The Vietnam WarThe Vietnam War

22 Gia Long St., Saigon, 197522 Gia Long St., Saigon, 1975

Maps of French IndochinaMaps of French Indochina

Vietnam: Historical BackgroundVietnam: Historical Background Vietnamese people: resisted Chinese control for a Vietnamese people: resisted Chinese control for a

millennium, French colonialism in the 19millennium, French colonialism in the 19thth and 20 and 20thth century, century, and U.S. power in the 20and U.S. power in the 20thth century century

French colonial policies violently uprooted Vietnamese French colonial policies violently uprooted Vietnamese societysociety

Ho Chi Minh (1890-1969): “father of the Vietnamese Ho Chi Minh (1890-1969): “father of the Vietnamese revolution,” helped found the French Communist Party, revolution,” helped found the French Communist Party, worked for the Communist International in 1920s and 1930s, worked for the Communist International in 1920s and 1930s, organized the Vietminh (League for the Independence of organized the Vietminh (League for the Independence of Vietnam) in World War II to resist Japanese and French Vietnam) in World War II to resist Japanese and French presence, proclaimed the Democratic Republic of Vietnam in presence, proclaimed the Democratic Republic of Vietnam in 1945 by quoting from the American Declaration of 1945 by quoting from the American Declaration of Independence and the French Declaration of the Rights of Independence and the French Declaration of the Rights of Man [Man [Source:Source: Vietnamese Declaration of IndependenceVietnamese Declaration of Independence]]

During World War II the Vietminh worked with the Office of During World War II the Vietminh worked with the Office of Strategic Services to liberate Vietnam from the Japanese: Strategic Services to liberate Vietnam from the Japanese: rescuing downed airmen and passing intelligence [rescuing downed airmen and passing intelligence [Sources: Sources: Pentagon Papers, Gravel Edition, Summary and Chapter IPentagon Papers, Gravel Edition, Summary and Chapter I and and Advising the Viet Advising the Viet MinhMinh]]

The First Indochina War, 1946-The First Indochina War, 1946-19541954

1946: outbreak of French-Vietminh war after the French high 1946: outbreak of French-Vietminh war after the French high commissioner in Saigon declared the Republic of Cochinchina commissioner in Saigon declared the Republic of Cochinchina a separate state, and after the breakdown of a negotiated a separate state, and after the breakdown of a negotiated compromise agreement between the French and Ho Chi Minhcompromise agreement between the French and Ho Chi Minh

Eight-year guerilla war, including the 1947 French aerial Eight-year guerilla war, including the 1947 French aerial bombing with napalm (jellied gasoline mixture, incendiary bombing with napalm (jellied gasoline mixture, incendiary weapon), ended with decisive French defeat at Dienbienphu in weapon), ended with decisive French defeat at Dienbienphu in 19541954

Dienbienphu: General Vo Nguyen Giap defeated French Dienbienphu: General Vo Nguyen Giap defeated French garrison with 15,000 soldiers (many elite paratroopers); major garrison with 15,000 soldiers (many elite paratroopers); major military victory of a non-European colonial independence military victory of a non-European colonial independence movement against a modern Western occupier; Eisenhower movement against a modern Western occupier; Eisenhower administration refused air strike to break the siegeadministration refused air strike to break the siege

By 1954 U.S. paid about three-quarters of the financial cost of By 1954 U.S. paid about three-quarters of the financial cost of the French war against Ho Chi Minh; between 1950 and 1954 the French war against Ho Chi Minh; between 1950 and 1954 the U.S. gave $3 billion in aid to the French; U.S. sent 300 men the U.S. gave $3 billion in aid to the French; U.S. sent 300 men as part of the Military Assistance Advisory Groupas part of the Military Assistance Advisory Group

April 5, 1954: President Eisenhower coined “domino theory” April 5, 1954: President Eisenhower coined “domino theory” [Source: [Source: Domino TheoryDomino Theory]]

Eisenhower and DiemEisenhower and Diem Military Intervention Debated: President Eisenhower vs. Sec. of Military Intervention Debated: President Eisenhower vs. Sec. of

State John Foster Dulles and Vice President Richard NixonState John Foster Dulles and Vice President Richard Nixon American Military Divided: Air Force Chief of Staff Nathan Twinning American Military Divided: Air Force Chief of Staff Nathan Twinning

(for atomic bomb) vs. Army Chief of Staff Matthew Ridgeway (air (for atomic bomb) vs. Army Chief of Staff Matthew Ridgeway (air power does not equal victory)power does not equal victory)

