be used by the

technologist in the scientific discussion of technical subjects, on account of

their greater exactness, and the suggestions associated with such scientific

terms. The selection of words of Saxon or Latin origin for use in technical

papers would therefore depend on the subject discussed the object of the

writer, and the technical education of the reader. In reports and papers

intended to explain technical matters to the public, or to non-technical clients,

Latin terms should be avoided and simple Saxon words used so far as possible.

When technical matters are presented to technical readers, the use of Latin

terms is not only admissible but absolutely essential to clear exposition.

Simplicity in understanding is not always assured by simplicity in

language. The more exact terms are always preferable if the reader can easily

comprehend their meaning.


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The Precise Use of Words. The habit of the careless use of words is

unfortunately acquired by almost every person with his early use of language.

In ordinary intercourse, the subject discussed is often so familiar and the

conditions so well known to both parties to the conversation that the meaning

of the language used is often quite obvious, even if the words used do not

express the exact meaning which the speaker intends to convey. When,

however, the subject is unfamiliar, and the ideas to be conveyed are intricate or

involved, the words must be used with precision or the meaning to be conveyed

is obscured, distorted or entirely lost.

Punctuation and the Arrangement of Words in a Sentence. It is obvious

that the meaning of an expression or sentence is largely controlled by the

arrangement of words and by the emphasis that is given in their oral

expression. In writing, the emphasis to be observed must be implied by the

arrangement or indicated by punctuation. An accurate understanding of the

meaning of the language used can therefore be assured only by care in the

selection of words and in their arrangement or by punctuation or both. There is

perhaps a tendency at the present time to eliminate all punctuation that is not

essential to determine the meaning of a sentence, and in many cases with the

proper arrangement of words the meaning will remain clear without

punctuation. This tendency often results in the omission of punctuation where

it is needed to give the meaning which it is desired to convey. When

punctuation is omitted, though needed in order to assure the proper meaning

of the sentence, it must be assumed by the reader and may consequently be

improperly assumed. A recent heading of a newspaper article appeared without

punctuation as follows :

"Indiana permits pure food only at fairs."


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In this sentence the meaning must be supplied by an assumption of the

punctuation and will be quite different if the comma is applied after or before

the word "only."

"Indiana permits pure food only, at fairs."

"Indiana permits pure food, only at fairs."

The true meaning without punctuation would be assured by the better

arrangement of the words :

"Indiana permits only pure food at fairs."

Only a proper arrangement of the words or proper punctuation will make clear

the meaning of this sentence.

In many cases the meaning of a sentence will be entirely changed by the

change in punctuation or by its assumption in an unpunctuated sentence, as

for example:

"Woman, without her, man would be a savage."

"Woman without her man, would be a savage."

A rearrangement and slight change in the wording would in this case assure an

accurate understanding of the meaning to be conveyed without punctuation, as

for example:

"Man would be a savage without woman," or

"Man without woman would be a savage."

It is not our purpose to discuss the principles of punctuation or its customary

use, but only to call attention to the necessity of correct application, the

confusion resulting from its improper use, and the uncertainties resulting from

its omission.


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The Vocabulary. It is important that the engineer should acquire a technical

vocabulary and knowledge of the vernacular of the business in which he is

employed or with which he may be associated. Otherwise he will not be able to

understand, give instructions, or furnish explanation of technical or trade

details. Such information is also necessary in the preparation of specifications

and technical reports and papers for technical readers. Scientific and technical

terms and the familiar and special trade terms and trade vernacular simplify

explanations covering materials, operation and details of construction, and are

absolutely necessary for reasonable facility in business transactions.

The best method of acquiring a technical vocabulary is the direct study of

the words and terms used in any special vocation or business when such

information is accessible. The reading of the various technical papers and the

proceedings of the various societies which cover or include the special subject

in which information is desired will often furnish valuable additions to the

vocabulary.

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