TheVikingSpirit

AnIntroductiontoNorseMythologyandReligion

DANIELMCCOYOceanofPDF.com

Copyright©2016DanielMcCoy

Allrightsreserved.

ISBN:1533393036ISBN-13:978-1533393036

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TableofContentsPartOne:NorseReligionChapter1:IntroductionChapter2:GodsandGoddessesChapter3:OtherNuminousBeingsChapter4:CosmologyChapter5:FateChapter6:MoralityChapter7:TheSelfandItsPartsChapter8:DeathandtheAfterlifeChapter9:FormalReligiousPracticeChapter10:MagicandShamanism

PartTwo:NorseMythologyChapter11:WhatisNorseMythology?Chapter12:TheCreationoftheCosmosChapter13:TheCreationoftheFirstHumansChapter14:HeimdallFatherstheSocialClassesChapter15:TheWaroftheGodsChapter16:TheMeadofPoetryChapter17:TheTreasuresoftheGodsChapter18:HowAsgard’sWallWasBuiltChapter19:Odin’sDiscoveryoftheRunesChapter20:WhyOdinIsOne-EyedChapter21:TheBindingoftheWolfChapter22:ThorFishesfortheGreatSerpentChapter23:TheKidnappingofIdunChapter24:TheMarriageofNjordandSkadiChapter25:ThorandGeirrodChapter26:TheTheftofFreya’sNecklace

Chapter27:Odin’sExileChapter28:Frey’sWooingofGerdChapter29:TheOrdealoftheHoodedOneChapter30:GefjunPlowsZealandfromSwedenChapter31:Thor’sDuelwithHrungnirChapter32:Gray-BeardtheFerrymanChapter33:OdinandBilling’sDaughterChapter34:ThorandUtgarda-LokiChapter35:OdinandVafthrudnirChapter36:ThortheBrideChapter37:Thor’sContestwithAlvissChapter38:Balder’sDreamsChapter39:Balder’sDeath(Version1)Chapter40:Balder’sDeath(Version2)Chapter41:Loki’sTauntsChapter42:Loki’sPunishmentChapter43:Andvari’sCurseChapter44:TheSagaofSigurdChapter45:Ragnarok

Epilogue

Chapter46:Conclusion

Notes

Bibliography

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PartOne:NorseReligion

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Chapter1:Introduction

THEVIKINGWORLDThelongshipswaysonthewindysealikeaseerinatrance.Afterdaysof

hard rowing through rain and roiling waves, the crew is exhausted. Theirrough,gray-brownwoolenclothesareheavywithwater,andeventhoughtherainhasfinallygivenwaytoamerelycloudymorning,theAugustairiscoolenoughthatthedrenchedmenshiverastheytaketurnsrowingandamusingthemselveswithdicegames.

TheyhadsetsailfromthewesterncoastofScandinaviaseveraldaysago,bound for theeasterncoastofEngland,a landaboutwhose riches theyhadheardmanymarveloustalesfromVikingsundertheleadershipofneighboringkingsandchieftains.Noneof themen in theking’s fleetof five impressiveships have ever yet set foot on that great island. But they are expertnavigators,andknowthesignstowatchintheskyandwater toguidethemwest.

Sverrirremovesasoggybarleyrollfromhissackandtakesabite.Thebread, having been threshed on the ground, is full of bits of sand and dirt.Althoughhe’sonlyinhislateteens,eatingroughbreadlikethisforhisentirelifehasgroundhisteethdownconsiderably.He’salreadylostafewofthem.Thisroll,however,hassomeoftheinnerbarkofapinetreebakedintoittoprovidemuch-neededvitaminstowardoffscurvy.Thoughthemeagerrollisnot enough to fill his belly, he’s grateful for the edge being taken off hishunger,aswellasthenourishment.

Inhischildhood,Sverrirhadgrownupthesonofafairlywell-offfarmer.Althoughhehadbeenmadetojoininthedifficult,dangerous,andseeminglyneverendingfarmworkwhenhewasstillayoungboy,andhadlivedthroughtwo separate occasions of bitter famine that left him shorter than hewouldotherwisehavebeen,hehasoftenfoundhimselfmissingtherelativecertaintyandsecurityofthosedays.Hehadalwayswantedtoinherithisfather’sfarm,butwhen his father died from diseasewhen Sverrirwas seventeen, he hadknownthatasthefourthandyoungestson,hestoodlittlechanceofinheritinganythinginhisfather’sestate.Andhehadbeenright.So,outofhardshipasmuch as ambition, he had gone and joined the king’s band ofwarriors andraiders.

Now,atlast,heisonhisfirstraid.Stilljusteighteen,heisterrified,buteager for the honor that these pursuitswill surely bring himback at home.

And his leader, King Harald, has so far shown himself to be a noble,generous,andfiercelycleverman.Sverririsproudtoservehim.

Sverrir looks up and sees his king standing at the front of the ship,observingtheheavensandgivinginstructions to thehelmsman.This, thinksSverrir,ishowOdinmustlookwhenheleadsthegodsintobattleagainstthegiants.Sverrirhimself isamanofThor,andhehadsacrificedagoat tohispatrongod in return forgood fortuneon this raidon thedaybeforehe lefthome.

A gull cries out as it flies overhead. The crewmembers all cease theirtasksforamomentandtakenotice.Itmeansthatthey’regettingclosetoland.And, soon enough, through the clearingmist, the first faint outlines of thewhiteandgreencoastofEnglandcomeintoview.

Theclankingandtinklingofmetalcanbeheardfromeverycorneroftheship as thewarriors get theirweapons in order.The fewof themwhoownsomepiecesofarmorputthemon.Sverrirreadieshisaxe.HeandHauk,hisbestfriendfromchildhoodwhohasalsobecomeoneof theking’swarriors,exchangewarmwordsofencouragement.Thekingdeliversarousingspeech,asdothechieftainsfortheirmenintheaccompanyingvessels.

Theshipslandandtheircrewsdisembark.Nooneelseisinsight,butiftheir informantshave told themcorrectly, there shouldbeawealthy tradingcityjustoverthedune-likehillsthatformtheperimeterofthesandybeach.

Whentheking’sforceroundsthecrestofthehills,theyseealargetownwithamagnificent,ornatebuildingwithmanyspiresinitscenter.Stillnooneisinsight.Butastheymaketheirwaythroughthefarmsatthecity’sedgeandtoward the wall that encloses the city proper, they see bread half-kneadedsittingontablesandfireshalf-smolderinginhearths.Theinhabitantsofthesefarmshaveleftveryrecently–andveryquickly.

Bythetimetheforcereaches thecitygates,manyof thewarriorshaveworked themselves up into an ecstatic frenzy and are howling, baying, androaring like wolves and bears. Everyone is shouting and banging theirweaponsagainst their thickwooden shields.The first flurryof arrows rainsdownuponthemfromslitsinthestonewallabovethegranddoors.Themenraisetheirshieldstodeflectthem.Afewanguishedscreamsareheard,buttheband presses forward. In a surprisingly short time, they hack their waythrough the doors and into the city. But again, they see no one. Even thearchers have seemingly fled. Themen go around ransacking everything intheir path, picking up anything of value they encounter, ofwhich they canfindstrangelylittle.

Atlast,theyreachthegrandiosebuildingatthecenterofthecity.Sverrirwhispers toHauk that the building looks like oneof the great temples he’s

been told exist in this land, where ceremonies so bizarre as to be barelybelievabletakeplacetohonoragodwhoissaidtoreignaloneandtohateallof theothergodsandgoddesses.If the legendsare true,hesays, thepeoplewho worship in such a place even eat the flesh and blood of one of theirheroes.Theever-skepticalHauksnortsanddismissessuchreportsasnothingmorethantalltales.

At first, they hear no sounds coming fromwithin the building. But asthey get closer, they canmake out themuffled sounds of aman speaking.Thereisauthorityandleadershipinhistoneandcadence,buthisvoicecracksandscrambles,as ifoutofmortal fear.TheVikingschop through thedoorsandsmashthehigh,intricately-coloredwindows.

Asthefirstwarriorspourin,desperateshrieksbreakoutfromthecrowdofmen,women,andchildrenhuddled inside.The interiorof thebuilding ismorelavishbyfarthananySverrirhaseverseen.Thiseffectisheightenedbythefactthatthetownspeoplehaveevidentlybroughtallofthevaluablestheycouldintothisplacewiththem,althoughmanyof themostexpensiveitemsSverrircanseearoundhimarepartofthefixturesofthebuildingitself.

ThetownspeopleperformastrangegesturethatinvolvestouchingoneoftheirhandstofourdifferentpartsoftheirtorsoandheadastheVikingsbegintohewdownanyone–man,woman,orchild–whostandsbetweenthemandtheirplunder.Someseemtomurderfornootherreasonthansport,orperhapsunquenchable,ecstaticrage.

Sverrir approaches a man wearing a long, richly decorated robe,attempting to fleewith an axe-sized crossmadeofgoldwith thebodyof ascrawnymancarvedontooneside.Sverrirgrabshimbytheshoulder,staresdownathimwithalltheferocityhecanmuster,andsays,“Givemethegoldyou’re holding and I’ll spare your life.” Then man hesitates, weeping, butwhen Sverrir raises his axe, he obliges. Sverrir lets him go, and the maninhales toheave a sighofboth relief anddespair before anotheroneof theVikingwarriors,aveteranofmanyraidsfamedforhisrecklessdaring,rushesup screaming and slashes the man’s head halfway off his neck, so that itdanglestoonesideastheman’sbodyfallstotheground.Theyoungfighterfeelshisstomachcontentslurchinguptowardhismouth,buthesummonsallhis strength to force them back down. The senseless suffering and gore allaroundhimhasturnedouttobearlittleresemblancetotheshiningvisionofbattle that had been presented to him in songs and speeches back at home.But, he reminds himself, he is still young and inexperienced; perhaps he’smissing something.Andafter all, arenotheandhis fellow raiderswinningthewealth theysetout towin–and,afterwards, acelebratedname in theirhometown?Doesn’t thatmake the rest of this really quite grim and sordid

expeditionworthwhile?Abovetheclamorofcarnage,awarhornisheard,snappingSverrirout

ofhisbrief reverie.Someof thepeople rush to thebrokenwindowson thesidefromwhichtheblasthadcome.Thetownspeopleturnawaywithalookofhopeontheirfaces,buttheVikingsturnawaywithalookofgreatworry.It’s a formidable English army, many times larger than the Viking force,arrivingwithreinforcementsforthecity.

KingHaraldshoutsanordertoreturntotheboatsatoncewiththespoils.Themen run as fast as they canmanagewith their loot, but shortly beforereaching thedunes theyareovertaken.A terriblebattleerupts.Manydieonbothsides.TheEnglisharmyisledbytheregionalking,whoablycommandshiswell-trainedranks.ThoughtheVikingsdoeventuallymakeitbacktotheships and set sail for homewithmuch of their plunder in tow, they sufferheavy losses.Most distressingly for Sverrir, Hauk falls after having foughtvaliantly.

After manymore days at sea, nursing wounds great and small, eatingmore stale bread, and dealingwithmore inclementweather, KingHarald’smen at last spy the looming mountains and beckoning fjords of theirhomeland.Upontheirarrivalintheirhometown,theraidingpartyreceivesatriumphant welcome. Sverrir is greeted warmly by his brothers and byThordis, acharminggirlofabouthisagewhomhehadbeencourting forawhile before embarking on the raid. They’ve talked about marriage, butSverrirwantstoamassenoughwealthbyplunderingtobuyafarmbeforehesettlesdownwithheroranyoneelse.He’sheardthatsheexcelsatspinning,weaving, sewing, cooking, milking, making dairy products, and everythingelse on the seemingly endless list of tasks a capable wife is expected toperform,andtoperformwell.Hisfeelingsforherrundeep,butheknowsthatlovealonedoesn’tkeepafarmgoing.

The following day, the king holds a splendid feast in his hall for hiswarriors.Thelong,high,timberbuildinghasnowindows.Firelightprovidesthe only illumination, and in it, the king, dressed in his finest clothes andarmor, much of which contains gold and silver, positively glows, furthersetting him apart. The band of warriors is seated according to rank andaccomplishment around two long, slender tables that run perpendicular towhereKingHaraldsitsat theheadof thegathering.Thequeenbringsoutalarge, ornate pitcher of mead and serves the warriors ceremoniously,beginningwiththekingandgoingondowntherows.Sverrir,beingoneofthenewestrecruits,isseatedtowardtheendofthetables,andisoneofthelasttobeserved.

When everyone’s horn is filled with drink, rounds of toasts and oaths

commence.Then,at last, thewomenbringout the food.Thecenterpieceofthe meal is a bull that had earlier been sacrificed to give thanks for the(mostly)successfulraid.Asthemenbecomemoreandmoreinebriated,andas theirbelliesget fullerand fuller fromthesumptuous treatsplacedbeforethem, the mood becomes more and more jovial, and their camaraderie isstrengthened.

Whenthemealisfinished,oneofKingHarald’smanypoetstakesoutasmallharpandannouncesthathe’swrittenanewpieceinhonorofhispatron.Withhis fingerspluckingasuitableaccompaniment,hesingsasongwhosewordcraftissointricateandlearnedthatthesimplewarriors–who,besides,arenowquitedrunk–can’tmakesenseofpartsofit,tryastheymight.WhatSverrir cancomprehend is that theking is said tobeadescendentofOdin,that he has fought more battles and vanquished more foes than any otherhumanking,andthathisgenerosityisasunparalleledashiswarlikeprowess.Therecentraidispresentedasanunmitigated,gloriousvictory.Deepdown,Sverrirfindshimselfquestioningwhetherornotithadindeedhappenedasthepoetnowsaysithad.Haukisdead,asareseveraloftheking’sotherfighters,andbesides,thepoethadn’tevenbeentheretowitnessit.Whatdidheknow?Nevertheless, Sverrir finds himself swept up in the rousing, artfulmoment.This reaction seems universal among the warriors, and they all agreeafterwardthat,althoughsomeofthepoemhadgoneovertheirheads,itmusthavebeenanexquisitepiece.

Next, King Harald dispenses the spoils of the raid. As if in directfulfillmentofthepoet’spraises,theking’sgiftstohimarequiteampleindeed.Allofthemenreceivesharesofthebootythatstrengthentheirwarmfeelingsof fealty to their leader. Sverrir, for his part, receives a few costly goldentrinkets–“enoughtobeginsavingforthatfarm,”hethinks.

In the following days, he uses a bit of the gold to pay to have a largememorialstoneraised tohonorhisfallenfriend.Althoughilliteratehimself,hepaysalocalmanwhoiswell-versedintherunestoinscribeonthestone,“I,Sverrir,raisedthisstoneforHauk,whodiedwhenkingswerefighting.”

SuchishowoneepisodeinthelifeofoneVikingmighthaveunfolded.

The elements in that story were all selected not because they wereexceptional,butbecausetheywereunexceptional.Almostallofthem,downto the details, are routinely attested in the archaeological record andcontemporaryandlaterliteraryaccountsoftheVikingAge.1

ThiswastheworldinwhichtheNorsemythsandreligionflourished.Itwas a world of startling accomplishment. The Vikings raided throughoutEurope,conqueredlargeportionsofit,establishedsettlementsinIcelandand

Greenland, discovered North America 500 years before ChristopherColumbus, and traded with peoples who lived in such far-flung places asEgyptandthePersianGulf.But itwasalsoaworldofstartlingsqualorandbrutality.Shortlifespans,famine,malnutrition,rampantillnessandinfirmity,perilous ways of making a living, incessant toil for paltry benefits, roughtreatment ofmen andwomen low on the social pecking order, exposure tobittercold,andanynumberofotherappallinghardshipswerefactsoflifefortheScandinaviansoftheVikingAge.Onelivedontherazor’sedgebetweenlifeanddeath,andlifewasfrequentlyanastybusiness.

DEFINING“NORSERELIGION”

Beforeyoucanhaveameaningfuldiscussionofa topic,especiallyone

thatcentersontermswhosedefinitionsarehotlyandendlesslycontested,youfirst have to define the terms you’re using so that everyone is on the samepage. We’ll consider how to define “myth” and “mythology” in ChapterEleven,butfornow,let’sgoaheadanddefine“Norsereligion.”Thephraseiscomprisedof twowords,bothofwhich should firstbe lookedat separatelybeforebringingthembacktogetheragain.

“Norse” here refers to theOldNorse-speaking inhabitants of the landsthat are now the countries of Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Iceland, and theFaroe Islands, as well as the colonies they established throughout northernEurope and elsewhere during theVikingAge (roughly from the late eighthcenturytothelateeleventhcenturyCE).TheNorsewereanorthernbranchofthe Germanic group of peoples, who in turn were a branch of the Indo-European peoples,who immigrated toEurope from the steppes ofmodern-day Ukraine and Russia over the course of several millennia beginning inabout4000BCE,absorbinglocalpopulationsalongtheway.It’snotentirelyclearwhentheProto-Germaniclanguage(thefirstGermaniclanguage,whichwasspokenbyalloftheGermanicpeoples)becamedistinctfromtheProto-Indo-Europeanlanguage,butitseemstohavecomeintoitsownnolaterthanthe first few centuriesBCE.By the start of theVikingAge, theOldNorselanguage had split off from the earlier, common Germanic language. TheVikingAge is typically considered to be the latest part of the IronAge inScandinavia,andthecenturiesthatfollow(fromthetwelfthcenturyonward)areusuallyconsideredtobethefirst“medieval”centuriesinScandinavia–asomewhatdifferentchronologythantheoneusedwhendiscussingthehistoryofthemoresoutherlypartsofEurope.2

The closely related term “Viking” is usually used in one of twoways:either it refers specifically to theNorsemenwhowent on raiding voyages

during the Viking Age, or it more broadly refers to the whole Norsepopulationduringtheperiod.Whilevariousscholarsandlaypeoplepreferoneusageovertheother,bothhavebecomeestablishedandaccepteduses.Inthisbook, I use the second, broader definition of “Viking.” Thus, unless it’sapparent from the context that I’m specifically referring to the northernpirates, which I will do only occasionally, “Viking” and “Norse” are usedmoreorlessinterchangeablyhere.

“Religion”maybeoneofthemostdifficultwordsinthemodernEnglishlanguage to define. Countless definitions have been proposed over thecenturies, which vary greatly in substance as well as in usefulness. In thisbook,we’llusethedefinitionthatisprobablythemostusefulandappropriateto date, which also happens to be one of the most famous: that of theesteemed German philosopher of religion Rudolf Otto. In his classic 1917workTheIdeaoftheHoly(DasHeiligeintheoriginalGerman),hedescribesreligionasameansofacknowledgingandconnectingtothe“numinous.”Thenuminous is an irreducible category that forms the heart of any and allreligions:“Thereisnoreligioninwhichitdoesnotliveastherealinnermostcore, and without it no religion would be worthy of the name.”3 As thegreatest theologians and mystics of all religions have pointed out, thenuminous is ineffable. Referring to it at all, whether as “the numinous,”“God,” “nirvana,” “Odin,” “Freya,” or anything else, is an after-the-factcharacterizationofsomethingthatcan’tbeadequatelyexpressedinlanguage,butcanonlybetrulyunderstoodifexperiencedfirsthand.(Thisissurelyoneofthereasonswhytheword“religion”issonotoriouslydifficulttodefine.)