1954 Geneva Conference: temporary division of Vietnam at 171954 Geneva Conference: temporary division of Vietnam at 17thth parallel; national elections in 1956 [Source: parallel; national elections in 1956 [Source: Geneva ConferenceGeneva Conference]]

After 1955: U.S. supported government of Ngo Dinh Diem even After 1955: U.S. supported government of Ngo Dinh Diem even though it had little support in South Vietnam; U.S. provided $300 though it had little support in South Vietnam; U.S. provided $300 million per year (mostly for South Vietnamese military) and up to million per year (mostly for South Vietnamese military) and up to 740 uniformed U.S. soldiers; Diem refused to hold elections740 uniformed U.S. soldiers; Diem refused to hold elections

December 1960: National Liberation Front [NLF] (the Communist December 1960: National Liberation Front [NLF] (the Communist Party’s vehicle for armed insurgency against Diem); Diem and Party’s vehicle for armed insurgency against Diem); Diem and American officials called the NLF “Vietcong” although it was not American officials called the NLF “Vietcong” although it was not entirely communist. Was NLF part of civil war in South Vietnam? entirely communist. Was NLF part of civil war in South Vietnam? [Source: [Source: NLFNLF]]

Did U.S. intervene in South Vietnam after 1954 because it had Did U.S. intervene in South Vietnam after 1954 because it had been defeated politically at Dienbienphu?been defeated politically at Dienbienphu?

Illusion of Nation Building: military security over economic and Illusion of Nation Building: military security over economic and political reform [Example: political reform [Example: Lansdale Report Lansdale Report , , Lansdale to DiemLansdale to Diem, , Lansdale BioLansdale Bio]]

Kennedy and DiemKennedy and Diem JFK increased U.S. support to South Vietnam: $41.1 million JFK increased U.S. support to South Vietnam: $41.1 million

in military aid in 1961; military advisors grew from 900 in in military aid in 1961; military advisors grew from 900 in 1961 to 16,700 in 19631961 to 16,700 in 1963

JFK’s Cold War Optimism: counter-insurgency [defense JFK’s Cold War Optimism: counter-insurgency [defense against armed or unarmed rebellion] to save American against armed or unarmed rebellion] to save American troops troops [Relevance: [Relevance: 2006 Counterinsurgency Field Manual2006 Counterinsurgency Field Manual, , CraneCrane, , Counterinsurgency Paradoxes]Counterinsurgency Paradoxes]

Strategic Hamlet Program (1961-64): South Vietnamese Strategic Hamlet Program (1961-64): South Vietnamese peasants were uprooted and concentrated in fortified peasants were uprooted and concentrated in fortified villages to counter Vietcong political and military influence villages to counter Vietcong political and military influence [Source: Failure of Strategic Hamlet Program][Source: Failure of Strategic Hamlet Program]

1963 Buddhist Crisis: self-immolation of Buddhist monks to 1963 Buddhist Crisis: self-immolation of Buddhist monks to protest Diem’s brother Ngo Dinh Nhu (head of the protest Diem’s brother Ngo Dinh Nhu (head of the government’s police and security forces)government’s police and security forces)

1963 Military Coup against Diem and Nhu: South 1963 Military Coup against Diem and Nhu: South Vietnamese killed both brothers; U.S. intelligence agents Vietnamese killed both brothers; U.S. intelligence agents knew of plotting, but did not warn Diemknew of plotting, but did not warn Diem

If JFK had lived, would he have withdrawn? Not in light of If JFK had lived, would he have withdrawn? Not in light of his 1961 inaugural address to “bear any burden” in defense his 1961 inaugural address to “bear any burden” in defense of liberty of liberty [Sources: [Sources: JFK AudioJFK Audio, , JFK SpeechesJFK Speeches]]

Malcolm W. Browne’s Photo:Malcolm W. Browne’s Photo:Burning Buddhist Monk, Thich Quang DucBurning Buddhist Monk, Thich Quang Duc

Self-Immolation (June 11, 1963)Self-Immolation (June 11, 1963)