Nevertheless, Otto offers some characterizations of the numinous that,whiletheyinevitablyfallshortoftherealthing,pointtoitexceptionallywell.The numinous is something “wholly other”4 than the things that weexperienceinourday-to-daylives.Itseemstocomefromadifferentplaneofexistence.Confrontedwithit,oneexperiencesoneselfasbeing“butdustandashes,”5 utterly insignificant and inconsequential in the face of somethingimmeasurably greater. It has a majestic, daunting, awe-inspiring, eventerrifying aspect, which Otto calls themysterium tremendum, as well as ablissful,comfortingside,whichhecallsthemysteriumfascinans.6

“Norsereligion,”then,wasthemeanstheVikingsusedtoacknowledgeand toconnect to thenuminous. Itwasasetofsymbolic ideas,personages,stories, and ritual actions appropriate to facilitating that pursuit within thecontextoftheVikings’timeandplace.

Unlike most of the “world religions” with which people today arefamiliar, theNorse religionwasnever systematizedor codified.Therewerenocreedsorscripturesthatdefinedwhatwasacceptableandunacceptableto

believeor todo.Thatwas leftup tosocialcustomandpersonalpreference.There were certainly some common rudimentary patterns of belief andbehavior, enough that it’s reasonable to speak of “Norse religion” in thesingular,buteventhesecommonelementswerefluid,andthedetailsdivergedenormously across time and space. Different communities and differentindividuals had their own variations of the shared religion. While thissomewhat laissez-faire approach is appealing to many people’s taste forindividualfreedom,itpresentscertainfrustrationsforthescholar,aswe’llseemomentarilywhenweconsiderthesourcesofourpresent-dayknowledgeofNorsereligionandmythology.

Itshouldalsobenotedherethatapplyingtheterm“religion”toparticularaspectsofVikingexperience,belief,andbehaviorissomewhatanachronistic.The Old Norse language had no word for “religion,” and what we call“religion” was seamlessly integrated into the other aspects of life. Thereligioushierarchywasthesameasthe“secular”hierarchy.Kings,chieftains,andother rulerswereseenasbeingdivine insomecapacity.Their rulewasseen as being divinely sanctioned. And it was they who led the publicreligiousaswell as “secular”activitiesof thecommunities they ruled.7Thenuminouswasusuallycontactedaspartofanattempttogainsomepracticalbenefit in war, wealth, health, love, interpersonal disputes, etc. Thoseactivities, in turn, were directed in part according to the people’s religiousconceptions.Sowhilewetodaytendtoisolatereligionasadiscreteaspectoflife, theVikingstendedtoseeitas inseparablyintertwinedwitheveryotherpartof“thewaythingsare,”whichiswhytheydidn’thaveawordforit.

SOURCES,METHODS,ANDTHEPRESENTSTATEOFOUR

KNOWLEDGE

BeforewesaymuchmoreaboutNorsereligionandmythology,let’sfirstbrieflypausetoconsideracrucialquestion:howdoweknowwhatweknow(or think we know) about them? The available evidence for Viking Agereligion andmythology comes from several different types of sources, butliterarysourcesinevitablycontainthebackboneofthatevidence,solet’slookatthemfirst.

Theonlywrittensourceswepossessdirectlyfrompre-ChristiantimesinnorthernEuropearerunicinscriptions,whichareallbriefand,takentogether,tell us very little.8 The rather sparsely-used runeswere the onlymethod ofwriting theNorsehadprior to the introductionof theLatinalphabet,whichwent hand in hand with the introduction of Christianity in the tenth andeleventhcenturies.Vikingculturewasanoralculture,andeventhoughthere

were surely traditional poems that dealt with mythic and religious topics,noneofthesehavesurvived–withafewpartialandpossibleexceptions,aswe’llseeshortly.

However, we do possess court poetry – called “skaldic poetry” afterskald, the Old Norse word for “poet” – that dates from the ninth centuryonwards,whichwas composed and transmittedorally formanygenerationsbefore finally being written down in the eleventh through fourteenthcenturies, usually in the form of quotations in larger prose works. Thepurposeoftheskaldicpoemswastopleaseandpraisethekingsbywhomtheskaldswereemployed.Theyseldomrecountmythsintheirentirety,buttheyoften allude to myths along the way to make a point. The skaldic poemsthereforeoftenenableustoseethatatleastsomeversionofamythretoldbythemedievalauthorsdidindeedexistintheVikingAge.9

A major collection of anonymous Old Norse poetry called the PoeticEdda was compiled and edited in Iceland in the thirteenth century. (PoeticEdda is a modern name; the collection was originally nameless, and wasgivenitscurrenttitlebyseventeenth-centuryscholarsstruckbythesimilarityof its contents to those of Snorri Sturluson’s Edda, which we’ll examinemomentarily.)Thepoemsinthiscollectionaredifferentfromtypicalskaldicpoemsintheirformalstructureandinthefactthattheydosetouttorecountwhole myths. Therefore, they’re called “Eddic poetry” to distinguish themfromskaldicpoetry.Scholars fiercely andendlesslydebate the ageof thesepoems.Argumentsrangefromtheninthtothirteenthcenturies,anddifferentpoemswereofcourseprobablycomposedatdifferenttimes(andindifferentplaces).Similarly,there’slittleconsensusonwhethertheystartedoutasoralpoemsorwrittenones.Whatwecanbesureof,however,isthattheforminwhich they’ve comedown tous is aproductof the thirteenth century, longaftertheNorsereligionhadceasedtobealivingtraditionandhadbecomeatopicof antiquarian interest.Theeditorsof thePoeticEdda weren’t simplycompilers;inadditiontodecidingwhichpoemstoincludeandinwhichorder,theymadechangesandaddedaconsiderableamountofmaterialtothefinaltextofthecollection.PartsofthecollectionwereprobablycomposedduringtheVikingAgeandtheperiodofthetransitiontoChristianity,butotherpartsof it were definitely written by the thirteenth-century editors. These partsinclude “stage directions” inserted into the bodies of some of the poems,addedorsubtractedverses,andprosepassagesthathavebeenplacedbeforeandaftersomeofthepoems.10

Thirteenth-century Iceland has also given us the Edda of SnorriSturluson,oftencalledtheProseEddatodistinguishitfromthePoeticEdda.NoonetodayknowswhatthewordEddameans,andspeculationhassofar

provenmostlyunfruitful.Snorri(Icelanderswereandarereferredtobytheirfirstnamesratherthantheirlastnames)wasamanofgreatlearningandgreatambition–aclergyman,historian,politician,andmanyotherthings.HewrotehisEdda in order to provide a handbook on how to write traditional OldNorse poetry. Since one of themainstays of that traditionwas a system ofelaborate,standardizedallusionstoimages,characters,andeventsfromNorsemythology,Snorriendeavoredtoprovideamoreorlesssystematicoverviewoftheoldmythsaspartofhishandbook.

Snorri’seffortwasshapedbytwomainfactors:hissourcesandhisownperspective.Sincetheoral traditionofretellingtheoldmythshadbecomeathing of the past by Snorri’s day, he had to rely onwritten sources. TheseincludedmanyofthepoemsthatwouldlaterbeincludedinthePoeticEdda,skaldicpoems,andprobablymanyadditionalpoemsthathavesincebeenlost.Sincewedopossess at least someof his sources,we can compare them toSnorri’saccounttogetasenseofhismethods.Likeanyotherscholar,Snorriwas all too human. He sometimesmisinterpreted his sources, glossed overimportantdifferencesbetween them inanattempt topresent acoherent andsystematicnarrative,andwhenhissourcesleftgapsinthestoryhewantedtotell, he filled them inwithhis own imagination.11Due to his own religiouspreferencesandthoseofhisaudience,SnorripresentedtheNorsereligionasthegropingattemptofhisancestors tomakesenseof theworldwithout theall-illuminatingrevelationthatChristhadprovided.Whileitwasallmanmadefolly,SnorritookpainstopresenthisforebearsashavinganticipatedelementsofChristianity.He therefore bent and stretched his data tomake theNorsemythsandbeliefsseemclosertothoseofChristianitythantheyactuallyhadbeen,aswellastoaccountforthemwithinaChristianhistoricalframework.12WhileSnorriwasahighlycapablescholarby thestandardsofhis time, it’simportant to remember his lack of firsthand experience of the religion andmythologyhedescribesandthefact thatheconsciouslyshapedthematerialtofitthegoalsofhisproject.

Thenextmajorcategoryof literarysources toconsider is the Icelandicsagas. (Thewordsaga is simplyOldNorse for “story.”)The earliest of thesagasdatefromtheendofthetwelfthcentury,whilethelatestdatefromthefourteenth century.13 Their subject matter, however, concerns events thatwouldhavehappenedcenturiesearlier.They’remostlyanonymous,withthemostnotableexceptionbeingthesagasthatcomprisetheHeimskringla(“TheHistoryoftheKingsofNorway”),whichwerewrittenbySnorri.Bymodernstandards, the sagas occupy a curious place in between history and fiction.But our modern conception of history didn’t arise until centuries after thesagaswerewritten.Thesagaauthorssawthemselvesaspresentingtraditional

lore,creativelyadaptingit tomakeitespeciallypalatabletotheiraudiences,not as presenting impartial, factual accounts of past events backed up byextensiveresearch.Inotherwords,whilewethinkoftheauthorityofaworkof history as resting on the scope and quality of its research, themedievalIcelanderssawvenerabletraditionasthefirmestbasisforawork’slegitimateclaimstoauthority.

AroundthesametimethatSnorriwaswritinghisProseEddainIceland,aDanishbishop’sclericalassistantbythenameofSaxoGrammaticus(“Saxothe Learned”) was writing another greatly important work, the GestaDanorum(“HistoryoftheDanes”).UnlikeSnorriandthesagaauthors,whowrote in their native Old Norse, Saxo wrote in Latin. Since the acceptedwisdomofhisdaytracedtheDanishpeopleandtheirrulersbacktomythicalorigins, Saxo included many of these myths in his account. However, hedesacralized them by portraying them as events that had happened atparticular times and places in this world, rather than in the hazy, almosttimeless otherworld inwhich themyths had originally been seen as takingplace.Healsoturnedmanydivinefiguresintohumanones.SaxotellsusthathissourceswereIcelandersandrunicinscriptions.Buthissourceshaveneverbeenfound,soit’simpossibletoreallyknowwhattomakeofthisclaim.Thisis an important question, since he presents remarkably different versions ofstoriesknownfromSnorriandelsewhere.14

Other notable literary sources are accounts by foreign authors, such astheGermanAdamofBremen,whoincludesafamousdescriptionofatempleatUppsalainSwedeninhisHistoryoftheArchbishopsofHamburg-Bremen,andAhmadIbnFadlan,anArabicwriterwhohasbequeathed tousa lavishaccountofaVikingburialinEasternEurope.

Themost important non-literary sources to consider are archaeologicalones,suchasgravesandpicture-stones.Archaeologyisanappealingsourcebecauseof howpure anduntrammeled it’s often thought to be.After all, itcomes directly from the hands of the Vikings themselves. But beneath itsapparent purity, archaeology is actually highly problematic. Of all of thevarioustypesofsources,archaeologicalonesarebyfarthemostdifficult tointerpret, and yet are the ones in most need of interpretation. Generallyspeaking, we can only make sense of what archaeology gives us withreference to the later literary sources. While archaeology can therebycorroborate some of the information provided in the later literary sources,thereisalwaysariskofforcingthearchaeologicalevidencetofitaparticular,artificialmold, sincewe’reessentially ignorantofwhat itmightmeanapartfromtheparticularinterpretivefiltersofthelaterwrittenworks.Ratherthanstanding closer to the Vikings than the literary sources of later periods,

archaeologicalevidenceis,paradoxically,oftenactuallyonestepfartherawayfromtheVikingsthantheliterarysources.15

AnotherfruitfulsourceofinformationandinsightintoNorsereligionandmythology is cross-cultural comparisonswith other peopleswithwhom theNorse stood in some particularly meaningful relationship. By comparingotherwise perplexing details from written sources and archaeology withbetter-knownpracticesandbeliefsof relatedpeoples,wecanoftencome tounderstand Norse mythology and religion more fully. The closest cultureswithwhichwecancompareelementsofNorseculturearethoseoftheotherGermanic groups such as theAnglo-Saxons ofEngland and the continentalGermanic tribes;other Indo-Europeangroupssuchas theIndians(of India),Celts,Slavs,Greeks,andRomans;theSámi,thetraditionallynomadicpeopleof northern Scandinavia; and, in some special cases, other circumpolarEurasiangroupsfromfartherafield,suchastheindigenouspeoplesofSiberia.

Additional sources of note include law codes, place-names, linguisticevidence, and folklore from later periods. When a law code prohibitssomething,we can be reasonably certain that it was practiced.Written lawcodesfromtheChristianerainnorthernEuropeoftenprohibitactivitiesthatsoundlikevestigesofpre-Christianpractice,whichcansometimesprovideuswithadditionalcluesastowhatexactlythosepracticesinvolved.Place-namesfrom theNorse countries occasionally contain thenameof a deity and/or awordthatsignalsthepresenceofsomekindofholysite,whichfurnishesuswith additional information on which gods and goddesses were actuallyworshipped (rather than just being literary characters), how frequently, andwhere.StudyingthewordsthattheNorseusedtorefertoparticularconcepts,beings,etc.cangiveuscluesabout themeaningsof thoseconceptsand thecharactersofthosebeings.We’llfindnumerousexamplesofthisthroughoutthis book. And folklore from the medieval and early modern periodsoccasionallypreserveselementsofbeliefsandpracticesfromtheVikingAgeandearlier,althoughthistypeofsourcemustbehandledespeciallycarefullydue to thedifficultyof locatingelementsofancient religionandmythologyamongstthemuchlargerproportionofmorerecentinnovations.

What does the nature of these sources mean for the study of Norsemythologyandreligion?Aswe’veseen,therearenosourcesthatwecantakeatfacevalue.Allofoursourcescarrypotentialproblemsandpitfalls,andthemostsignificantsourcesarealsooftenthemosthazardous.Furthermore,sinceNorsemythologyandreligionwerenevercodifiedorsystematizedby thosewho actually believed in and practiced them, a source that describes thebeliefs or practices of one particular locality or person can’t necessarily beassumedtospeakfortheentiretyofthepre-ChristianNorsepopulation.Only

bycriticallyanalyzingallofthesedisparatesourcesinrelationtooneanothercanwearriveata reliableandsubstantialpictureofwhatNorsemythologyandreligionactuallylookedlike.Thispicturewillneverbeanythingclosetocomplete,anditwillneverbewithoutitsdifficulties,butthepicturewehaveisvividandfascinatingindeed.

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Chapter2:GodsandGoddesses

THENATUREOFTHENORSEDEITIESWhen you hear the word “god,” what kind of image pops into your

mind? Perhaps you think of whatmost Christians, Jews, andMuslims call“God” with a capital “G:” a supreme being who created the worldsinglehandedly,whoisall-powerfulyetall-loving,andwhohasa“plan”foreveryone (or at least certain favored people) that is supposed to ultimatelywork out to their benefit. Or perhaps you think of the Greek gods andgoddesses,mostofwhomcouldbereferredtoasthegodorgoddess“of”oneparticularthingwithatolerabledegreeofaccuracy:Artemis,goddessofthehunt; Aphrodite, goddess of love; Ares, god of war; or Asklepios, god ofhealing.

TheNorsegodsandgoddesseswerenoneofthosethings.Theyweren’t“supreme,”theyweren’tparticularlybenevolent,andtheyhadpersonalitiesasrich and multifaceted as those of the most complicated humans, whichcouldn’tbereducedtoanysimpleformulalike“godofx”withoutexpressingonlyafractionofthedeity’scharacterandsphereofinfluence.

Whatwerethey,then?Wecanstart toanswer thatquestionbyconsidering thewords thatOld

Norsespeakersusedtorefertothem.Themostwidely-usedwordfor“god”wasáss,oræsir in theplural (“gods”). Its corresponding feminine form for“goddess”wasásynja,orásynjurin theplural (“goddesses”).Whenreferredtoasacollectivethatincludedbothgodsandgoddesses,themasculinepluralæsirwasused.ThesewordsareallderivedfromoneoftwoProto-Germanicroots:*ansaz,“pole,beam,rafter,”or*ansuz,“life,vitality.”1 Ineithercase,thisetymology (whereawordcomes from) suggests that thegodswere themetaphorical “poles” or “vital forces” that held together and sustained thecosmosanditsorder.Theywereverymuchapartofthecosmosratherthanbeingswhomerelymanipulateditfromtheoutside.Whenthecosmosarose,theyarosewithitaspartofthesameprocess.Andwhenthecosmoswillfall,as the Norse prophecies of Ragnarok foretell, the gods will fall with it.Etymology,myth,andreligionallcomplementandreinforceeachotherhere,whichpointstothishavingbeenacentralNorsetheologicalconcept.

Thesecondmostwidely-usedwordfor“gods”inOldNorsewasregin,“rulers.”This,too,isperfectlyconsistentwiththeirrecordedroleinmythandreligion. In addition to being part and parcel of the cosmos, the godswere

characterized by their extreme level of power within the cosmos. None ofthemwere“supreme,”becauseeachhadcertainpowersthattheothersdidn’thave,and theyweresubject to fate just likeallotherbeings.But theyweremorepowerful thananyotherbeings,with the sole exceptionof theNorns,the carvers and weavers of fate. The structure of the cosmos was seen asanalogous to theNorsesocialhierarchy,with thegodsandgoddessesas therulerswhoestablishedandenforcedtheorderofthesystemandreignedoverthoselesspowerful.

The gods were seen in very anthropomorphic (human-like) andinterventionistterms.Farfromstaticmodelsofmoralsorconcepts,theyhadveryhumanstrengthsandweaknesses,albeitmagnifiedinproportiontotheirexalted status, and eachdeitywas involved in agreatmanyaspects of life.Whilethegodsandgoddesseswerefundamentallyinvisibleandinscrutable,manifestations of their presence, or at least of their power, could often befound in the images of them crafted by theirworshippers, theweather, thefunctioningofthesocialorder,thesuccessorfailureofcropsandherds,thesuccess or failure of a person’s or a group’s activities and ambitions, andpotentiallyanyotherrealmoflife.

ThecharacteroftheNorsedivinitieshadimportantramificationsfortherelationship between them and their human worshippers. In the words ofarchaeologistNeilPrice,

the 'worship'requiredbytheNorsepantheonwasnotadoration,or

gratitude,or evenunreservedapproval, andwas thusutterlyunlike theChristian relationship to thedivine.The religionof theÆsirandVanirdemanded only a recognition that they existed as an integral andimmutablepart of humannature and society, andof thenaturalworld,and that as such theypossessedan inherent rightness -perhapsevenakindofbeauty.Ifonewishedtoavoiddisaster,itwasnecessarytocometotermswiththegods,andthetermswouldbetheirs,notthoseoftheirfollowers. This is an important point … because a refusal toacknowledgethegodsinthiswaycouldhavedireconsequences.2Finally,whilemostof theOldNorsesourcesrefer toallof thegodsas

æsir,andoccasionallyalsorefertosomeorallofthegodsasvanir (awordwhosemeaningremainsunknown3),somelateliterarysourcesgroupthegodsintotwodistincttribesunderthesetwonames.(Whenweusethecapitalizedwords “Aesir” and“Vanir” to refer toparticulargroupsofdeities, as in theabove quote fromPrice,we’re talking about this tribal division.)The exactnatureofthisdivisionisambiguousandhascreatedconsiderablecontroversy

amongst modern scholars. Some, most notably philologist Rudolf Simek,havearguedthatthedivisionisaninventionofthemedievalauthors,4whilethosewhohaveaccepted itasauthentichaveofferedvarying interpretationsofwhat exactly differentiated the two tribes. The sources themselves nevergivetheirowninterpretations,andthesplitcan’tbefoundamongstanyoftheotherancientGermanicpeoples,sowe’relefttoguess.Manyhaveadvocatedsome variant of the idea that the Vanir were deities of peace and fertility,whereas the Aesir were deities of war and “culture.” Such a schema isunconvincing,however,becausetheAesiroftenplayedaroleinfertility,andtheVaniroftenplayedaroleinwarandthelifeofthemind.Thedivisionisfound in toomanydifferentsources for it tohavebeenentirely inventedbymedievalscholars.Butit’ssuchavagueandawkwardtendencyinthesourcesthatitseemstohavebeenalatedevelopmentintheVikingAge,onethatwaspresent in only a half-formedway before the processwas abortedwith theacceptanceofChristianity.Thus,whileIpointoutinstanceswheretheAesir-Vanirdistinctionmightimpactourunderstandingofaparticularpoint,Idon’tplaceundueweightonit–becausetheVikingsevidentlydidn’t,either.

ODIN

The gods humanity has worshipped over the millennia include many

enigmatic, complex, and seemingly contradictory characters among theirranks.ButperhapsnonehavepossessedthesecharacteristicsmoresothantheNorsegodOdin.Hewasthechiefofthegods,yetheoftenventuredfarfromtheirkingdom,Asgard,on long, solitarywanderings throughout the cosmosonpurelyself-interestedquests,andhehadlittleregardforcommunalvaluesandstandardssuchasjustice,fairness,orrespectforlawandcustom.Hewasthedivinepatronofrulers,butalsoofoutcasts.Hewasawargod,butalsoapoetry god. He was worshiped by those in search of prestige, honor, andnobility,yethewasoftencursedforbeingafickletrickster,andheengagedincertain“feminine”activitiesthatwouldhavebroughtunspeakableshameanddishonortoanyflesh-and-bloodNorseman.It’snowonderthattheNorsehadovertwohundrednamesforhim.5Whatkindof literaryfigure– letaloneagod whose historical worship spanned much of a continent and severalcenturies–couldpossiblyhavepossessedallofthesequalitiesatonce,withtheirapparentlyglaringcontradictions?

Odin’sOldNorsename,Óðinn,iscomprisedoftwoparts.Thefirstisthenoun óðr, a word that could be translated into modern English as“inspiration,”“ecstasy,”or“fury.”Óðrwasafrenzied,exaltedstatethatwasso overpowering and consuming that it was felt to be intrinsically divine,

whether it manifested itself as the rage of the berserker in battle, creativeinspiration, the sudden realization of an important insight, the uninhibitedpowerofakingorchieftain,or the tranceofaseerorsorcerer.Thesecondelement ofOdin’s name, -inn, is simply the definite article (“the”). Odin’snamecan thereforebest be translated as “The InspiredOne,” “TheEcstaticOne,” or “The Furious One.” The medieval German historian Adam ofBremen confirms this when he writes, “Odin, that is, Fury.”6 This divineintoxicationis theunifyingelixir thatrunsthroughthemanyotherwiseverydifferent aspects of life in which Odin had a hand, and it is the key tounderstandingthepersonalityandcharacterofthisgodwhowassaidtoliveonwinealone.7

TheNorsewere an extremelywarlike people, so it should come as nosurprisethattheyworshippedseveralwargods.Eachpresidedoverparticular,although often overlapping, aspects ofwar.Odin’s involvement inwar hadlittletodowithitsgoalsorreasons,butwasmainlyconcernedwiththerawecstasy thatbattlecouldprovoke.Thewarriorswhowereespeciallycloselytied to Odin were the berserkers (berserkir, “bear-shirts”) and úlfheðnar(“wolf-skins”),whoweresaidtohavetheabilitytotakeonthespirit–or,insomecases,eventhephysicalform–ofbearsandwolves.Theychargedandhowledonto thebattlefieldwithnoarmorandalmost less concern for theirownwell-being,hackingandpummelingawaywithutterabandonwhilelosttothemselvesintheirtrance.8It’shardtoimagineamorefrighteningthingtohaveencounteredontheIronAgebattlefield.

Odin’s attitude was similar to that of the hero of German philosopherFriedrichNietzsche’sThusSpokeZarathustra:“Yousayit is thegoodcausethat hallows evenwar? I say unto you: it is the goodwar that hallows anycause.”9Odinboasts in theEddicpoemTheSongofGray-Beard, “I incitedtheprincesnevertomakepeace.”10Twoofhisnames,HnikarrandHnikudr,mean“theonewhoincitestobattle.”11Sogreatwashislustforthefrenzyofwarthatheeveninspiredkinsmentofighteachotherwhenhecould.

The Song of King Eirik, one of the grandest surviving examples ofskaldicpoetry,relateshowtheheroesinValhalla,themagnificentlandofthedead overwhichOdin presided,welcomedKingEirikBlood-Axe upon hisdeath.Thiswasafterhehadrisentopowerbymurderingmuchofhisfamily,andhadbeensuchabrutalfigurethathewaseventuallyexiledfromNorway.Infact,uponhisarrival,Odinstatesthatitwaspreciselybecauseofthisverybrutality(“forinmanylandshasheborneareddenedsword”12)thathisspiritwaswhiskedawaytothegod’sshininghall.

As we’ll see in a later chapter, the Norse held quite idealized notionsaboutmanly,martialvalor.WhileOdinwasoneoftheforemostbattlegods,

his role in this regard was – in keeping with his general character –transgressive. When Odin obtained or granted victory, he often did so bybreaking the rulesofhonorablecombat.Hewasknownasadevious, fickletricksterwhowasapttograntfavorandthenwithdrawitwiththeflickofawrist–usuallyonethatheldasword.Hewasevenwillingtobreakoathshehadsworn,13whichwas one of themost disreputable deeds someone coulddo.Many thoughthimtobeunjustoreven,according tooneskaldicpoem,“malicious.”14 While a war god, Odin was anything but the ideal towardwhichanhonorableNorsewarrioraspired.Hewasmoreofareflectionofthegrim, sordid reality of Viking Age warfare – its unpredictability, itsunfairness, itsexcruciatingpainandhardship–butalso thesublimeecstasythatcouldbefoundatparticularmomentstherein.

Odin’s favored warriors were always the elite ones, and this samepreferenceofhisextendedtoallotherrealmsoflife;thosewhoclaimedOdinastheirpatronwere,likeOdinhimself,alwayseliteandexceptionalinsomewayoranother.Sincehewastherulerofthegods,hewasanaturalchoiceforthepatronofhumankingsandchieftains.Manyroyalfamiliesevenclaimedhim as an ancestor, often the founder of their line.15 But Odin was theantithesisofa“lawandorder”typeofrulerlikethegodTyr.Instead,hewasa“terriblesovereign”whogovernedbyrawpower,oftenofamagicalnature.

Intriguingly,hewasoftenthepatronofoutlawsaswell,suchasthesagaheroes Egil Skallagrimsson and Grettir Asmundarson, both strong-willedwarrior-poets. In the Viking world, outlaws were people who had beenformally banished from their communities for performing some especiallyheinous action, often murder. The protection of the law had been strippedfrom them (hence the title “outlaw,” that is, someonewho is outsideof thelaw), so anyone who met them could kill them without any legalrepercussions. Outlaws were among the most hated and feared people inNorse society. The sources speak of a time when Odin himself wastemporarilyoutlawedbyhisfellowgods,whichwe’llencounterinPartTwoofthisbook.SomeonewithOdin’sself-servingdispositionandcontemptforsocialmoreswasboundtodosomethingthatwouldgethimoutlawedsooneror later, and it’s not too difficult to see howOdin and other outlaws – theexceptionally criminal – could be kindred spirits on some level. While arevered king in some contexts, Odin was a despised exile in others, andlargelybecauseofthesamecharactertraits.

VisualdepictionsofOdinvariedconsiderably,inkeepingwiththefierydynamismofhispersonalityandroles.Sometimeshewaspicturedasawarleaderinfullarmor,suchasonpre-VikingAgejewelryandthefamousSuttonHoohelmet,16whileatothertimeshewasdepictedasagauntwandererwitha

dark cloak, broad-brimmed hat, and a staff that was surely no ordinarywalking stick. But he was invariably visualized with one signature trait: asingleeye.Hehadpluckedouthisothereyeinexchangeforrareandpreciousknowledge.Onanotheroccasion,dramaticallyretoldintheEddicpoemTheSong of the High One (Hávamál), he “sacrificed himself to himself” byhanging from the great tree at the center of the cosmos for nine days andnights, foregoingall foodandwaterandpeeringrelentlesslydownward intothedarkwatersoftheWellofFatebelow,untilatlastheobtainedtheobjectof his ordeal. This was the first glimpse of the runes, the jagged Norsealphabet,whose letterswere held to symbolize the foremost cosmic forces.(Theword“runes,”OldNorserúnar,means“mysteries”aswellas“letters.”)To know the runes and their secrets was to be able to wield those cosmicforces.Odin’sprize,therefore,wasfarmorethanmerelyanalphabet.

We’ll explore these stories in greater depth in Part Two. For now, it’senough to note thatOdinwaswilling to undergo any trial in order to gainmore knowledge of the innermost workings of the universe. In the Norseworldview, big-picture, esoteric knowledge of this sort was seen as beinginherently linked to magic. Indeed, the practice of magic was “simply”putting such lofty understanding to use. To gain this kind of knowledge,therefore, meant to gain colossal power, and power is what Odin wasultimatelyafter.

In the course of his magical and shamanic endeavors, Odin sacrificedsomethingelseofalmostinestimableworthtoanyNorseman:hismasculinehonor.Foramantopracticemagicmeanttobringuponhimselfunspeakableshame, for reasons thatwillbecomeclearer later.Odinwasn’tone to refuseanyactivitythatwouldbolsterhispower,however,andsoheacceptedeventhe extreme stigma that went along with the performance of “effeminate”magic.And,tobesure,alongsidethis“effeminate”aspectofhispersonalitystoodahighlymasculine side,whichmanifested itself inOdin’spursuitsofwarandwomen.

To aid him in hismagical tasks, Odin had numerous attendant spirits.Foremost among them were the Valkyries, the female “Choosers of theSlain;”theravensHuginnandMuninn,“Mind”and“Memory”respectively;thewolvesGeriandFreki,whosenamesbothmean“Greedy;”andtheeight-legged horse Sleipnir, “Sliding,”whom he rode on his numerous travels tofar-flunganddangerousplacesintheworldofspirit.17

Odinwassaidtospeakonlyinpoems,18andhewastheforemostpatrongod of poets as well as elite warriors, rulers, outlaws, and sorcerers. Heowned the potent mead Odroerir (Óðrœrir, “Stirrer of Óðr”), which hepersonally dispensed to all truly great poets in another example of the

overflowingbountyofhisecstasyandinspiration.Odinwasalsooneofthedeitiesmostcloselyassociatedwithdeathand

the dead. He was the lord of Valhalla, the “Hall of the Fallen,” the mostprestigiousplaceonecouldhopetogoafterdeath.Ofallofthegods,hewasperhapsthemostfrequentrecipientofhumansacrifice–and,unsurprisingly,those sacrificed to him were seldom commoners, but rather kings andwarriors.Afrequent–andchilling–wayofattemptingtosecurehisfavorinbattlewastothrowaspearoverone’sfoes,sacrificingthemtothegodwiththe cry, “Odin owns all of you!” (Óðinn á yðr alla). One of his particularmagical specialtieswasnecromancy– theartof raisingandcommunicatingwiththedead–soastolearnwhatmysteriousknowledgetheymightpossess.Duringearliertimes,theRomanwritersevenidentifiedhimwithMercury,theRomangodwhoferriedthespiritsofthenewlydeadtotheunderworld,ratherthanMars,thegodofwar.19

SnorriSturlusontellsusthatOdinwasthesonoftheproto-godBorrandthegiantessBestla,andthathewasthefatherofvirtuallyalloftheothergodsandgoddesses.20WhetherthisisSnorri’sinventionorrepresentsacommonly-heldviewintheVikingAgeisanyone’sguess,sincefewdeitiesarenamedassonsordaughtersofOdininearliersources.FriggwasgenerallyconsideredtobeOdin’swife,althoughskaldicpoetrysometimesspeaksofJord in thatrole.21

THOR

AlthoughOdinwastheleaderofthegods,Thorwasthemostpopularof

thenortherngodsduringtheVikingAge.As with Odin, the key to understanding the many facets of Thor’s

character, and the relationshipbetween them, lies inhis name. “Thor” (OldNorse Þórr) means “Thunder,”22 and Thor was the divine force thatmanifestedinphysicalthunder.

AlsolikeOdin,Thorwasawargod,butofadecidedlydifferentsort.Forone thing,Thorwas farmore inclined to rely on brute force, and farmorecapableofdoingso.Unlikethecunning,intellectualOdin,thesourcesportrayThor as brawny and hot-tempered. His signature weapon was his hammer,Mjollnir (Mjöllnir,“Lightning”23),withwhichhedelivered countless death-blows.He also owned a “belt of strength” (megingjarðar) that doubled hisalready almost-unmatched physical strength. In keeping with his muscularstrength, his particular domain within Asgard was called Thrudheim(Þrúðheimr, “World ofMight”) or Thrudavangar (Þrúðavangar, “Fields ofMight”).24True to his connections to thunder and lightning, his hallwithin

that landwas calledBilskirnir (Bilskírnir, “StrikingLightningwithRaysofLight”).25

NotonlywereThor’smethodsasawargoddifferentfromthoseofOdin– hismotivations and aimswere different aswell.Unlike the amoral, self-centeredOdin,Thorwasadutifulandfiercelypartisandefenderofthegods,andof cosmicordermoregenerally, against thegiants, the forcesof chaos.Whenthunderblastedacrossthenorthernlands,theVikingsimaginedittobetheembodimentofThor riding through thesky inhischariot,drawnby thegoats Tanngrisnir (Tanngrísnir, “Snarl-Tooth”) and Tanngnost (Tanngnóstr,“Gnash-Tooth”).26When he spotted an enemy giant, he struck him or herdownwithhishammer,whichwasembodiedbythelightningflash.Thecrashandrumblewasthesoundofthethundergodpulverizinghisfoes.

Thor’s arch-nemesiswas Jormungand (Jörmungandr, “MightyBeast”),thegreatserpentwholurkedinthewatersattheedgeoftheknownworld.Soenormouswashethathisscalybodyactuallyencircledthelandcompletely.Once,Thorwentfishingforthevenomoussnake,andcaughthimonhisline.As the thunder god was reeling him in, his fishing companion became soterrifiedthathecutthelineatthelastmoment,andthebeastsankbackdownintothedeep.But,thelegendssay,ThorandJormungandwillfaceeachotheragainatRagnarok,thebattleattheendoftheuniverse.

Astheindefatigableprotectorofthegods,theirholyfortress,andpropercosmicorder,Thorwasthepatronandmodeloftheloyal,honorablewarrior,especially thosefromthenon-aristocraticclasses.ThiswasafurtherwayinwhichThorwasdifferentiatedfromOdin: theclasseswithwhicheachwereassociated.As theEddicpoemTheSongofGray-Beardputs it,“Odin’sarethe earlswho fall in battle, but Thor’s are the thralls.”27 Thor’s status as achampion of the common people and hismore straightforwardly admirablecharacterweresurelysizablefactorsbehindhispopularityovertakingthatofOdin in the Viking Age. This trend was especially pronounced in Iceland,whichwassettledduringthisperiodbyNorwegianfarmerswho,accordingtosome sources,weremotivatedby a desire to find respite froma tyrannical,Odin-worshippingking.28

ConsideringThor’sanimosity toward thegiants, it’sperhaps ironic thathewas actually three-quartersgianthimself.Thor’smotherwas Jord (Jörð,“Earth,”alsocalledHlöðynorFjörgyninsomesources),whowasfullygiant,andhisfatherwasOdin,whowas,aswe’veseen,halfgiant.Suchparentage,however,wasrelativelycommonamongthegods.

Thor’sroleastheprotectorofsacredorderincludedmanyotherrealmsof life besides just war. Thor and his hammer were frequently invoked tohallow births, marriages, funerals, the forging and use of weapons, the

carving of runic inscriptions, feasting, travelling, the establishment of newsettlements,theplantingofcrops,andtheswearingofoaths.29Inotherwords,thethundergodwascalledupontosanctifyandblesspotentiallyanyperson,place,thing,oreventthattheworshipperwantedtoprotectfrommalevolent,profanechaos,whichalwayshadtobeactivelykeptatbaylestitoverwhelmallthattheNorsecherishedinlife.Whiletheseactivitieswerequitepeacefulin and of themselves, they nevertheless carried an undertone of the cosmicstruggleinwhichThorexcelled.

WhilemanyofthemythsfeatureThorinhiscapacityasaragingwarriorsmiting giants, they also include scenes that contain traces of this morepeacefulside.Themostsignificantof theseisprobablyanepisodefromthetaleofThor’s journey toUtgard. Inorder to reciprocate thehospitalityofafamilywhohadgivenhimaplacetosleepforthenight,Thorslaughteredhistwogoatsandservedthemfordinner,instructingthefamilytolaythecleanedbones back on the hides. The next morning, Thor hallowed the hides andbones with his hammer, and Tanngrisnir and Tanngnost came back to life.(Talkabouthavingyourcakeandeatingit,too!)

Thorhada furtherhand in theday-to-dayaffairsandwell-beingof thecommon people. As the thunder god, he was responsible for bringingrainstorms that rejuvenated the land and enabled crops to grow. The greatmajority of Norse commoners were farmers in some capacity. Theirlivelihoods, therefore, were especially directly tied to how well a season’sagriculture fared. Adam of Bremen, for example, writes, “Thor, they say,presidesovertheair,whichgovernsthethunderandlightning,thewindsandrains, fairweather and crops.”30The signature characteristic of his seldom-mentioned wife, Sif, seems to have been her luscious golden hair, whichlikelysymbolizedthefieldsofgrain.TheimageofaskygodimpregnatinganearthgoddesswasacommononeamongtheNorseandotherIndo-Europeanpeoples, and the marriage of Thor and Sif should surely be understood intheseterms.

FREYAANDFRIGG

Themost exaltedgoddess inNorsemythologyand religionwasFreya.

Freya was the most widely and passionately venerated of all of the manygoddesses who had a role in bringing fertility to the land and the people.Whilemostof thesegoddessesweremoreor less local figures,Freya’scultenjoyedaconsiderablepopularityacrosstheentireVikingworld.Hername,“Lady”(OldNorseFreyja), isa titlerather thana truename.Snorri tellsusthatthiswasduetohergoingundercountlessdifferentnameswhiletraveling

the world in search of her lost husband. There may be some truth to thisstatement, in a roundabout way; those many local fertility goddesses wereprobablyidentifiedwithFreyaonsomelevel,makingtheirnameshernamesaswell.31

Freyahadanexceptionallylustydisposition,evenfortheNorsedeities.You could accurately say that she was their “party girl.” According to theEddicpoemLoki’sTaunts(Lokasenna),shehadsleptwitheverygodandelfinAsgardatsomepointoranother–evenherbrother,Frey.32Asbeautifulasabright,lushspringmorning,shewasalsoafrequentobjectofdesirebylesssavory kinds of beings such as the giants. Several of the Norse mythsinvolvedagiantkidnappingFreyaoratleastthreateningtodoso.

Shewas a great lover of finematerial possessions, especially jewelry.Herconnectiontogoldwasparticularlystrong.Thepreciousmetalwassaidtobehertears,whichfelloveralltheearthduringthelongstretchesoftimewhenherhusband,theseldom-mentionedOd,wasawayonhistravels.33Thisfar-faringOd(Óðr, thesame“ecstasy, inspiration, furor”weencountered inourdiscussionofOdin)wassurelynoneotherthanOdinhimself.