Malcolm W. BrowneMalcolm W. BrowneDigital History WebsiteDigital History Website

““Johnson’s War” ? A Closer Look Johnson’s War” ? A Closer Look at 1964at 1964

LBJ as reluctant warrior: LBJ did not want war, but pledged to build LBJ as reluctant warrior: LBJ did not want war, but pledged to build on Truman’s, Eisenhower’s, and Kennedy’s military containment on Truman’s, Eisenhower’s, and Kennedy’s military containment policies. LBJ in early 1964: “This country was built by pioneers with policies. LBJ in early 1964: “This country was built by pioneers with an ax in one hand and a rifle in the other.” [Source: Gardner, 103] an ax in one hand and a rifle in the other.” [Source: Gardner, 103]

LBJ as New Dealer, January1964: “I got a lotta problems. I’ve got a LBJ as New Dealer, January1964: “I got a lotta problems. I’ve got a brazen Communist attempt to conquer Asia on my hands. I’ve got brazen Communist attempt to conquer Asia on my hands. I’ve got Negroes revolting in America … I got troubles in Central America Negroes revolting in America … I got troubles in Central America that the people don’t even know about. I gotta figure out how to that the people don’t even know about. I gotta figure out how to pay for these fucking wars and keep my commitment to feed, pay for these fucking wars and keep my commitment to feed, educate, and care for the people of this country.” [Source: Gardner, educate, and care for the people of this country.” [Source: Gardner, 104]104]

In his mind, LBJ’s “unconditional war on poverty in America” hinged In his mind, LBJ’s “unconditional war on poverty in America” hinged on victory in Vietnamon victory in Vietnam

Dec. 1963-July 1965: LBJ sought victory in South Vietnam and Dec. 1963-July 1965: LBJ sought victory in South Vietnam and expanded JFK’s limited commitment into an open-ended oneexpanded JFK’s limited commitment into an open-ended one

Aug. 1964: Gulf of Tonkin incident: LBJ argued that North Aug. 1964: Gulf of Tonkin incident: LBJ argued that North Vietnamese attacks on U.S. ships were unprovoked and widened Vietnamese attacks on U.S. ships were unprovoked and widened the war [Source: the war [Source: National Security ArchiveNational Security Archive]]

Gulf of Tonkin Resolution passed Congress 416-0 in House and 88-2 Gulf of Tonkin Resolution passed Congress 416-0 in House and 88-2 in Senate: gave LBJ a blank check for war; Democratic Senators in Senate: gave LBJ a blank check for war; Democratic Senators Wayne Morse of Oregon and Ernest Gruening of Alaska dissented Wayne Morse of Oregon and Ernest Gruening of Alaska dissented [Sources: [Sources: Gulf of Tonkin ResolutionGulf of Tonkin Resolution, , Senate DebateSenate Debate, Norman , Norman Solomon]Solomon]

Senator J. William Fulbright, who had supported the Gulf of Tonkin Senator J. William Fulbright, who had supported the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, later said: “I don’t normally assume a President lies to Resolution, later said: “I don’t normally assume a President lies to you.”you.”

Vietnam War Escalation, 1965-Vietnam War Escalation, 1965-19681968

Operation Rolling Thunder: U.S. retaliatory air strikes against North Operation Rolling Thunder: U.S. retaliatory air strikes against North Vietnam after an NLF attack on American barracks in Pleiku (Feb. 6, Vietnam after an NLF attack on American barracks in Pleiku (Feb. 6, 1965); between 1965-1967 U.S. dropped more tonnage of bombs 1965); between 1965-1967 U.S. dropped more tonnage of bombs on Vietnam than the Allies dropped on Europe in World War II; only on Vietnam than the Allies dropped on Europe in World War II; only Undersecretary of State George Ball opposed air war at the timeUndersecretary of State George Ball opposed air war at the time

Land War: first two battalions of U.S. Marines deployed in March Land War: first two battalions of U.S. Marines deployed in March 1965; peak level in April 1969 with 543,400 soldiers in Vietnam1965; peak level in April 1969 with 543,400 soldiers in Vietnam

April 1966: for the first time, more Americans than South April 1966: for the first time, more Americans than South Vietnamese were killed in actionVietnamese were killed in action

Bombings probably killed a ratio of two civilians to one Vietminh; Bombings probably killed a ratio of two civilians to one Vietminh; search-and-destroy operations on the ground perhaps killed as search-and-destroy operations on the ground perhaps killed as many as six civilians for each Vietminhmany as six civilians for each Vietminh

Attrition Strategy: developed by Gen. William Westmoreland, aimed Attrition Strategy: developed by Gen. William Westmoreland, aimed at destroying enemy forces faster than they could be replaced; Sec. at destroying enemy forces faster than they could be replaced; Sec. of Defense Robert McNamara’s emphasis on “body count” led to of Defense Robert McNamara’s emphasis on “body count” led to inflated accounts and targeting of civilians inflated accounts and targeting of civilians [Tip: McNamara [Tip: McNamara Symposium]Symposium]

Casualties (1961-1973): 58,193 U.S. deaths; 635,357 South Casualties (1961-1973): 58,193 U.S. deaths; 635,357 South Vietnamese (military and civilian deaths); 916,000 North Vietnamese (military and civilian deaths); 916,000 North Vietnamese (military and civilian deaths)Vietnamese (military and civilian deaths)

Tet—The Turning Point 1968Tet—The Turning Point 1968 Tet: North Vietnamese surprise offensive in January 1968, hit Tet: North Vietnamese surprise offensive in January 1968, hit

36 of 44 provincial cities and 100 villages, including the 36 of 44 provincial cities and 100 villages, including the American embassy in Saigon, Khe Sanh (U.S. Marine base American embassy in Saigon, Khe Sanh (U.S. Marine base besieged), Ben Tre (a Pyrrhic victory—as one American officer besieged), Ben Tre (a Pyrrhic victory—as one American officer stated, ”it became necessary to destroy the town to save it”)stated, ”it became necessary to destroy the town to save it”)

Tet: a tactical failure, yet a strategic success for Hanoi, given Tet: a tactical failure, yet a strategic success for Hanoi, given its psychological impact on U.S. antiwar movement and mediaits psychological impact on U.S. antiwar movement and media

Feb. 1, 1968: NBC news showed a film clip of Gen. Nguyen Feb. 1, 1968: NBC news showed a film clip of Gen. Nguyen Ngoc Loan, chief of South Vietnam’s national police, pointing a Ngoc Loan, chief of South Vietnam’s national police, pointing a gun at the head of a Vietcong lieutenant who had just gun at the head of a Vietcong lieutenant who had just murdered a South Vietnamese colonel, his wife and their six murdered a South Vietnamese colonel, his wife and their six children; newsman John Chancellor called it “rough justice on children; newsman John Chancellor called it “rough justice on a Saigon street” as the general pulled the trigger; the U.S. a Saigon street” as the general pulled the trigger; the U.S. public was horrifiedpublic was horrified

March 31, 1968: LBJ announced in a television address that March 31, 1968: LBJ announced in a television address that U.S. would halt the bombing, begin peace negotiations, and U.S. would halt the bombing, begin peace negotiations, and that he withdrew himself as a candidate for reelection that he withdrew himself as a candidate for reelection [Source: [Source: Johnson Speeches]Johnson Speeches]

Edward T. Adams’ Pulitzer Prize PhotoEdward T. Adams’ Pulitzer Prize Photo“Viet Cong Execution” (February 1, 1968)“Viet Cong Execution” (February 1, 1968)

NewseumNewseum

AtrocitiesAtrocities Violence against civilians as intentional tactic of warViolence against civilians as intentional tactic of war Vietcong utilized terrorism to solicit cooperation from the Vietcong utilized terrorism to solicit cooperation from the

Vietnamese; Vietcong guerrillas assassinated or kidnapped Vietnamese; Vietcong guerrillas assassinated or kidnapped thousands of local officials, priests, teachers, and other thousands of local officials, priests, teachers, and other “counterrevolutionaries”“counterrevolutionaries”

U.S. policy of bombing with high explosives and napalm created U.S. policy of bombing with high explosives and napalm created many civilian deaths—some accidental and some intentionalmany civilian deaths—some accidental and some intentional

My Lai Massacre (March 16, 1968): largest single American My Lai Massacre (March 16, 1968): largest single American atrocity; U.S. Army infantry company killed 504 unresisting atrocity; U.S. Army infantry company killed 504 unresisting women, children, and old men; officers in charge tried to cover up; women, children, and old men; officers in charge tried to cover up; only one officer, Lieutenant William Calley, received judicial only one officer, Lieutenant William Calley, received judicial punishment punishment [Tip: S. Hersh][Tip: S. Hersh]

Hue Massacre (Tet Offensive, 1968): North Vietnamese Army and Hue Massacre (Tet Offensive, 1968): North Vietnamese Army and Vietcong occupied Hue and executed those connected with Vietcong occupied Hue and executed those connected with Americans; 2,810 bodies found in mass graves and 3,000 Americans; 2,810 bodies found in mass graves and 3,000 residents missingresidents missing