The father of Freya was the god Njord, and her mother was Njord’ssister,who,unfortunately,isnevernamedinoursources.34Aswe’veseen,afew sources classify this family, including Freya’s brother Frey, as the“Vanir,” a separate tribe of deities. According to some of them, FreyaoriginallycametoliveinAsgardwhentheAesir(theotherdivinetribe)andVanir swappedsomemembers inahostageexchangeat theconclusionofawarthatwasoncewagedbetweenthem.Inalloftheothersurvivingstoriesinvolving Freya, however, she’s treated as a “normal” member of theinhabitantsofAsgard(theAesir).

Of all of the Norse deities, only Odin rivaled Freya when it came tomagicalabilities.FreyawasthedivinemodelofaVikingAgesorceress.OneOld Norse poem describes her traveling from house to house, givingprophecies, chanting, and performing all kinds of rituals for her hosts.35 Infact, Snorri says that she was the one who taught Odin much of what heknew.36

We’ve noted howOdin and Thor both had particular attendant spirits,andFreyadid, too.Freyarodeinachariotdrivenbyunnamedcats,andshealsohadaboarorapigcalledHildisvini(Hildisvíni,“BattleSwine”).37OneofFreya’scountlessnameswasSýr, “Sow,”which furtherdemonstratesherconnectiontothatparticularanimal.38

AlsolikeOdin,Freyaseemstohavereceivedsomeofthedeadintoherpersonal domain, Folkvang (Fólkvangr, “Field of the People” or perhaps“FieldofArmies”), inwhichstood thehallSessrumnir (Sessrúmnir,“Space

with Many Seats” or “Space with Roomy Seats”).39 However, differentsources give different accounts ofwhich of the deadmight hope to have aplace there. The Eddic poem The Song of the Hooded One (Grímnismál)describesherashostinghalfofthosewhofallinbattle,40whileinEgil’sSaga,awomanwhowants to commit suicide declares that she’ll never eat againuntilshedineswithFreya.41Isthissagareferencinganotionthatwomenwentto Freya after death, or suicides, or something else?Or is it simply poeticlicense?Inalllikelihood,differentVikingAgepeopleandcommunitieshelddifferentnotionsaboutwhowenttoFreyaandunderwhatcircumstances.

Frigg(“Beloved”42),Odin’swife,wasanominallydistinctduplicationofFreya. Apart from being listed as having a different domain in Asgard –Fensalir,“MarshHalls”43–Frigg’sattributeswereidenticaltothoseofFreya.We’vealreadyseenthatFreyaandFriggsharedthesamehusband,Odin.HewassimplycalledbyaslightlydifferentnameinconnectionwithFreya.LikeFreya,Friggwasnotedforherpromiscuity,havingsleptwithOdin’sbrothersViliandVewhileherhusbandwasinexile,44andonanotheroccasionwithaslave.45 Also like Freya, Frigg had a love for fine jewelry and preciousmetals.46Friggwasasorceressaswell:shecouldforetellthefuture,47andthetwobothpossessedsetsoffalconplumesthatcouldbeusedtoshapeshiftintothatbird,whichLokimadeuseofinsomeofthemyths.

Nevertheless,thedistinctionbetweenFreyaandFrigg,superficialthoughitmaybe,isonethatcanbefoundagainandagaininthesources.Itappears,then, that thiscan’tbedue tosomemisunderstandingon thepartofauthorsandpoetsworkingafter theVikingAge.Theseparationof thisonegoddessinto two probably began late in theVikingAge, andwas never completedbecause it was interrupted by the acceptance of Christianity. The nextquestion,ofcourse,is:whywasFreya-Friggbeingsplit intotwogoddesses?Wesimplydon’tknow.

FREY

AswithFreya, the nameof her brother, Frey,was a title rather than a

propername. Itmeant “Lord” (OldNorseFreyr). Frey, too,was the son ofNjord and Njord’s unnamed sister,48 and was counted among the Vanir bySnorri. His more “proper” name seems to have been Yngvi, under whichname he was credited with being the founder of the royal dynasty of theYnglings of Sweden.49 However, he was referred to as “Frey” much morecommonly than “Yngvi.” And, unfortunately, no one knows what “Yngvi”meant.AnothercommonnameforhimwasFróði,“Fruitful.”50

Freywasworshippedprimarilyasagodwhobroughtfertilityandvitality

to the landand topeople.Thosewhodependedon farmingandherding fortheir livelihoodwereinclinedtoregardhimas themost importantofall thedeities.51 Adam of Bremen reports that themost outstanding feature of theimageofFreyatamagnificenttempleinUppsala,Swedenwashisenormous,erectphallus,asymbolofhispowerandfertility.52

He was a frequent recipient of sacrifice, especially at weddings53 –presumably to encourage the fertility and happiness of the couple – and atharvest time. The sacrifice commonly took the form of a boar,54 an animalwith which Frey was closely associated. Like Freya, he was oftenaccompanied by a boar, in his case one named Gullinborsti (“GoldenBristles”).55

For agriculture to be carried out successfully, an absence of war andconflictwasnecessary.Understandably,then,Freywascelebratedasabringerof peace, which went hand in hand with his being a bringer of plenty.However,truetotheexceptionallywarlikecultureoftheNorse,Frey,likehisdivinecolleagues,wassaidtobeaformidableandeagerwarrioraswell.56

Central to the cult of Frey was the chariot. Chariots that contained astatueofthegodwerecartedfromvillagetovillage,blessingthelandthroughwhichtheypassedanditsinhabitants.Freyhimselfwassaidtobeanexpertchariot driver, and his personal chariot was drawn by two of his favoriteanimal,theboar.57Anotheroneofthegod’sfavoredmodesoftransportationwastheship,whichindicatesthathe,likehisfatherNjord,wascreditedwithrichly stocking the seas with fish and other useful resources. Frey’s ship,Skidbladnir (Skíðblaðnir, apparently “Assembled from Thin Pieces ofWood”58),was the finest of all ships. It had been built by the dwarves, thegreatestcraftsmeninthecosmos.Thoughitwassobigthatitcouldcarryallofthegodsandtheirweaponsatonce,itcouldbefoldedupandstuffedintoasmallbag.Italwayshadafavorablewind.59

IntheEddicpoemTheSongoftheHoodedOne,Frey’sresidenceissaidto be Alfheim (Álfheimr, “Home of the Elves”).60 This might suggest thatFreywassometimesseenasthelordoftheelves,butthere’snothingelseinthesourcesthatdirectlycorroboratesthisintriguingpossibility.

Frey’swifewasthegiantessGerd(Gerðr),whomhewonbyforceinareminderthatthebestowerof“peaceandplenty,”asapopularformulawent,wasn’talwayssopeaceful.

LOKI

Many people who know nothing else about Norse mythology have atleastheardofLoki,thewilytrickstergod.Lokiwasaschemingcowardwho

cared only for shallow pleasures and self-preservation. He was by turnsplayful, malicious, and helpful, but always irreverent and nihilistic. Snorridescribeshimashandsome,buttemperamentalanddangerouslyguileful.61

Lokialternatelyhelpedboththegodsandthegiants,dependingonwhichcourseofactionwasmostpleasurableandadvantageous tohimat the time.Several of the tales feature him harming the gods in some way, often bystealingsomethingorsomeonefromamongthem.Butitwas(almost)alwayshewho then rectified the situation – typically by some bizarre, convolutedmeans– andoftenultimatelybrought somegreat benefit to thegods in theprocess.Hewas frequentlypresented as a companionofThor and/orOdin,but their friendships, though perhaps close,were quite stormy. The equallytemperamentalThor,inparticular,sometimesfoundhimselfinthepositionofsingingLoki’s praises oneminute and then grabbing himby the collar andthreateninghislifethenext.

Loki’s father was the giant Farbauti (Old Norse Fárbauti, “CruelStriker”62), andhismotherwas anotherwiseunknownbeingnamedLaufey(themeaningofwhich isalsounknown)orNal (Nál,“Needle”63).Hiswifewas the goddess Sigyn (“Friend of Victory”64), with whom he had a sonnamed Narfi or Nari (perhaps “Corpse”65). With the giantess Angrboda(Angrboða, “Distress-Bringer”66) he also fathered Jormungand, the worldserpentwhowasThor’sparticularenemy;Hel, thegoddessorgiantesswhopresidedovertheunderworld;andFenrir,thewolfwhobitoffthearmofthegodTyrandwhowillswallowOdinatRagnarok,thedownfallofthecosmos–hardlynicekids,tosaytheleast.

ThoseweretheonlychildrenweknowofwhomLokifathered.Lokididhaveotherchildren,buthewasn’ttheirfather.Hewastheirmother.Hegavebirth to Sleipnir,Odin’s eight-legged horse, after being impregnated by thegiantstallionSvadilfari,whichwe’llreadaboutinthestoryofhowAsgard’swallwasbuilt.Onanotheroccasion,hewassaidtohaveeatentheheartofawoman renowned for many deeds of great malice. He thereby becamepregnantonceagain,andthistimehegavebirthtoallofthefemalemonstersin the world.67 In a Norse context, these acts weren’t merely shockingly“unnatural,” although they certainly were that. They also pegged Loki asbeing the most shameful kind of being possible. We’ve already seen howOdin brought dishonor upon himself by practicing “effeminate” forms ofmagic.But the ideaofamangivingbirthwas thehighest levelofdishonorrecognizedby theNorse,and to tauntamanwithhavingdonesucha thingwasthemostextremeinsultonecouldslingathim.68We’llexaminetheNorsehonor culture in some detail in a later chapter, but for now it’s enough tosimplynotehow,fortheVikings,Loki’sgivingbirthsealedhisreputationas

beingthemosttransgressive,disreputablebeingpossible.HadLokinotmotheredhorsesandmonsters,hestillwouldhavebeena

supremelyreviledpersonage.InSnorri’sversionofthetaleofBalder’sdeath,Lokiwastheonewhowasultimatelyresponsibleforthedeathofthatbelovedgod.Thiswashismostnefariousactofall,andoneforwhichthegodsneverforgavehim.Forthismurder,aswellashiscountlessothercrimes,greatandsmall,thegodsfinallydraggedLokiintoacaveandboundhimwithachainmade from the entrails of his son, Nari, whowas slain before his eyes. Apoisonous snake was placed above Loki to drip venom onto his forehead,each drop causing excruciating pain. But Loki’s wife, Sigyn, proved herloyaltyandsteadfastnessbysittingbyhissideandholdingabowlabovehisheadtocatchtheserpent’spoison.Everysooften,however,thebowlwouldinevitablybecomefull,andshewouldhavetomomentarilyleavethecavetoempty its contents. While she was away, and there was nothing betweenLoki’s forehead and the snake’s mouth, some droplets would hit his face,whichmadehimwritheinsuchviolentagonythatearthquakeswereattributedtohistorturedconvulsions.

But comeRagnarok,Lokiwillbreak freeofhis fetters andcaptain theshipthatbringsthegiants toAsgardtodestroyit, therebyprovingonceandforallthatwhateverhemayhavedonetohelpthegodsfromtimetotime,hewasultimatelyonthesideofnoonebutruinandannihilation.

Therefore, itshouldn’tbesurprisingthat therearenotraceswhatsoeverinthehistoricalrecordofLokieverhavingbeenworshipped.69

While there has been much debate concerning the meaning andetymologyofLoki’sname,themostconvincingcasebyfaristheonerecentlyput forward by philologist Eldar Heide. Scandinavian sayings and folklorefrom themedieval and earlymodern periods speak of Loki as a knot on athread. This can hardly be coincidental, since his mother was calledNál,“Needle,”andLokicomingafterNalwouldbeakin to the threadfollowingtheneedleinsewing.Spiders,too,werecalledloki–thewebsinwhichtheycaughttheirpreywereseenasanalogoustothefishnets(madefromaseriesof loops and knots) Loki created in theNorsemyths, including the one inwhichThorattemptedtocatchhimbeforehisimprisonment.Furthermore,inlater Icelandic usage, loki was a common noun that meant “knot” or“tangle.”70 The most parsimonious explanation, then, is to accept the laterIcelandicdefinitionasthemeaningofLoki’sname.

The trickster’snamemeaning“Knot”or “Tangle”wouldhavehad twolayersofsignificance.First,itwouldhavepointedtohismakingandcastingmetaphorical“nets”intheformofhisschemes,inwhichthegodsandotherbeingswerecaughtlikefish.Secondly,wemaysuspect,itwouldhavemeant

thatLokiwas thoughtof as the“knot”or “tangle” in theotherwise straightthreadofthegods,thefatalflawinthecosmosthatwouldonedayleadtoitsdownfall. Such an interpretation fits the ultimately tragic tone of Norsemythology.Even thegodshada traitor in theirmidst;even theirworldwasnotpristineandunshakeable,butcompromisedandvulnerable.

BALDER

Balder was said to be the fairest of all of the Norse deities, both in

appearance and in character, to the point that he actually radiated light.Hewas so eloquent and gracious thatwhen he pronounced a judgment on anymatter,noonecouldfindawaytocriticizeit.71HishallinAsgardwascalledBreidablik (Old Norse Breiðablik, “Broad Splendor”72), where little to nomalice could be found.73 Among the Norse, the ox-eye daisy was called“Balder’sEyelash”onaccountofitslong,slender,andpurewhitepetals.74

ThemainsurvivingmythinwhichBalderfeaturedisthedolefultaleofhis murder by Loki and the blind god Hod (Höðr, “Warrior”75), mostfamously told by Snorri Sturluson. Elements of this tale can be found inearlierOldNorsepoetry,aswellasinarchaeologicalevidencesuchaspiecesof jewelry that predate the Viking Age,76 so we can be certain that Snorrididn’tsimplyinventthistaleoutofwholecloth.However,heseemstohavegoneoutofhiswaytoportrayBalderasapassive,innocentsufferer–likelyintheinterestofcreatingasensethathisancestorshadanticipatedthestoryofChrist’scrucifixion.

There’s no evidence thatBalderwas seen in such amanner during theViking Age. In fact, there’s ample evidence that he was seen as anaccomplished and formidable warrior – which is, of course, exactly whatwe’dexpectforanyNorsegod.Skaldicpoetryoftenmentionshiminpassinginverymartialterms,77andtheoneother“complete”versionof thestoryofhis deathwepossess, that ofSaxoGrammaticus, portrayshimas a zealousfighter. Furthermore, while scholars have offered numerous differentexplanationsforhisname, themoststraightforward is that itcamefromthecommonadjectivebaldr,“bold,”whichsuggestsaneagernessforbattle.78

Balder was the son of Odin and Frigg, and his wife – or at least, inSaxo’s version, romantic interest – was the otherwise unknown goddessNanna.(ThemeaningofNanna’snameisunknown.79)TheevidenceforacultofBalderissparseandambiguous,butitsuggeststhatifhewasworshipped,itwaslargelyasabringeroffertility–asideofhimthattheliterarysourcesdon’t particularly speak of, but which is certainly plausible based on thepictureofhimthattheypaint.80

HEIMDALL

Heimdall (Old Norse Heimdallr, whose meaning/etymology is

unknown81)wasthedutifulsentrywhokeptwatchoverAsgardtowarnofanyapproachinggiantsorotherbeingswhomightwishthegodsill.Orperhapsitwouldbemoreaccuratetosaythathe“kepthisearsopenoverAsgard;”justasOdin’ssightwasespeciallyacute,Heimdall’shearingwassecondtonooneelse’s.Itwassaid thathecouldheargrassgrowingonthegroundandwoolgrowingonsheep.82

ThereseemstohavebeenalostmythaboutHeimdallsacrificingoneofhisearsinordertogainexceptionallyfinehearing,justasOdinsacrificedoneofhis eyes forhisownexceptionalperceptual ability.TheEddicpoemTheProphecy of the Seeress (Völuspá) states that Heimdall’s hljóð, “listeningabilityandattention,” layin thesamewell inwhichOdinhadsacrificedhiseye,suggestinganobviousparallel.83

However he acquired his extraordinary power, he put it to use bytirelessly defending the gods and their heavenly fortress. He required lesssleep than a bird, and sat atop the rainbow bridgeBifrost, the entryway toAsgard,inhishallHiminbjorg(Himinbjörg,“SkyCliffs”).InhishandheheldGjallarhorn(“ResoundingHorn”),whichhewillblowwhenthegiantsfinallystormAsgardatRagnarok.Snorricallshimthe“whitegod”duetothepurityofhishonor.84

In the Eddic poem Rigsthula, Heimdall is said to have fathered theancestors of the three main social classes in Norse society: aristocrats,freemen,andslaves.ThefirstverseofTheProphecyoftheSeeressalludestothis or a similar notion of him being the progenitor of humankind, soHeimdall seems to have been credited with fathering humankind in somecapacityinancienttimes.

The ram seems to have beenHeimdall’s attendant animal in the sameway that ravens andwolveswere forOdin, goatswere forThor, and boarswere for Freya and Frey. He is associated with the animal in Old Norseliterature, but nothing is ever said that indicateswhat form this connectiontook.85HeimdallwasasonofOdin,and, ina featpossible forgodsbutnothumans, he had no less than ninemothers.Who exactly these nine beingswere has been the topic of considerable speculation, but no one reallyknows.86

MINORAND/OROBSCUREDEITIES

We’ve already encountered Njord (Old NorseNjörðr, whose meaningandetymologyareunknown)asthefatherofFreyaandFrey,aswellas,intheestimation of the sources that divide the deities into two tribes, one of themain gods in the Vanir tribe. Like Freya and Frey, Njord was worshippedlargelyasafertilitygod,andhewasparticularlycloselyconnectedtothesea.HiskingdomwascalledNoatun(Nóatún),whichmeant“PlaceofShips.”Hewas thepatronof fishermen,sailors,andotherswhomade their livingfromthe ocean. Suchwas the lavishness of the abundance he bestowed that theexceptionallywealthywerecalled“asrichasNjord.”NjordwasbrieflyandunhappilymarriedtothegiantessSkadi,aswe’llseeinPartTwo.Place-nameevidenceindicatesthathewasonceoneofthemostimportantdeities,butbytheendof theVikingAgehis roleseems tohavebeenallbutsubsumedbythatofhissonFrey.87

LikeNjord,Tyrwasonceoneofthemostprominentgods,butbytheendoftheVikingAgehisrolehaddiminishedtoadownrightstartlingdegree.Hisname was a general Old Norse word for “god” (týr), which hints at whatcross-cultural comparisons confirm: at somepoint – probably in the distantProto-Germanicpast–Tyrwasthehighestgod,acontinuationofthehighestgodoftheProto-Indo-Europeans,*Dyeus.88BytheVikingAge,however,heoccupied a narrower and greatly reduced role as a war god known for hisbraveryandboldnessandasagodwhoguaranteedoaths.ThemainstoryinwhichTyrfeaturedwasthetaleofhowthegiantwolfFenrirwasbound.Thewolf declared that he wouldn’t let himself be tied in the suspiciouslyinnocent-lookingchaininwhichthegodswantedtotiehim–asagame,theysaid–unlessoneofthemstucktheirhandinhismouthasapledgeofgoodfaith.OnlyTyrwaswillingtodoso,andwhenthewolffoundhimselfunabletobreak freeof themagical fetter,Tyr acquired the signature featureofhisappearance: amissinghand.According to some sources, hewas the sonofOdin,butothersclaimhewasthesonofthegiantHymir.Place-namesattesttohisworshipthroughoutScandinavia.89

In the late literary sources, there’s a god of poetry named Bragi. Heseems to have originally been the ninth-century Norwegian poet BragiBoddason.SoexceptionalwashisversethatsubsequentgenerationsimaginedhimtobethemaincourtpoetinValhalla,singingthepraisesofheroesupontheirarrival,andskaldicpoetsoftenfeaturedhiminthisroleintheirworks.MedievalauthorssuchasSnorripromotedhimtothestatusofagodintheirownworks,buthedoesn’tseemtohavebeenseeninthislightintheVikingAge,noristhereanyevidencethathewaseverworshipped.90

Idun (Iðunn, “RejuvenatingOne”91) was a goddess who owned a fruitthatconferredlongevityoflifeuponthosewhoateit.Thiswasthesourceof

thegods’near-immortality.InmodernbooksonNorsemythology,thesefruitsare almost invariably considered to be apples, but this probablywasn’t thecaseinpre-Christiantimes.TheOldNorsewordfor“apple,”epli,wasoftenused to denote any fruit or nut, and “apples” in themodern English sensedidn’t arrive in Scandinavia until late in the Middle Ages.92 Loki onceaccusedherofsleepingwithherbrother’smurderer,93butanymythinwhichthismayhaveoccurred is now lost.Although themedieval literary sourceslistherasthewifeofBragi,skaldicpoetryconfirmsthatshewasanauthenticpre-Christianfigure(andthereforesurelywasn’tconsideredtobeBragi’swifeintheVikingAge).94

Skadi (Skaði, perhaps “Harm”or “Shadow”95)was agiantesswhowasalsocountedamongthegoddesses.She livedhigh insnowymountains,andseems to havebeenprimarily a patroness ofwinter hunting and travel.ShewaswidelyworshippedintheVikingAge.96ItwasshewhoplacedtheviperaboveLoki’sheadwhenhewasimprisoned,perhapsasrevengeforhiskillingherfather,thegiantThjazi.Intriguingly,hernamemayberelatedtothename“Scandinavia,”butwhethershelenthernametothelandmassorviceversaisunknown.97

Gefjun(“Giver”98)was agoddesswho seems tohavebeenparticularlyassociated with plowing and other aspects of agriculture. She wasremembered in the literarysourcesmainly forhavingbeen the first toplowthe islandofZealand,whichshe thendraggedawayfromSweden,where ithadformerlybeenlocated,andgivingittoDenmark.Somesourcesdescribeherasagoddesswhowasworshippedbyvirgins,99whileothersdescribeheras being promiscuous, for example trading sexual favors for a piece ofjewelry.100 It’s difficult to reconcile or otherwise explain these apparentcontradictorynotions;perhapssomecommunitiesunderstoodherasbeingamuchmoresexualentitythanothersdid,butwereallyjustdon’tknow.

Especially since therewasnever a closedNorse“pantheon,” theNorseworshipped numerous other gods and goddesses aswell – far toomany toevercoverintheirtotality.Most,forthatmatter,havebeenlostforever,theirnamesanddeedsunrecordedandthereforeunremembered.ButthisoverviewofthemostwidespreadandfamousdeitiesoftheVikingAgeshouldatleastindicate somethingof theextraordinary richnessof theNorseconceptionofthedivine.

OceanofPDF.com

Chapter3:OtherNuminousBeingsTheVikinguniverseteemedwithagrandvarietyofspiritualbeingswho,

whilegenerallynotconsideredgodsorgoddesses“proper,”wereneverthelessreveredand/orfeared.Let’stakealookatthemostimportantkindsofthem.

GIANTS

We’veseenhowtheNorsethoughtoftheirdeitiesasbeing,amongother

things, the powers that held together the proper order of the cosmos andenabled it to flourish. The giantswere the exact opposite: they continuallysoughttounderminethatorder,todragthecosmosbacktoprimordialchaos,and to reinstall theuninterrupted reignof its frigiddarkness.Wecan easilyimagine how this particular antagonism would have possessed an acuteimportance for a preindustrial peoplewho lived in a climate and landscapelikethoseofScandinavia.Thehomesofthegiantswereimaginedtobelikethe wildest, remotest, and most desolate features of that landscape: snowymountainpeaks, thedepthsof theocean,vastand impenetrable forests, etc.Thewordtroll(“fiend,monster”)wasoriginallyusedtorefertogiants,butinthe folkloreof laterperiods it came todenotea separatekindofbeing,onegroundedindebasedmemoriesofthegiants.1

Butthegiantswerefarfromunequivocally“evil.”Whiletheiropposingaimsforthecosmosmadethemnaturalenemiesofthegods,therelationshipbetweenthetwowasn’talwaysjustopposition.Aswe’veseen,thegiantsandthegodsfrequentlyintermarriedandhadchildrentogether;mostofthedeitiesweredescendedfromatleastonegiant,andoftenmore,atsomepointalongtheline.Inthemyths,thegiantsandgodssometimesgottogetherforparties.And the giants provided useful raw materials for the gods’ cosmologicaldesigns, especially when Odin and his brothers slew the giant Ymir andcreated the material world from his corpse. In the same way that humancivilization depends on resources gleaned from the wilderness, the gods’cosmosdependedonthegiantsandtheirworld.Paradoxically,theseforcesofentropyanddecaymadethecosmospossibleandguaranteeditssurvival–aslongasthegodscouldkeepthemincheck.TheVikingsthemselvesseemtohavedonelikewise,offeringthegiantssacrificesinthehopesofkeepingthemsatisfiedandatbay,2andotherwiseinvokingThorandotherdivinitiestowardthemaway.

“Giant” is a potentiallymisleadingAnglicization of the name of these

beings. In modern English, of course, a “giant” is first and foremostsomethingofenormoussize.Callingagodlikebeinga“giant”can’thelpbutremind one of Michael Palin’s famous prayer in Monty Python and theMeaningofLife:“OGod,youaresoverybig,andletmetellyou,we’reallreallyimpresseddownhere.”Seeninthislight,thewordisaratherfrivolousdesignationforbeingswhoweregenuinelydreadedintheVikingAge.

Speakers of Old Norsemainly called them jötnar (singular jötunn) orþursar (singularþurs).Jötunncomes from theProto-Germanic*etunaz andmeans “devourer.”3Þurs is derived from the Proto-Germanic *þurisaz andmeanssomethinglike“powerfulandinjuriousone.”4

How,then,didthese“devourers”cometobecalled“giants?”WhentheNorman (French)William theConquerer seizedcontrolofEngland in1066CE, the English language became filled with French words. Among theseloanwords was the Old French geant, the ancestor of the modern Englishword “giant,” which replaced theOld English eóten.Geant referred to theGiantsofGreekmythology,whowereagroupof spiritualbeingswho, likethejötnarofGermanicmythology,weretheenemiesofthegods.TheGreekancestor ofgeant, in turn, was once used to translate a Hebrew word thatdenotedbeingsofenormoussizeintheBible,andovertimethisconnotationof“giant”becametheword’sdominantmeaning.5

Nevertheless, since all modern publications on Norse mythology andreligiontranslatejötnaras“giants,”itwouldprobablybeundulyconfusingtoswitch to calling them something more historically appropriate, such as“devourers,”fortheremainderofthebook.Therefore,we’llcontinuetoreferto themas “giants,”which is perfectly fine as long aswe acknowledge thepotentiallymisleadingnatureofthatwordinthiscontext.

VALKYRIES

Thebattlehasbeenferocious.Bothsideshavesufferedheavylosses,and

all across the battlefield are strewn countless corpses of fathers, sons,brothers,husbands,andfriends.Themuddyplainisahaphazardpatchworkofbrown and red. But those with second sight can see another side to thisagonizingscene:beautifulmaidenswithexpressionsofcalmnobilityswoopdown from the skies, perhaps on wings, perhaps on horseback. They goamongst the dead, kneeling compassionately beside many of the fallenwarriors, picking up their spirit-bodies, and bearing themoff to the joys offeastingandfightingwithOdin inhisshininghall.Thecloudsclosebehindthem.

Such, at least, is themodern popular image of theValkyries. And it’s

essentially historically accurate, although rather limited and one-sided. Thename“Valkyrie”(OldNorsevalkyrja,pluralvalkyrjur)meant“chooseroftheslain,”whichreferredatleastinparttotheirchoosingwhichofthedeadwereto go toValhalla.After the honored dead arrived inValhalla, theValkyriesgraciously and ceremoniously served them food and drink at their meals.Skaldicpoetrysometimesportraysthemascourtlyandbenign,suchastheselinesfromtheTheSongofKingHakon:

noblewomen,sittingontheirsteeds;theysathelmeted,indeepthought,holdingtheirshieldsbeforethem.6

Modern male fantasies of them as being exceptionally sexy also have

some basis in historical reality – even though, of course, the modern mendoing the fantasizing are probably unaware of it. The Valkyries werefrequently the lovers or wives of human heroes. These relationships wereexplicitly sexual in nature, and the Valkyries also provided their humancompanionswithassistanceinbattle,whetherdirectlyorthroughmoresubtlemeans,suchasesotericknowledge.

However, while the Valkyries certainly had a pronounced benevolentside,theyhadanequallyprominentsinisterside.Thename“choosersoftheslain”referrednotonlytochoosingwhoamongthealreadydeadweregoingto get intoValhalla, but also to decidingwhowas going to die in the firstplace.Thenoble“shield-maidens”werealsobloodthirsty,terrifyingspiritsofslaughter.AsacounterpointtotheimageoftheminTheSongofKingHakon,wecancitethefollowingincantationtotheValkyrieRutafromTheSongofBjarki:

Arise,too,Ruta,andshowyoursnow-palehead,comeforthfromhidingandissueintobattle.Theoutdoorcarnagebeckonsyou;fightingnowshakesthedoors;harshstrifebattersthegates.7

In anotherparticularlyhaunting image, this time fromThe Saga of the

Volsungs, tolookataValkyrieissaidtobelike“staringintoaflame.”8Butperhaps the most chilling depiction of the Valkyries in all of Old NorseliteraturecomesfromthepoemTheSongoftheSpear(Darraðarljóð).Here,twelveValkyriesareseenpriortotheBattleofClontarf,sittingataloomandweaving the tragic fateof thewarriors.Theyuse intestines for their thread,severedheads forweights, and swordsandarrows forbeaters, all thewhile

chantingtheirintentionswithominousdelight.9Thehighlyevocativenamesof theValkyriesdrewfromthispolarity in

their character. Among them were Svanhvita, “Swan-White;” Valthogn,“Hostess of the Slain;” Sigrun, “Victory Rune;” Hild and Gunn, “Battle;”Hrist, “Spear-Shaker;” Geiravor, “Spear Goddess;” Geirahod, “Spear ofBattle;” Herfjotur, “War-Fetter;” Herja, “Devastator;” and Svava, “Sleep-Maker/Killer.”10 None of these names were particularly “individual,” butrathersuggestedtraitscommontotheValkyriesasawhole.

Of all of the divine figures in Norse religion and mythology, theValkyries provide one of the most striking and vivid fusions of Otto’sconceptsofthemysteriumfascinansandthemysteriumtremendum,whichweexaminedinChapterOne.

ELVES

Theelves(OldNorseálfar, singularálfr)weresemi-divinebeingswho

wereespeciallycloselytiedtothemore“proper”deities.Infact,therewasaseamlesscontinuitybetween the two.We’vealreadyseenhowthegodFreywas called the lord of Alfheim, the homeland of the elves. The godsthemselves were occasionally referred to as “elves,”11 although this was apoeticwayofsignaling theclosenessof the twokindsofbeingsrather thananykindofdoctrinalclaim(Norsereligionhadveryfewofthelatter).Whilethegodsandtheelvescertainlyweren’ttrulysynonymouswithoneanother,the elves’ proximity to the gods gave them an exalted status among thevarioustypesofbeingswhoinhabitedtheVikinguniverse.Thisislikelywhytheywerethoughttobe,inSnorri’swords,“morebeautifulthanthesun.”12

Despite playing little role in the recorded myths, they seem to haveplayedamuchgreaterroleinreligiouspractice,havingfrequentinteractionswithhumans.Thesecouldbebeneficialor injurious forhumans,dependingontheelves’dispositiontowardthem.Forexample,inoneearlysaga,amanwhowasgravelywoundedinaduelkilledanoxontheduelingfieldandleftitsmeat,withbloodrunningfromit,onahillockwheretheelveswereknownto live.Grateful for the feast ofmeat and blood, the elves granted him hiswishtorecoverfromhiswounds.13

Onrareoccasions,humansandelvesweresaidtointerbreedandproducehalf-human,half-elfinchildren,whooftenhadtheappearanceofhumansbutpossessedextraordinaryintuitiveandmagicalpowers.14

Justas thelinebetweenelvesandgodswasblurry,sowasthelinethatseparatedtheelvesfromdwarves,landspirits,andthehumandead(andallofthosegroupsrelativetooneanother,too).Forexample,inascenefromThe

SagaofOlaftheHoly,oneofKingOlaf’sancestorsisrepeatedlyreferredtoas an elf as the king and his interlocutor stand beside the forebear’s burialmound.15

Snorri divides the elves into two groups: “light elves” (ljósálfar) and“darkelves”(døkkálfar).Noothersourcesrecordsuchadistinction,andthe“light” and “dark” aspects of the elves seem to have been seen as beingseamlessly intertwined. This distinction therefore seems to have been aninventionofSnorri’s,anddoesn’treflectVikingAgeviews.16

DWARVES

The dwarves (Old Norse dvergar, singular dvergr) were the master

miners,blacksmiths,andcraftspeopleoftheVikings’mythicalworld.AmongthemanymatchlesstreasurestheyforgedwereFrey’sshipSkidbladnir,whichalways had a fairwind and could be folded up and carried in a small bag;Freya’s necklace Brisingamen, the most beautiful of all pieces of jewelry;Odin’sspearGungnir,whichalwayshititstarget;hisarmringDraupnir,fromwhichanothereightringsdroppedeveryninthnight;Thor’shammerMjollnir,thefamouscrusherofgiants;andtheresplendentgoldenhairofThor’swife,Sif.

They livedunderground,often incavesbeneathmountains– theplaceswhere themetals and gemswithwhich theyworked could be found. Theymadeapointtostayintheirsubterraneanhalls,or,iftheyhadtocomeupintotheworldabove,theydidsoatnight.Beingabovegroundduringthedayhadadireconsequenceforthem:thetouchofsunlightturnedthemtostone.17

The dwarves were exceptionally well-versed in cosmological andmagical lore. Iron Age blacksmiths were often thought to possess greatmagicalpowers–theabilitytotransformmetalsodramaticallywasthoughtto depend on such abilities – and the Norse seem to have perceived thedwarves in this light.18 They were also noted for their physical strength.Snorri reports thatfourdwarves–Nordri (“North”),Sudri (“South”),Austri(“East”),andVestri(“West”)helduptheskyatitsfourcorners,which,asthedwarves’namesimply,wereplacedatthefourcardinalpoints.19

While the elves played a large role in religious practice but little in(recorded) myth, the dwarves played a large role in myth but little in(recorded)religiouspractice.Infact,despitethemyths’portrayalofthemaswell-disposed toward humans and gods, there’s no evidence that theywereever worshipped. Their appearance is never described in the Old Norsesources;themodernideathattheywereespeciallysmallinsizecomesfrommedievalfolklore,andthere’snothingtosuggestthatthisideaexistedduring

theVikingAge.20

LANDSPIRITS

Althoughthesourceslikewiseprovidenodescriptionof theappearanceof another group of demigod-like beings, the land spirits (Old Norselandvættir,singularlandvættr),theirdispositionisdescribedveryvividly.

Astheirnameimplies,thelandspiritswerethoughttodwellinparticularfeaturesoftheland.Theywerefiercelyprotectiveoftheseareas.Inordertoavoid the wrath of the sensitive, finicky, and easily frightened land spirits,these places had a number of taboos attached to them.For example, itwasessential to act reverently and solemnly when passing through or by suchplaces; something as seemingly insignificant asmaking a loud noise couldbringgravemisfortuneupon theperpetrator.21The first lawcode in Iceland(930CE)instructedthoseenteringthecountrybyshiptoremovethecarveddragon-headsfromthefrontsoftheirboatswhentheysightedland,lesttheyfrightenthelandspirits.22

Buttherewasnothingthelandspiritshatedmorethanbloodshed.ItwassaidthatduringthesettlementofIceland,amanwasmurderedbyhisthralls,andnoonedaredtogonearthesiteforalongtimeafterthatoutoffearoftheoutragedlandspirits,despiteitsbeingaprimeplacetosettle.23

Thelandspiritsalsopassionatelydefendedtheirdwelling-placesagainstforeigninvaders.ThesagastellthatthekingofDenmarkoncesentasorcerertospyontheIcelanders.ThemantooktheformofawhaleandmadehiswaytoIceland,swimmingalongitssouthernedgeandthenupitswesterncoast.As he went, he saw that he, too, was being spied upon; the hills andmountainswereteemingwithlandspirits.Eachtimehetriedtomakehiswayinland through one of the countless fjords and bays that indent the island’scoastline, the land spirits would come down to the water to bar his way,takingtheformofsnakes,toads,bulls,andgreatbirds.Butwhenhesawoneblockinghis course in the formofacliff-giant, thewhale-bodied sorcerer’snervesfinallyfailedhim,andheretreatedtoDenmark.24

The land spirits didn’t just punish those who trespassed against them.Theyalsorewardedthosewhogavethemtheirdue.Thesegiftscouldbeanabundanceofcropsandherds,luckinhuntingandfishing,orusefulinsightsin dreams.25 The land spirits knew much about the future, and sometimesshared this knowledge with those whom they favored. A land spirit wassometimescalledanármaðr(“bringerofprosperity”)oraspámaðr (“seer”),designationswhich,inthiscase,ofteneffectivelymeantthesamething.26

Anexcellentillustrationofmanyoftheseabilitiesandgiftscomesfrom

thestoryofafarmernamedBjornintheIcelandicBookofSettlements.Bjorndreamtthatalandspiritcametohimandofferedhimhisassistance.Beforevery long, a billy goat wandered into Bjorn’s farm and joined his herd ofgoats. The goats had somany kids that year thatBjorn could hardly countthemallbeforehesoldthemtootherfarmersontheisland.Hebecamearichman in such a short time that the people started to call him “Goat-Bjorn.”Those with second sight saw a great throng of land spirits trailing himwhereverhewent.27

Theworship of the land spirits continued long after the conversion toChristianity.Infact,insomeplaces,they’restillveneratedtothisday.

OceanofPDF.com

Chapter4:CosmologyTheVikings thought that theworld they lived inonaday-to-daybasis

wasjustatinysliverofavastandrichlyvarieduniverse,mostofwhichwasinvisibletotheaverageeye.We’vealreadyseensomedegreeofthisrichnessin the previous two chapters’ discussions of the beings who inhabited theinvisible part of the cosmos. In this chapter, we’ll add to that picture byexploringthosebeings’nativerealms,aswellastheNorseconceptionofhoweventsinthoserealmsandinourownunfoldedintime.

THEVIKINGOTHERWORLD

ThepartofNorserealityinwhichthedivinebeingslived,andinwhich

themythstookplace–the“otherworld,”aswe’llcallit–wasinsomewaysveryremotefromtheworldofeverydayexistence,but inotherways itwasveryclosetoit.

Foronething,thedeitiesandotherdivinebeingsfrequentlyintervenedineverydayexistencefromtheirspiritualhome–Odindecidingtheoutcomeofabattle,theblowsofThor’shammermanifestinginthethunder,landspiritsrewarding a favored person with increased herds, etc. Yet the power,decisiveness,andmysteriousnessoftheseinterventionsindicatedtheirorigininadifferentplaneofreality.