Jonathan Shay, Jonathan Shay, Achilles in Vietnam: Combat Trauma and the Achilles in Vietnam: Combat Trauma and the Undoing of CharacterUndoing of Character (1994): “Healing from trauma depends upon (1994): “Healing from trauma depends upon communalization of the trauma—being able to safely tell the story communalization of the trauma—being able to safely tell the story to someone who is listening and who can be trusted to retell it to someone who is listening and who can be trusted to retell it truthfully to others in the community.” [p. 4]truthfully to others in the community.” [p. 4]

Nixon’s War, 1968-1974Nixon’s War, 1968-1974 Nixon sought “peace with honor” by negotiating for peace while Nixon sought “peace with honor” by negotiating for peace while

escalating the war at the same timeescalating the war at the same time Vietnamization: reduction of American troops in South Vietnam; by Vietnamization: reduction of American troops in South Vietnam; by

1971 down to 139,000 (protests at home continued)1971 down to 139,000 (protests at home continued) June 1971: Pentagon Papers leaked to press; secret 20-year June 1971: Pentagon Papers leaked to press; secret 20-year

summary of war revealed superficiality and lack of candor in U.S. summary of war revealed superficiality and lack of candor in U.S. Vietnam policy; strengthened case for ending the warVietnam policy; strengthened case for ending the war

Secret Bombing of neutral Cambodia (1969-1973), naval blockade Secret Bombing of neutral Cambodia (1969-1973), naval blockade of North Vietnam, and continued bombing of Vietnam (on average of North Vietnam, and continued bombing of Vietnam (on average one ton of bombs dropped each minute). Example: Linebacker II or one ton of bombs dropped each minute). Example: Linebacker II or “Christmas Bombing” (Dec. 18-29, 1972) dropped 20,000 tons of “Christmas Bombing” (Dec. 18-29, 1972) dropped 20,000 tons of bombs on North Vietnam bombs on North Vietnam [Explore: Henry Kissinger—Hero or Villain?][Explore: Henry Kissinger—Hero or Villain?]

January1973: Paris Peace Accords, formal ending of American war January1973: Paris Peace Accords, formal ending of American war in Vietnam, but fighting in Vietnam continued; U.S. left CIA and in Vietnam, but fighting in Vietnam continued; U.S. left CIA and military advisers in Saigon, pulled last combat troops out of military advisers in Saigon, pulled last combat troops out of Vietnam in March 1973, and continued bombing in Cambodia until Vietnam in March 1973, and continued bombing in Cambodia until August 1973August 1973

War Powers Act (Nov. 1973): Congress limited president’s war War Powers Act (Nov. 1973): Congress limited president’s war powers, funded fighting only for 60 days in an undeclared warpowers, funded fighting only for 60 days in an undeclared war

February 1974: begin of North Vietnamese offensive against South February 1974: begin of North Vietnamese offensive against South VietnamVietnam

April 1975: Saigon came under North Vietnamese control and was April 1975: Saigon came under North Vietnamese control and was renamed Ho Chi Minh City—Vietnam reunified, war endedrenamed Ho Chi Minh City—Vietnam reunified, war ended

Huynh Cong Ut’s Pulitzer Prize PhotoHuynh Cong Ut’s Pulitzer Prize Photo“Vietnam—Terror of War” (June 8, 1972)“Vietnam—Terror of War” (June 8, 1972)

Huynh Cong Huynh Cong UtUt

Why did the United States fail in Why did the United States fail in Vietnam?Vietnam?

““Vietnam Syndrome:” American unwillingness to exercise its Vietnam Syndrome:” American unwillingness to exercise its power vs. military containment doctrine and domino theorypower vs. military containment doctrine and domino theory

Lack of presidential support for military: General Westmoreland Lack of presidential support for military: General Westmoreland criticized LBJ for moving too slowly and Nixon for conceding to criticized LBJ for moving too slowly and Nixon for conceding to 1973 ceasefire; 82% of Vietnam veterans believed they were not 1973 ceasefire; 82% of Vietnam veterans believed they were not allowed to winallowed to win

““Limited War:” Lack of American public support for widening the Limited War:” Lack of American public support for widening the war, i.e. occupation of North Vietnam and ground war in Cambodia war, i.e. occupation of North Vietnam and ground war in Cambodia and Laosand Laos

American underestimation of Vietnamese determination and American underestimation of Vietnamese determination and willingness to suffer casualtieswillingness to suffer casualties