This contact between the two aspects of existence could be achievedfrom the opposite direction, too – that is, humans could travel to theotherworldandparticipateinwhatwasgoingonthere(eveniftheirinfluencein that hallowed landwas negligible). Some of themeans of accessing theotherworld mentioned in Old Norse literature include traveling over arainbow, over the ocean, into darkness, into caves, into particular bodies ofwater,overmountains, intogravemounds,throughwaterfalls,andintodeepforestsandbogs.1Theseshouldsurelybeinterpretedasjourneysintoextremeplacesandsituationsinordertocontinuethejourneyinavision,orpossibly–especially in the case of physically impossible feats, like climbing up arainbow – as journeys undertakenwhile already in a heightened, visionarystate, suchas those that seers, sorcerers, and shamans trained themselves toreach. Inanycase, thesemethodsfor reaching theotherworldshowthat theotherworld wasn’t thought of as being located in any particular physicaldirectionrelativetotheworldofeverydayexistence–up,down,tothenorth,to the south, etc. The direction one should travel in to reach itwas simply

“away.”2Thedistancewasgreat,butnotunbridgeable.Another instance of this paradox of closeness and remotenesswas the

waytheotherworldwasimaginedtobeoncethetravelermadeit there.Theunfamiliar can only be described by comparing it to the familiar, and,accordingly, the world of spirit could only be described obliquely andsymbolicallywith reference to the things of thisworld.Quite naturally, theVikingsdescribeditintermsoftheirownsocialworldandnaturallandscape.Theyportrayedtheirotherworldasbeingalotlikethisworld,butrarefiedand“writ large” – everything was greatly intensified. The rich among thedivinitieswereextraordinarilyrich,thevirtuouswereextraordinarilyvirtuous,thewisewereextraordinarilywise, and themalevolentwereextraordinarilymalevolent.Thegrasswasgreener,themountainpeaksmorebarren,andthealestrongerandfiner.3Theotherworldwasutterlysimilar to thisworldandyet utterly dissimilar to it – it, too, hadmead, but itsmeadwasunlike anyyou’veeverhadbefore.

Fittingly,theorganizationoftheotherworldmatchedthewaytheVikingsthemselves constructed and arranged their farmsteads. A proper Vikingfarmsteadfeatureda treeorpillarat itscentralpoint.Thepillarwasoftena“high-seat pillar,” which stood at the center of a house and provided itsforemost architectural support.High-seat pillarswere thought to possess aninherent,mysterious power; some of the earliest settlers to Iceland broughttheir pillarwith themon their boats, andwhen theygot close to land, theythrew it overboard, and then settled wherever it came ashore.4 Centrally-locatedtrees,onwhoserootsalewasoftenpouredatfestivals,werethoughttopossessthesamesignificanceandpower.5

Aroundthepillar,orclosebythetree,wasthehouse–aplaceofshelter,comfort, safety, and familiarity. It was, of course, enclosed bywalls and aroof. Around the house were fields for crops and livestock, which werethemselves enclosed by fences – landscapes actively maintained by theresidentsofthefarmfortheirbenefit,butmoreexposedtotheelementsthanthe interior of the house. Beyond the fences was the wilderness, anuncultivated place of danger and the unknown,where the elements reignedsupreme, but which also provided useful materials for the farm, such astimberandgame.6Fencesweren’t just there for the “pragmatic”purposeofkeeping livestock in; they were also there for the “magical” purpose ofkeeping injurious denizens of the wilderness, from wolves to giants, out.7Fencesmarkedaboundarybetween twodifferent statesofbeing,which theNorsecalled“innangard”(OldNorseinnangarðr,“insidetheenclosure”)and“utangard”(útangarðr,“outsidetheenclosure”).

Intriguingly,theVikingsthoughtoftheirsocietyaspossessingthesame

structureastheirfarmsteads.MedievalIcelandersreferredtotheirsocietyas“our law” (vár lög), a phrasewhich shows that they thought of “law” and“society”astwowaysofexpressingthesamething.Lawwasapsychologicalenclosurethatseparatedthesocialfromtheantisocial,theinnangardfromtheutangard. This is why the punishment for especially heinous crimes wasoutlawry,whereby a person lost all of his or her legal rights and could bekilledonsightwithoutanylegalrepercussionsagainstthekiller.Throughthecrime, the outlaw had demonstrated that he or she was an utangard beingrather than an innangard one, and since the criminal was beyond society’scontrol,heorshewasaccordinglystrippedofsociety’sprotection.Theverywords related tooutlawrydemonstrate this transition frombeinga civilizedpersontoawildone:outlawrywascalled“goingintotheforest”(skóggangr),and the outlawwas called a “person of the forest” (skógarmaðr). Fittingly,outlawsoftenchosetofleeasfarfromhumanhabitationsaspossible,andforobviousreasons.8Thekingorchieftainprobablywouldhavebeenseenastheequivalentofthecentralpillarortree,theaxisthatheldtheorderoftherestofsocietytogether.However,thisisneverstatedexplicitly,soitmustremainaconjecture.

TheNorseotherworldwasorganizedinthesameway.Atitscenterwasamightytree,mostcommonlycalledYggdrasil(Yggdrasill),“thehorseoftheTerrible One” – that is, Odin – a reference to Odin commonly using itssprawlingbranchesandrootstotravelthroughtheotherworld.9However, itsname,likeitsspecies,variedfromsourcetosource,anotherreminderofthediversity andmalleability of Norse religion. Several creatures were said toliveonorinthetree.Initscrownnestedanunnamedeagle,whileatitsbasecoiled a dreadful serpent named Nidhogg (Níðhöggr, “Slanderer”), whognawedawayat the tree’s roots in an apparent attempt to fell it.A squirrelnamedRatatosk(Ratatoskr,“Drill-Tooth”10)scurriedupanddownthetrunk,ferrying insults between the eagle and the snake. Deer nibbled the tree’sshoots.11

Different pieces of Old Norse literature mention different wells orspringsthatlayamongtherootsofYggdrasil.Themostcommonlymentionedare the Well of Fate (Urðarbrunnr), Mimir’s Well (Mímisbrunnr), andHvergelmir (whose meaning and etymology are unknown). Some scholarshave (rather arbitrarily) tried to reduce them all to a single, originalwell,12whileothershave accepted eachdescription at facevalue, regardlessof theapparentconfusiononthispointinandamongstthetextsthemselves.TheredoesseemtohavebeenanauthentictraditionofwellsbeinglocatedbeneathYggdrasil, but it’s impossible to know how many there were and whatfunctions, if any, they served. For that matter, as with countless other

elements ofNorse religion, different people and groups of people probablyhaddifferentviewsonthetopicduringtheVikingAgeitself.

Thehomelandofthegods,Asgard(Ásgarðr,“EnclosureoftheGods”),was located right aroundYggdrasil’s trunk, in the sameway that themainhouse of a Viking farmstead wrapped itself around a central pillar or waslocated right next to a central tree. We can safely assume this due to the“gard” (“enclosure”) element inAsgard’s name, aswell as the fact that thegodswereconsideredtobetheforcesthatheldthecosmostogether,likethecentralpillarofaVikinghouse.Theirhomeland, then,wouldhavebeenthecentralenclosureoftheotherworld–thequintessentiallyinnangardpartofthecosmos.Arainbow,Bifrost(Bifröst,“FleetinglyGlimpsedRainbow”13),wasthe entryway into Asgard. Thus, Asgard was likely visualized as amagnificent fortress high in the heavens, perhaps in the upper centralbranchesofYggdrasil.

Jotunheim(Jötunheimr),thehomelandofthegiants,wasbycontrastthequintessentially utangard part of the otherworld. In fact, it was sometimescalled “Utgard” (Útgarðr), which means the same thing as “utangard.”Appropriately for the dwelling-place of the primordial spirits of chaos,Jotunheimwas visualized as being like the parts of the northern EuropeanlandscapethattheNorsedreadedthemost.Today,anespeciallydesolate,icy,andremotepartofNorway’scentralmountainrangeiscalledJotunheimen(amodern Norwegian version of “Jotunheim”), which is probably the mostappropriate of all possible names for such a place in Scandinavia. SinceJotunheim was the otherworld counterpart to the wilderness outside theperimeter of a Viking farm, it was probably the part of the cosmos mostdistant from Yggdrasil’s stout trunk. At the far end of Jotunheim was anendless ocean, in which Jormungand, that enormous serpent whom Thorparticularlyhated,encircledtheland.

Thevisible,tangibleworldinwhichwehumansliveourdailyliveswascalled “Midgard” (Miðgarðr, “Middle Enclosure”) – which, incidentally, iswhereJ.R.R.Tolkiengotthenamefor“MiddleEarth.”Asthe“gard”elementin itsname implies,Midgardwas thoughtofasabasically innangardplace.However, as the “mid” element in its name implies, Midgard wasn’t asinnangardasAsgard.Instead, itoccupiedamiddlepositionbetweenAsgardand Jotunheim on the innangard-utangard spectrum, and was always theobject of a grand tug-of-war between the gods and the giants. Somewhatcontradictorily, Jormungand was thought to dwell in the oceans aroundMidgardaswell as theoceansaround Jotunheim in theotherworld–henceoneofhistitles,“MidgardSerpent”(Miðgarðsörmr).

In addition to Asgard and Jotunheim, there were a number of other

placesthatthesourcesseemtoindicateweresimilarlydistinctrealmswithinthe otherworld. No definitive list of them is ever given – and it’s highlyunlikely that any definitive list ever existed, due, once again, to theunsystematic andnon-dogmatic character ofNorse religion.However, theremight be some merit to the modern idea of “nine worlds” in Norsecosmology,eventhoughtheconceptisusuallyoverstatedtoday.Thenumberninewasheldtopossesssomedeep,intrinsic,andlikelymagicalsignificanceinNorsereligion,eventhoughnoonereallyknowswhy.PhilologistRudolfSimekablysummarizessomeofthenumber’soccurrencesthroughoutNorsereligionandmyth:

…[N]ine is the mythical number of the Germanic tribes.

Documentationforthesignificanceofthenumbernineisfoundinbothmyth and cult. InOdin’s self-sacrifice he hung for nine nights on thewindy tree (Hávamál), therearenineworlds toNiflhel (Vafþrúðnismál43),Heimdallrwasborntoninemothers(Hyndluljóð35),Freyrhad towaitforninenightsforhismarriagetoGerd(Skírnismál41),andeightnights (= nine days?) was the time of betrothal given also in theÞrymskviða. Literary embellishments in the Eddas similarly use thenumbernine:SkaðiandNjörðrlivedalternatelyforninedaysinNóatúnandinÞrymheimr;everyninthnighteightequallyheavyringsdripfromthe ring Draupnir; Menglöð has nine maidens to serve her(Fjólsvinnsmál35ff.), andÆgir had asmanydaughters.Thor can takenine steps at the Ragnarök after his battle with the Midgard serpentbefore he falls down dead. Sacrificial feasts lasting nine days arementioned for both Uppsala and Lejre and at these supposedly ninevictimsweresacrificedeachday.14Thus, it’s far from unreasonable that the number nine might have

featured prominently inNorse cosmology aswell. And, indeed, OldNorseliteraturegivessomehintsthatthismighthavebeenthecase.Onepoem,TheProphecyof theSeeress, includes a passing reference to “nineworlds” (níuheimar)withinthebranchesandrootsofYggdrasil,15whileanother,TheSongof Vafthrudnir (Vafþrúðnismál), mentions nine sub-worlds within theunderworld.16TheVikingsdidn’t“believein”“nineworlds”inthesamewaythatsomeliteralistChristianstodaybelievethattheearthwascreatedinsevendays. Rather, the Vikings believed in a number of distinct modalities of ageneralotherworld,andsinceninewasasignificantnumbertothem,someorallofthoserealmsweresometimessaidtocompriseagroupofnine.

Due to a number of parallels in the cosmologies of other northern

Eurasiancultures,17aswellasthatlinefromTheProphecyoftheSeeress,it’sverylikelythattherealmswerearrangedinandaroundthebranchesandrootsofYggdrasil.Beyondthatandthefarmstead-like,innangard-utangardpatternwe’vealreadyexamined,however,it’simpossibletosaywithanysignificantdegreeofcertaintyhow thevarious realmswereorganized.NodiagramsofthemfromtheVikingAgeormedievalperiodshavecomedowntous,andit’shighlyunlikelythattheVikingsthemselvesmadesuchdiagrams–or,forthatmatter, felt the need to make them. (For obvious reasons, the picturescommonontheinternetofKabbalah-likeorchakra-likeschemesarenothingmorethanNewAgefantasies.)Furthermore,aswe’veseen,thevariouskindsof spiritual beings that populated the Norse universe – gods, giants, elves,dwarves, landspirits,deadancestors,etc.–overlappedwitheachother toaconsiderabledegree,and it’s thereforeprobable that theboundariesbetweentheirhomelandswereblurryaswell.IntheexcellentformulationofhistorianH.R.EllisDavidson,“theimpressionthepoemsgiveisnotofaplannedandrationalworld,butratheraseriesofvividimageswhichbuildupavaguebutpowerfulworld-picture.”18

The desire to create a “planned and rational world” out of thecosmological lore scattered throughoutOldNorse literature is a thoroughlymodernone.TheVikings didn’t share our lust for rational order.But ifwewere to indulge that lustmomentarily,wemightendupwitha listof“nineworlds”thatlookssomethinglikethis:

1.Asgard,thegods’celestialfortress;2.Jotunheim,thechaotic,wildregionsofthegiants;3.Alfheim, thehomelandof theelves,which isneverdescribed in thesources;4. Nidavellir (Niðavellir, “Low Fields”), the cavernous home of thedwarves;5. Vanaheim (Vanaheimr), the homeland of the Vanir, which is neverdescribedinthesources;6. Hel, the underworld where the dead dwelt, which we’ll explore indetailinalaterchapter;7.Muspelheim (Múspellsheimr, something like “World of DestructionbyFire”19),thelandofelementalfire;8.Niflheim(Niflheimr,“WorldofDarkness”),thelandofelementalice;9.Midgard,thematerialworldandtheonlyoneoftheninethatwasn’tapartoftheotherworld.Iemphasizethatthislistisamoderncreation–myown,infact–based

on the sources, not one that the sources themselves report.Butmaybe, justmaybe, somewhere, sometime, some Viking taught his son that these ninerealms were the basic parts of the cosmos – and he no doubt would haveaddedagreatdealofcolorful,illuminatinginformationthathasbeenutterlylostinthegapingexpanseoftheinterveningcenturies.

TIME

That, in a nutshell, is how theVikings thought of the spatial layout of

theirotherworld,andoftheircosmosmorebroadly.Buthowdidtheythinkoftimewithinthatcosmos?

Many people in modern times have asserted that the Vikings had anessentiallycyclicalviewoftime,withperiodicdestructionsofthecosmosthatwerefollowedbyitsrebirth.(Iusedtoholdthispositioninthepast,too,forthatmatter.)However,theonly“evidence”forsuchaviewinthesourcesisamisinterpretationoftwoparticularOldNorsepoemsthatwe’lllookatcloselyinamoment.TheviewthattheNorsehadafundamentallylinearconceptionoftime,onthecontrary,hasawealthofevidencetosupportit.

Foronething,aswe’veseen,thegodsandotherdivinebeingsroutinelyintervened in linear time to shape the course of historical events. Odindirected the outcomes of battles; the land spirits rewarded those whorespectedthemandpunishedthosewhowrongedthem;Thorcrushedagianteverytimethunderstruck;thegiantsbroughtdisease,famine,andallkindsofother ills if the people didn’t sacrifice to them to keep them at bay; Freya,Frey,Njord,Thor,Sif,andotherswereresponsibleforthefertilityofthelandand for bountiful harvests; and so on. These weren’t simply activities thedivinebeingsdabbled inhereand there.Theywerepart andparcelof theirveryessenceastheforceswhoactivelyupheldthewell-beingandorderofthecosmos – or, in the case of the giants, the forces who actively sought tounderminethatwell-beingandorder.Theinhabitantsoftheotherworldlivedinlineartime,andthecosmostheyshapedunfoldedinlineartime.

Furthermore, this cosmoswas seen as having a definite beginning andend.Itwascreatedataparticularmomentinthepast,anditwillbedestroyedataparticularmomentinthefuture–Ragnarok.We’llexplorethemythsofcreation andRagnarok inPartTwo,but for now it’s simply enough tonotethat theprocessionof time in themythswas framedby these twodecisive,one-offevents.

Complicating thispicture,however, thereare threepiecesofOldNorseliteraturethatspeakofarebirthofthecosmosafterRagnarok.Whatarewetodowiththem?

TwoofthesesourcesareEddicpoems:TheProphecyoftheSeeressandTheSongofVafthrudnir.ThethirdisSnorriSturluson’sProseEdda.Snorri’saccount of the downfall and rebirth of the cosmos includes no details thataren’talsopresent in thosetwopoems,bothofwhichhequotesextensivelythroughout the Prose Edda and in this particular passage. The mostreasonable conclusion is that Snorri used those two poems, and only thosetwopoems,ashissourcesforhisaccountofaregenerationafterRagnarok.SothereareactuallyonlytwopiecesofOldNorseliteraturethatwere(asfaraswe can tell) composed independently of one another that include a rebirthnarrative.

LikemanyofthepoemsthatcomprisethePoeticEdda,TheProphecyoftheSeeressandTheSongofVafthrudnirwerecomposedduringthelatterpartof the Viking Age or the early Middle Ages, during the period when theancient Norse religion was transitioning to medieval Christianity.20 I say“transitioning”becausethiswasbynomeansaswift,decisivereplacement.Itwas a process that took centuries. And while it was underway, there wasplentyoftimeforespeciallythoughtfulindividualstointerpretandcommentonthatprocessanditssignificance.

The Prophecy of the Seeress does just that. Despite many people’sinsistence on seeing it as a conservativeViking’s stirring tribute to the oldways, or even some kind of Norse catechism, it’s actually the work of aChristian, or at least Christian-leaning, poet attempting to demonstrate thatthetraditionalreligionofhispeoplehadprophesiedthearrivalandtriumphofanew,superiorreligion.

Tomake its case, it draws on traditional imagery and ideas, but caststheminaradicallyinnovativelight.Christianinfluencepermeatesthepoem.Traditionally, the Norse saw the universe as being basically amoral andworking towardno“higherpurpose”ofanysort. (We’vealreadyseensomedegreeofthisinthecharactersofthegodsandgoddesses,andtherestofthepicturewillbefilledinbylaterchapters.)ButfortheauthorofTheProphecyof theSeeress, thiswas not so. Instead, the cosmos, and the progression ofeventswithinit,wasfullofmoralpurpose,justasinmedievalChristianity.

Thepoemimaginesthatimmediatelyafterthegodscreatedthecosmos,therewerenogiantsinit,andaGoldenAgeofprosperity,peace,happiness,justice, and play prevailed. Then a fall, parallel to that of Adam and Eve,occurred as “three giant maidens” entered the cosmos from the chaos ofJotunheimandbroughtanendtotheearlierblissandrighteousness.21Severalstanzaslater,wefindtheoneandonlyportrayalofmoralpunishmentintheafterlifeinallofOldNorseliterature:murderers,adulterers,andotherwickedpeoplearetorturouslydismemberedbythemonstersNidhoggandFenririna

place called the “Shore of Corpses.”22 The moral worth of the universe(includinggodsandhumans)decayssteadilythroughoutthepoem.InamovehighlyreminiscentoftheapocalypticvisionofthebookofRevelationin theNewTestament,Ragnarok is depicted as a necessary purification to rid theworld of evil. Theworld that comes afterRagnarok is a newGoldenAge,cleansedofanygiantsthatmightotherwisetaintit.Stanza65isparticularlytelling:

ThenfromaboveComesthemightyrulerTodivinelyjudgeAndtoruleoverall.23

WhocouldthisbebutChrist?24TheProphecyoftheSeeressisultimately

heraldingthecomingdominionoftheall-powerful,all-virtuousnewgodfromthesouth,whosevictoryitseesasinevitableandpraiseworthy.

The poet ofThe Song of Vafthrudnir was more neutral, and also lessingenious. His work doesn’t seem to have any particular axe to grind. It’ssimply a compilation of a large amount of disconnected scraps ofmythicallore, which are recounted through a clever framing story about a contestbetween Odin and a giant named Vafthrudnir. Yet there’s every reason tobelievethatthelorehecollectedinhispoemwasalreadyheavilyinfluencedbyChristianity–indeed,itwouldhavebeendifficultforitnottohavebeen.His accountof a rebirthof the cosmosafterRagnarokcame from the samesocio-historicalcontextinwhichTheProphecyoftheSeeresswaswritten.

In the tenth andeleventhcenturies,when theNorse religionwasbeingreplaced by Christianity all across the Norse lands, manyVikings came tobelieve that theywere living throughRagnarok.After all, according to thetales,weren’tthegodsgoingtoperishinthatfinalbattle?Nowthatthegodswereindeedfalling,didn’tthatmeanthattheprophesiedcollapseofthegodsand theirworldhadcomeat last?But in thatperiod, anewgodandanewworldwere rising from the ashes of the old gods and the oldworld. So itseemedtothemthatwhilethepropheciesofRagnarokhadbeencorrect,theyhadneglectedtomentionthatRagnarokwasn’ttheendofeverything.Instead,itwasfollowedbyanother,differentworld.CouldthishavebeentheoriginoftheideathatarebirthfollowedRagnarok?

Allof theevidencesuggests that thiswasindeedthecase.Again, thereare no other pieces of Old Norse literature that mention a rebirth afterRagnarok.ButthereareseveralpiecesofOldNorseliterature–and,infact,lots and lots of pieces of literature from all across northern Europe, from

poemstofolktalestooathformulas–thatmentionafuturecataclysmicendofthecosmoswithnosubsequent revival.26Someof them,suchas theskaldicpoemsTheSongofKingEirikandTheSongofKingHakon,areconsiderablyolder than The Prophecy of the Seeress and The Song of Vafthrudnir.27Furthermore,thetoneofthesepassagesisominousandtragic.AnyhintoftheexuberanceandhopeoftherebirthstanzasofTheProphecyoftheSeeressandTheSongofVafthrudnirisutterly,crushinglylacking.SurelyifthesepassageshadsimplyneglectedtomentionawidespreadbeliefinarejuvenationofthecosmosafterRagnarok, therewouldn’tbesomanyof them,and theymighthaveatleastalludedtoitintheirtoneorbyothersubtlemeans.Butnothingofthesortisanywheretobefound.

The striking conclusion is that, at least originally, the Norse sawRagnarokasaone-offeventinthefuturethatwouldobliterateeverytraceofthecosmostowhichtheybelongedandwhichtheircherishedgodsupheld.

The Norse view of time and its end might strike us as exceptionallygloomy, even despairing. And on one level it was indeed gloomy anddespairing.Butaswe’llseeinthenextchapter,theVikingsfoundexistentialcomfortnot inwhatwasgoing tohappen to them in the future,but inhowtheymetwhateveritwasthathappenedtothem.

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Chapter5:Fate“WhathaveIdreamed?”wonderedOdinasheawoke.“Itseemedtome

that Iwasgoingaroundandwaking thenoblewarriorswhodwellwithmehereinValhalla.Itoldthemtocoverthebenchesofthefeastinghallwithfinefurs, and towash thedrinkinghorns. I told theValkyries to fetch themeadand prepare to serve it. It seemed we were getting ready for a sumptuousfeast,asiftowelcomeagreatherointoourmidst.”

The walls of Valhalla began to tremble, first just enough to beperceptible,thenwithmountingintensity.Alow,insistentrumblingcouldbeheardapproachingfromafar.

Odin left his chambers and found Bragi, his court poet, sitting in themain hall. He asked the learned minstrel, “What’s causing all thiscommotion?Itsoundslikesomefiercearmyapproaching.”

Bragireplied,“Aye,thetimbersofthebenchesarecreakingasifBalderhimselfwerecomingbackfromthedepths.”

Although Bragi had said these words lightly and innocently, Odincouldn’t help but be stung by the reminder of his beloved son’s death.RegardlessofhowmuchheyearnedtoseeBalderagain,heknewthatitwasimpossible. “Stop being foolish, Bragi,” admonished Odin, with anunintendedcurtnessthatsurprisedevenhim.Regaininghiscomposure,Odinwenton:“No,youwhoaresowiseandlearnedmustsurelyknowthatthisissomeoneelse.AndIhaveanideaofwhoitis.”

“Who,then?”askedBragiwitheagercuriosity.“ItcansurelybenootherthanKingEirikBlood-axe,”repliedOdin,who

hadhimselfarrangedthedeathofthefearsomeking.Bynow,thewarriorswholivedinthehallhadallwokenandassembled

around their ruler and his poet, anxious to knowwhatwas going on.OdinturnedtoSigmundandSinfjotli,twoofhisbestmen.Pointingtothedoor,hetoldthem,“GoandwelcomeKingEirik,ifitisindeedhim.”

Before obeying his commander’s orders, Sigmund summoned up thecouragetoaskhimaquestionhehadbeenstrugglingwithforsometime:whydid thegodstrikedownthebestandnoblestwarriorsandbring themtohishall? Rather than posing his question directly, which might have seemedimpertinent,hecoucheditinmoreconcretelanguage.“Mylord,ifImay,whyis it thatyoudesiredtobringEiriktoyourhallrather thananyof themanyotherkingsintheworld?”

“Because,” Odin answered casually and quickly, “he has reddened his

swordintoomanycountriestocount.”Sigmund’s curiosity overcame his prudence, and he blurted out in

response,“Butwhydidyousnatchoutofhishandsthevictorythatwasduetohim,whenbyyourownadmissionhewassovaliant?”

Sigmundrealizedonlyafterhehadspokenthathehadjustquestionedhismaster’s judgment.Hebracedhimselfforwhateverwouldhappennext.Butinstead of beingwrathful, or even cross, Odin’s expression became one ofdejection.Hesigheddeeplyandstareddownatthefloorforalongmoment.Despite the tumult going on outside, the total silence of the astonishedwarriorswithin thehallwaspalpable.Finally,his eyes stillon the floor,heanswered gravely: “Because no one knowswhenRagnarokwill arrive, andthewolfwillfinallymakehiswayheretokillme.”

SogoesThe Song ofKingEirik.1 How couldOdin have known that adreadfulbeast(Fenrir)wouldonedayslayhim,whichspurredhimtoamassan armyof themost elite humanwarriors in the futile hopeof avertinghisdeath?Itwaspartlyduetohowfar-seeingOdinwas.Butinorderforhimtohavehadknowledgeofwhatwasgoing tohappen in the future, that futurehadtohavebeenforeordained.

THENORSECONCEPTIONOFFATE

The idea of fate permeated the religion of the Vikings at every turn.

Everythingintheuniverse,eventhegods,wassubjecttoit.There were at least six terms for “fate” in Old Norse: ørlög, sköp,

mjötuðr,auðna, forlög,andurðr.Of these,auðna,mjötuðr,andurðrmeant“fate”inaverydirectsensewithfewsubtleties.Forlögandørlögbothmeant“first law,” the original andmost powerful set of guidelines that governedbehavior.Andsköp,fromthesamerootasthemodernEnglishword“shape,”referred to a coherent structure that produced a reliable outcome.2 FateoccupiedroughlythesamepositionintheNorseworldviewthat thelawsofsciencedointhemodernworld;itprovidedanunseenguidingprinciplethatdetermined how events in theworldwould unfold, and could explain themafter they occurred.Questioning the reality and omnipotence of fatewouldhave been laughable and almost unthinkable.TheEddic poemThe Song ofFafnir warns its readers that it’s as ridiculous and foolhardy to struggleagainstfateasitistorowaboatagainstastrongwind.3

Fatehadnothingwhatsoevertodowithnotionslikemoralityorjustice–theVikings’standardsofmoralityand justiceoranybodyelse’s.Karma,forexample,isaconceptthatwascompletelyalientotheVikingAgeview.Thiswasaquintessentially“blindfate,”utterlyapathetictothewell-beingofthose

caughtupwithinit.Tobesure,whatwetodaywouldcall“causeandeffect”wastakeninto

account–judicialproceedings,tocitebutoneexample,operatedonthebasisof assuming personal responsibility for one’s own actions. But notions ofcause and effect and of personal responsibility were seen as necessarysuperficialities,andwerecontextualizedbythedeeperexplanatoryframeworkoffate.Forexample,thosesamejudicialproceedingswereoftenseenastheinstrumentsoffate,andthelawstheyupheldwereseenashavingbeenbuiltonthe“firstlaw.”Afterall,insuchaperspective,howcouldtheynotbe?

THENORNS

Several Old Norse sources mention a group of female entities who

personallyshapedthefateofallbeings:theNorns(OldNorsenornir,singularnorn).TheylivedatthebaseofYggdrasil,themightytreeatthecenterofthecosmos,inagreathallbytheWellofFate(Urðarbrunnr).Theytookmudandwater from thewellandpoured themover the tree’s roots,preventing themfromdryingoutor rotting.4Runes, themagical alphabetof theNorse,wereinscribedontheirfingernails.5

Different images were used for the Norns’ fate-crafting activity.Sometimes they were said to weave a person’s life like an intricate web,ending itbycutting the last thread.6Atother times, theywere said to cut aperson’sfateintoapieceofwood.Thishasusuallybeeninterpretedtohavemeant that theywroteout thecourseofa lifetimeinrunes,and itverywellcouldhavemeantthat.However,inNorway,timewastraditionallyreckonedby cutting notches into a wooden plank above a window, and it’s equallyplausiblethatthispracticeiswhatsuchpassageswerereferencing.7

Thesourcesdon’tshareanyconsensusonhowmanyNornstherewere.Somesaytherewasalargebutunknownnumberofthem,8whileothersholdthattherewereexactlythree.9Inthelattercase,theirnamesareusuallygivenasUrd(Urðr,“Fate”),Verdandi(Verðandi,“Becoming”),andSkuld(“Debt”)–fittingnamesforsuchbeings.10

There’s no evidence that theNornswere everworshipped. Perhapsweshouldn’tbesurprisedbythis.Afterall,whatcouldtheVikingshavehopedtogainbyworshippingentitieswhowereutterlyimplacable?

RESPONSESTOFATE

The concept of fate provided the Norse with a means of addressing

timeless existential anxieties. Naturally, different people took different

approaches to this task, and the same person might have taken differentapproachesatdifferenttimes.

Allpeoplehavealwayswantedtobeabletopredictthefuture–considerhow seriouslywe takemeteorologists in our own society, for example.Butwhereaswesee thefutureasanopenfieldofpossibilities,andwetypicallyissueandreceiveweatherforecastswithagrainofsalt,theNorsehadtocometotermswithafuturewhosecorestructurewasrigidlyfixed.Fundamentally,thingscouldonlyhappenoneforeordainedway.Thus,theyoftensoughtoutthe help of seers and seeresses, those with privileged access to the futureshapeof things, either out of a desire to take that shape into accountwhenmakingplans,oroutofsimple fear.Kingsandothermilitary leaderswouldconsultwithseersandseeressesontheeveofbattle,andcommunitiesmightinvite a seer or seeress before the spring planting began, to cite but twoexamples. Humans weren’t the only ones who called upon professionalsoothsayers–thedeitiesdid,too.

At other times, fate was helplessly cursed. “Evil is the decree of theNorns,”moansonesaga.11

ButtheattitudetowardfatethatVikingsocietyheldupastheidealonewasaheroicstoicism.InthewordsofarchaeologistNeilPrice,“Theoutcomeof our actions, our fate, is already decided and therefore does not matter.What is important is themannerofourconductaswego tomeet it.”12Youcouldn’tchangewhatwasgoingtohappentoyou,butyoucouldatleastfaceitwithhonoranddignity.Thebestdeathwastogodownfighting,preferablywithasmileonyour lips.Life isprecariousby itsverynature,but thiswasespeciallytrueintheVikingAge,whichmadethisfatalism,andstoicisminthefaceofit,especiallypoignant.

The model of this ideal was Odin’s amassing an army in Valhalla inpreparation for Ragnarok. He knew that Fenrir, “the wolf,” was going tomurder him one way or another. Perhaps on some level he hoped that bygatheringallof thebestwarriors to fightalongsidehim,hecouldsomehowpreventtheinevitable.Butdeepdownheknewthathisstrugglewashopeless–yethedeterminedtostrugglejust thesame,andtodieinthemostradiantblazeofgloryhecouldmuster.

Another example of this same attitude, this time on a less cosmic andmore humble scale, comes from the life of the warrior-poet EgilSkallagrimsson.Accordingtohissaga,towardtheendofhislife,oneofhissonsdied,afterothershaddiedbeforehim.SuchwasthedepthofEgil’sgriefthatheplanned tokillhimself,buthissurvivingdaughterconvincedhimtoinstead use his poetic talent to compose a memorial poem for his lostchildren. Egil’s poem is calledTheWreck of Sons (Sonatorrek). In it, Egil

bemoanshislotinlifeandcursesOdin,hispatrongod,forhavingmadehimsuffersomuch.ButEgilfindsthatthissufferinghasalsocarriedagiftwithinit,forhisanguishinspireshimtocomposebetterpoetrythaneverbefore.Helets loose an eloquent cry of both despair and joy, or at least contentedacceptance.Thefinalthreestanzasread:

IoffernothingWithaneagerheartTothegreatestofgods,ThewillfulOdin.ButImustconcedeThatthefriendofthewiseHaspaidmewellForallmywounds.Thebattle-testedFoeofthewolfHasgivenmeAtoweringart,AndwitstodiscernInthosearoundmeWhowisheswell,Whowishesill.Timesaredire,Yetgladismyheart,Fullofcourage,Withoutcomplaint.IwaitforthegoddessOfdirtandofdeathWhostandsontheheadlandTobearmeaway.13

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Chapter6:MoralityYoudon’tneedmetotellyouthattherelationshipbetweenreligionand

moralityisaquestionthatpeopleargueoverconstantlyandheatedly.Today,somepeoplebelievethatmoralityisinherentlyGod-given,andthatwithoutabeliefin(aparticularkindof)God,allmoralitywouldvanish.Othersseekabasis foramoral systeminDarwinianevolution,or in thedesiresandfearsthatarecommontoallofhumanity.Regardlessofwhatjustificationsomeonemightusetodefendasystemofmorality,virtuallyeveryoneequatestheword“morality” with a code of conduct based on altruism and universalcompassion(evenifthedetailsmaydifferbetweenvarioussystems).

TheVikingswouldhavethoughtofallofthatasastinkingpileofdragonexcrement.

Theonly connectionbetween religionandmorality in theNorseworldwas that they were both part of the same cultural system. Morality didn’tderivefromreligion,andreligiondidn’tderivefrommorality.

Gods and goddesses didn’t decree moral codes. There was no Viking“Ten Commandments” or anything like that. Naturally, deities lookedfavorably upon ritual piety and unfavorably upon ritual impiety andnegligence.Butthatkindofreligiouspietywasandiscategoricallydifferentfrommorality,becauseperformingritualsproperlyandreverentlyhasnothingtodowithhowoneconductsoneselfindailylife.

Nor did the gods and goddesses exemplify moral behavior. There’s acommonmisconception thatmyths, thestoriesof the livesanddeedsof thedeities,weresupposedtoteachpropermorals.Maybethatwastrueforsomeotherpeoples,butitdefinitelywasn’ttruefortheNorse.Themythsassumedthat their readers held particular moral conceptions in mind, which weresometimesimplicitlyreferencedinsomeofthedetailsofthestories,butthestories didn’t go out of their way to teach morals. Their intent(s) layelsewhere, and theyoften featured the deities doing things thatwould havebeen unspeakably shameful to the Vikings, such as breaking oaths andcommittingincest,withoutanysubsequent“lesson”fortheirhumanlisteners.Thebehaviorofthegodsandgoddesseswasmoreofareflectionoftheoftensordid realities of the Viking Age than it was a reflection of the Vikings’moralideals.

Morality,therefore,belongedtothehumansocialsphereratherthanthereligioussphere.

Furthermore,whetherornottheVikingsevenhadastandardofmorality

isdebatable,anddependsonhowyouchoosetodefinetheword“morality.”Ifmoralityisdefinedbroadlyandlooselyassimplyastandardofconductthatone is expected to follow in one’s day-to-day life – the definitionwe’ll beusing here in this chapter – then the Vikings did have their ownmorality.Such a definition is wide enough to include what the German philosopherFriedrich Nietzsche famously called the “morality of mores” – that is, asystemofmoralitythatconsistsofnothingmorethansocialnorms.1ThatwastheonlykindofmoralitytheVikingshad.

As you can probably guess from the preceding chapter, the Vikingsweren’tbigontheideaof“freewill,”whichwetodaytendtoseeasthebasisfor moral action. The idea of a fixed fate greatly constrained the range ofmoralchoices,suchthatwillwasonlyever“free”inapartialandprovisionalsense,andthosechoicesthatwereleftwereessentiallyjustmattersofmeetingthatfateinaparticularway.

Norsemoralitydifferedsomuchfromourmodernnotionsoftheconceptthat it was almost unrecognizable. The final, and probablymost important,factorthatmadeit thiswaywasitscontent.TheactionstheVikingslabeled“good” or “bad”were a far cry fromwhatwould be considered “good” or“bad”accordingtomostmodernsystemsofmorality.Insomecases,thetwokinds of systems are even diametrically opposed. Some things that mostpeopletodaywoulddeemtobeexemplarymoralbehaviorwouldhavebeen,for the Vikings, either neutral or actively immoral, and vice versa. We’llspendtherestofthischapterexploringthisparticularpoint.

HONORANDSELF-INTEREST

The Vikings saw themselves as living in a basically hostile universe.

Theywerehelplessagainstthecruellycapriciousdictatesoffate.Theclimatewasicy,andthelandscapewasperilousandunyielding.Enemieswerealwaysclose at hand, whether from outside of one’s trusted social group or fromwithinit.Nothinginlifewasagiven;onehadtotoilandfightforwhateveronehad.Itshouldcomeasnosurprise,therefore,thattheNorseplacedahighvalueonthecapable,accomplishedwarriorandthetraits thatsuchapersonembodied.

Thingslikepeacefulness,kindness,andcompassionwerenotheldupasinherently positive ideals. People were frequently peaceful, kind, orcompassionate,but justasoften,andperhapsmoreoften, theywereviolent,gruff,orvengeful.Andthoselatterbehaviorswereoftenvaluedjustashighlyas, or evenmore highly than, thosemore pleasant ones. For example, in aremarkableandchillingreversalofthecommonpracticeofcomparingone’s

enemies to“beasts”and“animals”asawayof justifyingone’sslaughteringthem, the Vikings routinely cast themselves as “beasts” – and in particularpredatorslikebearsorwolves–andtheirenemiesastheirprey.Byinvokingsuchimagery,theVikingsjustifiedtheirownbrutalitynotonthebasisoftheirinnocenceofhavingcommittedsometransgression,butratheronthebasisoftheir simply being the superior power and fulfilling the natural order ofthings.2

But justas therewasno“GoldenRule” (“dountoothersasyouwouldhavethemdountoyou”),andnoaltruisticrationalethatdeterminedwhatwasvalued,savagery for thesakeofsavagerywasn’tvalued,either. Instead, thebasisofNorsemoralitywasself-interestasdefinedbyandexpressedthroughacertaincodeofhonor.TheconceptofhonorenabledtheVikingstochanneltheir inherent selfishness into pursuits that also served the interests of thecommunitiestowhichtheybelonged.