U.S. put itself in a no-win situation; lack of a political base in South U.S. put itself in a no-win situation; lack of a political base in South Vietnam; GIs rarely spoke Vietnamese; in his 1999 memoir Vietnam; GIs rarely spoke Vietnamese; in his 1999 memoir A A Rumor of WarRumor of War Philip Caputo characterized Vietnam as “a formless Philip Caputo characterized Vietnam as “a formless war against a formless enemy”war against a formless enemy”

Misuse of military power: Army War College instructor Col. Harry Misuse of military power: Army War College instructor Col. Harry G. Summers, Jr. told a Vietnamese colonel after the war, “You G. Summers, Jr. told a Vietnamese colonel after the war, “You know, you never defeated us on the battlefield,” to which the know, you never defeated us on the battlefield,” to which the colonel replied, “That may be so, but it is irrelevant.”colonel replied, “That may be so, but it is irrelevant.”

Recommended ReadingsRecommended Readings David L. Anderson, ed., David L. Anderson, ed., Facing MyLai: Moving Beyond the MassacreFacing MyLai: Moving Beyond the Massacre (1998) (1998) David L. Anderson, David L. Anderson, The Columbia Guide to the Vietnam WarThe Columbia Guide to the Vietnam War (New York, 2002) (New York, 2002) Dixee Bartholomew-Feis, Dixee Bartholomew-Feis, The OSS and Ho Chi Minh: Unexpected Allies in the The OSS and Ho Chi Minh: Unexpected Allies in the

War Against JapanWar Against Japan (UP Kansas, 2006) (UP Kansas, 2006) Fox Butterfield, “Getting it Wrong in a Photo” Fox Butterfield, “Getting it Wrong in a Photo” New York TimesNew York Times (April 23, 2000) (April 23, 2000) Denise Chong, Denise Chong, The Girl in the Picture: The Story of Kim Phuc, the Photograph, The Girl in the Picture: The Story of Kim Phuc, the Photograph,

and the Vietnam Warand the Vietnam War (New York, 2000) (New York, 2000) Graham Greene, Graham Greene, The Quiet AmericanThe Quiet American (1955) (1955) Mason Drukman, Mason Drukman, Wayne Morse: A Political BiographyWayne Morse: A Political Biography (1997) (1997) Lloyd Gardner, Lloyd Gardner, Pay Any Price: Lyndon Johnson and the Wars for VietnamPay Any Price: Lyndon Johnson and the Wars for Vietnam (Ivan (Ivan

Dee, 1995)Dee, 1995) George Herring, George Herring, America’s Longest War: The United States and Vietnam, 1950-America’s Longest War: The United States and Vietnam, 1950-

19751975 , 3 , 3rd ed. rd ed. (McGraw-Hill, 1996)(McGraw-Hill, 1996) Seymour Hersh, Seymour Hersh, My Lai 4: A Report on the Massacre and its AftermathMy Lai 4: A Report on the Massacre and its Aftermath (1970) (1970) Seymour Hersh, Seymour Hersh, The Price of Power:Kissinger in the Nixon White House The Price of Power:Kissinger in the Nixon White House (1983)(1983) Christopher Hitchens, Christopher Hitchens, The Trial of Henry KissingerThe Trial of Henry Kissinger (2001) (2001) Robert D. Johnson, Robert D. Johnson, Ernest Gruening and the American Dissenting TraditionErnest Gruening and the American Dissenting Tradition

(Harvard UP, 1998)(Harvard UP, 1998) Walter LaFeber, Walter LaFeber, America, Russia, and the Cold War, 1945-2006America, Russia, and the Cold War, 1945-2006 (2008) (2008) Robert McNamara, Robert McNamara, In Retrospect: The Tragedy and Lessons of VietnamIn Retrospect: The Tragedy and Lessons of Vietnam (1997) (1997) Jonathan Nashel, Jonathan Nashel, Edward Lansdale’s Cold WarEdward Lansdale’s Cold War (University of Massachusetts (University of Massachusetts

Press, 2005)Press, 2005) Cyma Rubin and Eric Newton, eds., Cyma Rubin and Eric Newton, eds., The Pulitzer Prize PhotographsThe Pulitzer Prize Photographs (The (The

Freedom Forum Newseum, 2000)Freedom Forum Newseum, 2000) Marilyn Young, Marilyn Young, Vietnam Wars, 1945-1990Vietnam Wars, 1945-1990 (1991) (1991) Miller Center of Public Affairs - Vietnam War BibliographyMiller Center of Public Affairs - Vietnam War Bibliography