FortheNorse,asinmostotherhistoricalculturesthathaveplacedahighvalueonpersonalhonor,thechiefgoodwasone’sown“name”orreputation.Particularkindsofactions increasedone’s stature in theeyesofothers,andother kinds of actions diminished it. The most honorable behaviors andcharacter traits, as evidenced especially in the sagas, were manliness,generosity,hospitality,valor,courage,eloquence,andloyalty.3Mostof thesewere actions that benefitted others in one’s community (but, crucially, notthoseoutsideofit).Someoftheseactionscouldevenbeseenasaltruisticinadifferentcontext.ThepoetEgilSkallagrimsson,forexample,oncesaid,“Iamquicktosinga[generous]man’spraise,butstumbleforwordsaboutmisers.”4

But in this context, even generosity and hospitality weren’t trulyaltruisticactions.Theymayhavehelpedothersalongtheway,butthatwasn’ttheir ultimate intent. In thewords of anthropologistRichardBauman, “Notonly did honor have to be enacted and observed, it had to be publiclyacknowledged,bybeingtalkedaboutandevaluated.…Thequestforhonorwasthuscentrallyaquestforreputation,restingontheneedtobewelltalkedabout.”5Achieftaingavehiswarriorsprizedgiftsandthrewlavishfeastsforthembecausehewanted them–andpoets likeEgil – topraisehim forhisgenerosity.Afamilywholeta travelerspendthenight intheirhousedidsobecausetheywantedotherstoseethemasbeinghospitable.Andsoforth.Ofcourse, it couldbeargued thatevenaltruisticmorality isactuallymotivatedbythissameselfishimpulse,buteitherway,theVikingsharborednoillusionsabouttheirultimateself-interest.

SEXUALANDGENDER-BASEDMORALITY

Now we come to an aspect of Norse honor and morality that manypeople find tobeupsetting,orat leastugly.But itwasacentralelementofViking Age values, and was referenced throughout Norse mythology andreligion,soit’ssomethingthatanyoneinterestedin this topichas tograpplewithsoonerorlater.ConsiderthefollowingepisodefromGisli’sSaga:

A farmer named Thorbjorn had a gorgeous, strong-willed daughternamedThordis.Whenshereachedtheageofmarriage,asuitorbythenameofSkeggitheDueller–aroughbrawler,ashisnicknameimplied–cametoThorbjorn’s farmstead and asked forThordis’s hand inmarriage.Thorbjornrefused,andofferedahalf-heartedexcuse.ButeveryoneknewtherealreasonwhyThorbjornhadturneddownSkeggi’srequest:ThordiswasalreadyseeinganothermanbythenameofKolbjorn,awell-to-dolocalfarmer.

SotheDueller,angryandhumiliatedafterbeingrebuffed,stormedofftoKolbjorn’s house and challenged him to a duel for the hand of Thordis.Kolbjornwasterrified,butagreed,notingthatnoonewouldthinkhimworthyofThordisifhedeclined.

Onthenightbeforetheduelwastotakeplace,however,Gisli,Thordis’sbrother, went to Kolbjorn and asked him if he was prepared. He foundKolbjorn panic-stricken and questioning whether he would actually gothroughwiththeduel.Duringtheirconversation,Kolbjornaskedthestronger,bolderGislitofightinhisplace.GisliharshlyridiculedKolbjorn,callinghimthe most despicable lowlife in the world, and saying – correctly – thatKolbjornwouldbearaheavyshamefortherestofhislife.But,intheend,heagreedtotakeKolbjorn’splace.

Thenextday,Skeggiandhismenarrivedat theappointedlocationandwaited for Kolbjorn. A long time passed, and neither Kolbjorn nor Gislishowed up. So Skeggi said to his carpenter, Ref, “Carve two life-sized,woodenstatuesofKolbjornandGisli.Setthemupwithonestandingbehindthe other, penetrating him. And may this monument of scorn (níð) remainhereforevertomockthem!”

At that very moment, Gisli appeared from the woods. “Give yourfarmhandssomethingbetter todo,”hesneeredatSkeggi.Wavinghisaxeintheair,hegrowled,“Hereisarealman,onewhowillfightyou!”

Theduelraged.Bothmenfoughtfiercelyandskillfully.Buteventually,inonetremendoussweepofhisaxe,GislislicedthroughSkeggi’sshieldandintohisleg,severingitattheknee.Despitehisunbelievablepain,Skeggihadthe presence of mind to know that he had seconds to save his life. So heimmediatelyofferedtopayGisliagreatsumofmoneytoendtheduel thenand there and not kill him. Gisli accepted. From that day forward, Gisli’svictoryincreasedhisreputationconsiderably,whileSkeggihadtowalkwitha

woodenleg–presumablythiswastheusetowhichheendedupputtingRef,hiscarpenter.6

ThesinglemostimportantwordinNorsenotionsofhonorandmoralitywas drengskapr,7 which meant “manliness,” “high-mindedness,” and“courage.”8 For theVikings, therefore, “manliness”meantmuchmore thansimplyhavingonekindofgenitaliaratherthananother.Itconnotedallsortsofvirtues–theonesdiscussedaboveintheexaminationofthecodeofhonor–thatwerethoughttomakethedifferencebetweenbeingamerelybiologicalman(amaðr)anda“realman”(adrengr).

The opposite of drengskapr was ergi. Ergi meant first and foremost“unmanliness,”but,likedrengskapr,itcontainedahostofotherconnotations.Theprimaryinsinuationwasthatsuchamanhadadoptedthereceptiveroleinhomosexualintercourse.InthewordsofphilologistEldarHeide,“foramantobepenetratedbyanothermanwastheultimateunmanliness,becausethatsymbolically turnedhim intoawoman. Injury in thebuttockshad thesameeffect.”9Someonewhowould do something so extremely unbecoming of adrengrwasthoughttonecessarilyalsolacktheotherqualitiesofadrengr.Inparticular, he was a coward10 – hence Skeggi’s estimation of Gisli andKolbjornashomosexuals forhaving failed to showup foraduel.Someonewhowaswillingtoadoptapassiverolesexuallymusthavealsobeenwillingtoadoptapassiveroleinlifemoregenerally,orsothethinkingwent.11Thepracticeofsorcery,oratleastcertainkindsofsorcery,wasalsothoughttobequintessentiallyargr(theadjectivalformofergi)forreasonsthatwillbecomeclearerinChapterTen.

Ergiwasthesubjectofformalizedinsults(níð),whicharementionedinNorse law codes. They included comparing a man to a female animal(“mare,” “bitch,” etc.), sayinghehadgivenbirth, sayinghehadplayed thepartofawomaneveryninthnight,andsayinghehadperformedsorcery.Aníðwastypicallygivenverballyorinwood,whetherthroughwritinginrunesorthroughsculpture,aswithSkeggi.Níðwasacrimeasheinousasrapeandmurder, andwaspunishableby fulloutlawry– inmanycases, effectivelyadeath sentence.12 It’s surely no coincidence that Gisli appeared from thewoods to kill Skeggi immediately after the latter had accused him of ergi.Gisli was defending his drengskapr, his honor, with the same fervor andviolence thatwouldhavebeen stirreduphadSkeggikilledor rapedoneofGisli’s family members. Ergi was so shameful that legal officials wouldsometimestrytopersuadetheinvolvedpartiestosettlemattersontheirownso that the casewouldn’t have to be brought before the legal assembly foreveryonetohear.13

Among the deities, Odin could be seen as argr due to his being a

practitionerofsorcery.Hewastauntedforbeingsuch,andwasonceexiled–outlawed – for this and other shameful behaviors. Loki, however, wasvirtually the model of ergi. This can be seen most clearly in his havingmotheredafoalinthestoryofhowAsgard’swallwasbuilt.Notonlydidheadopt a receptive homosexual role to do so, but he actually turned himselfintoamare(aformalníð)andgavebirth(anotherformalníð)alongtheway.

WhataboutVikingwomen?Unfortunately, the sources provide far less information on Viking

conceptionsofhonorandmoralityas theypertained towomen.But theydodropatleastafewclues.Foronething,womenwereoccasionallysaidtobeargr,andjudgingbythecontextofsuchpassages,thisseemstohavebeenanaccusation of nymphomania.14 Additionally, while acts that determined aperson’sorafamily’shonorwerealmostalwayscarriedoutbymen,womenalsoplayedamoreorlesssociallydefinedbutbehind-the-scenesroleinsuchmattersbygoadingmenintoaction,whetherforconflictorforpeace,whenthemen failed to takewhat in their eyeswere the appropriate actions.Thesagasarerepletewithexamplesofsuchgoading.15

Needless to say, theVikings didn’t exactly share ourmodern ideals ofgenderequalityandsexualfreedom.Genderrolesandexpectationswerequitesharply defined, and “manliness” was a much higher ideal than“womanliness.” While women did enjoy certain rights that would laterbecomeunavailabletothemwiththeacceptanceofChristianity,andwhiletheEddas and sagas contain numerous examples of strong and independentwomen,Vikingsocietyasawholegrantedmenconsiderablymorepowerandprestigethanwomen.

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Chapter7:TheSelfandItsPartsToday,mostofusthinkoftheselfashavingtwoorthreeparts:abody,a

mind,andperhaps–dependingonyourownreligiousconvictions–a soul.TheVikings,too,thoughtoftheselfashavingdifferentcomponents,buttheybelievedinmoreanddifferentcomponentsthanwedo.

TheVikingselfwasanintegralbeing;allofthepartsaddeduptoamoreorlesscohesivewhole,astheydoinourviewoftheselfaswell.Butthepartscould also function independently of one another, and could dissociatethemselves from the others and go their separate ways under certaincircumstances.1

We’ve already seen on numerous occasions how Norse religion wasnevermade into a neat and tidy systemwhile itwas a living tradition, andhowinformalandfluiditwas.TheNorseviewoftheselfwasanotherprimeexampleofthisresistanceorapathytowardfoistingasmoothorderupontheroughnessandboisterousnessof livedexperience.Thesourcesneverofferalistora“map”ofthedifferentpartsthatcomprisedtheself.Differentsourcesmentiondifferentandcontradictoryparts,andcharacterize themindifferentand contradictory ways. This tendency is too pervasive to be due to meremisunderstandings of what was originally a totally orderly and coherentsystem.Noworldview is,has everbeen,orwill everbe totallyorderlyandcoherent.Thosethataremorecoherentthanothersaregenerallythosewhosecreators have gone out of theirway to impose a rational organization uponthem.Butinthecaseofancient,tribalreligionsthatnooneeverattemptedtomake into a doctrinally tidy system while they were still believed in andpracticed,expectingthesameleveloftidinessonefindsintheworldviewsofindividualphilosophers,forexample,isjustplainridiculous.

Thatbeingsaid,thesourcesdoindicatethatsomepartsoftheselfweremorewidelybelievedin,andtheconceptsmorefullydeveloped,thanothers.Inthischapter,we’llexplorefourparticularlywidelyremarked-uponpartsoftheVikingselfandtheirdominantcharacterizations.

Oneofthesefourpartswasphysical,andtheotherthreewerespiritual.However, intriguingly, in the Norse religion, for something to be spiritualdidn’t necessarilymean that itwas truly immaterial or incorporeal. Instead,spiritwasanespeciallyfinekindofmaterialsubstance,muchlikeair–and,as inmanyancient cultures, spiritwas synonymouswithbreath.LikeLatin(animus/animaandspiritus) andHebrew (ruach), OldNorse had onewordforbothbreathandspirit:önd.Spiritualpartsofapersoncouldleavethrough

her or his respiratory passages after death, and, while the person was stillalive, spirits could enter him or her through the same respiratory passages.Forexample,whenaspiritualpartofapersondetacheditselffromhimorherandtraveledtoanotherperson,therecipientofthespiritwouldoftenyawnordevelopanitchynose.2

THEHAMR

Thefirstof thesefourpartsof theself,and theonlyonemadeofsolid

matter, was the hamr. Hamr literally meant “skin” or “hide,”3 but wasessentially the same as what we today would call the “body.”4 It was thevisiblepartoftheselfthathousedtheinvisibleparts.

However, whereas we tend to view the body as fixed and mostlyunalterable, the Norse saw the hamr as something that could be changedradically by some people.Hamrwas the centralword in the vocabulary ofshapeshifting, because thehamr was the “shape” thatwas “shifted” in thatmagical process. A shapeshifter was called a hamhleypa (“hamr-leaper”),5and theverbalphrase for “to shiftone’s shape”wasskiptahömum (hömumwasthedativeformofhamr).6

THEHUGR

Oneof the three invisible, spiritual parts of the selfwas thehugr. The

hugrwassomeone’spersonalityormind,theintangiblepartthatcorrespondsmostcloselytowhatwemeanwhenwespeakofsomeone’s“innerself.”7 Itencompassedthought,desire,intuition(theOldNorsewordfor“foreboding”washugboð8),andaperson’s“presence”–thefeelingothersgetwhenthey’rearoundtheperson.9

Peopledescribedashavinganespeciallystronghugrcouldmakethingshappensomewherefarawaywithoutbeingphysicallypresent.10Attimes,thehugrcouldevenleaveitsoriginal“owner”andenterintosomeoneelse.Onecouldmakeapersonsickbythinkingabouttheminanenviousway;thehugrofthethinkertraveledtoandenteredintotheonewhowasthoughtaboutandinstigatedphysicalreactions.Thiscouldbedoneinamoreorlessinvoluntaryandunconsciousway,oraspartofadeliberateattack.If itwasanattack, itcouldhavesimplyharmedthepersondirectly,oritcouldhaveproceededbymore subtle and indirect means, making the victim sleepy, depressed, orgenerallyweakened,sothattheattackercouldoverpowerthevictim,whetherphysicallyorbygetting thevictim todo something thatheor shewouldn’totherwisedo.11

THEFYLGJA

Thesecondofthespiritualpartsoftheselfwasthefylgja(pluralfylgjur).

Theverbfylgjameant“toaccompany,”“tohelp,”“tosidewith,”“tobelongto,” “to follow,” “to lead,” “to guide,” or “to pursue” depending on thecontext.12 The fylgja spirit did all of those many things, and the besttranslationofthenounfylgjaisprobably“attendantspirit,”inbothsensesoftheword“attendant”–onewhoaccompaniesandonewhohelps.

Fylgjurwerealwaysvisibletothosewithsecondsight(theabilitytoseeinvisible, spiritual phenomena on a regular basis), and theywere visible tothosewithoutsecondsightduringdreamsandatthemomentofthedeathofthe “owner.”13 Just before someone died, he or she sometimes caught aglimpseofherorhisdeadfylgja.Inthisandotherways,thewell-beingofthefylgjaand thatof the“owner”were intimatelyboundupwithoneanother.14Thisshouldn’tsurpriseus,since,afterall,thefylgjawaspartoftheowneronsome level, even though it could separate itself from the rest of the self attimes,justascouldalloftheotherpartsoftheself.

Thefylgjaoftenworkedtoprotect thepersonofwhichitwasapart.Inone of the sagas, for example, a sorceress planned to kill a man at anupcomingparty.Theman’sfylgjawarnedhimaboutthedangerindreamsforthreenightsinarow,andthenfinallygavehimanillnessthatpreventedhimfrombeingabletogototheparty,therebysavinghislife.15

Theonlyconstantinthevisualformtheseattendantspiritsassumedwasthat theywere always female.16 Sometimes they appeared in the form of ahumanwoman,butmorecommonlytheyappearedintheformofananimal.Theparticularanimalformtakenbythefylgjaoftensignaledsomethingaboutthe person’s character. Someone with a bear for a fylgja was likely high-born,17 while someone with a wolf fylgja was bound to be especiallyaggressive, and someone with a fox fylgja was cunning and shrewd.18Sometimes, however, the form in which the fylgja appeared could besituational.Forexample,anattackingarmymightbeaccompaniedbyahostofwolffylgjur.19

To avoid a possible confusion, the fylgja having an animal form wasdifferentfromapersonshiftinghisorhershape(hamr)intothatofananimal.The fylgja accompanied its “owner” in a spiritual capacitywhile he or shewasinhisorherusualform,whileshapeshiftinginvolvedtransformingone’sphysical,sensorypresence.

THEHAMINGJA

The final part of the Viking self we’ll examine here is the hamingja,

“luck” or “fortune” (pluralhamingjur). In the words of Old Norse scholarBettinaSommer, “luckwasaquality inherent in themanandhis lineage,apart of his personality similar to his strength, intelligence, or skill withweapons, at once both the cause and the expression of the success,wealth,and power of a family.”20 The surest test of the strength of a person’shamingjawashisorherfortuneinbattle.21

Like the fylgja, the hamingja was always female, even for men. Theappearance of the hamingja is seldom described in the sources, but Viga-Glum’sSagaprovides a striking image of one: an enormouswomanwhoseshouldersweresowidethattheytouchedtwoseparatemountains.22

Thehamingjawastypicallypasseddownthroughfamilylines.Naminganewbornchildafterarelativewouldensure,oratleastincreasethelikelihood,thattherelative’shamingjawouldbepasseddowntothechild.Sometimesitseems like the dying or dead person could decide to whom his or herhamingja went, and at other times it seems like the hamingja decidedherself.23 A living person could also lend his or herhamingja to others toaccompany them on particular endeavors in which extra luck would be ofgreatuse,suchasabattleoralongandperilousjourney.24

Thelinesbetweenthehamingjur,fylgjur,andValkyrieswereespeciallyblurry.Allwerefemalehelpingspirits,andallatleastsometimesmovedfromonepersontooneofthatperson’schildrenorgrandchildrenwhentheoriginal“owner”orpartnerdied.25

Therewas,ofcourse,asubstantialconceptualtensionbetweenluckandfate, justas therewasbetweenfateandmoralchoice.But, true toform, theNorsedidn’t seem tohavebeenparticularlybotheredby suchphilosophicalniceties. In the harshworld of theVikingAge,with its constant strife andunforgivingNordicweather and landscapes, anymeans of explaining one’sfortuneand/orgainingmorecontroloveritwashighlyprized.

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Chapter8:DeathandtheAfterlifeTheintrepidVikingshavespentasuccessfulyearinthesouthandeast,

trading with the locals in the many different lands through which they’vepassed.Now,attheVolgaRiver,thousandsofmilesfromtheirhomebysea,one of their leaders has died. They place him in a temporary gravewith awooden covering while they hold his elaborate, ten-day funeral. His greatfortunetheydivideintothirds:onethirdforhisfamily,onethirdforexquisitegarments for his body, and one third for the liquor that the mourners willdrinknightanddayfor thenextweekandahalf.This isnoparty;afewofthem will die, with cups in hand, while ceremoniously carrying out theirleader’sfuneralarrangements.

Themembersof thedeadman’s familywhohaveaccompaniedhimonthis trip assemble his slave girls and ask themwhich onewill agree to diewithhim.Afteralongsilence,oneofthem,abeautiful,blondetwenty-year-old,mustersthecouragetosay,“Iwill.”Shehasspenttheselastyearsbeingsoldbyandtovariousdifferentowners,allofwhichhaveforcedhertocaterto their every desire, and have raped her at their pleasure. Although shedoesn’t say it out loud, this, finally, is her way out. And it carries anadditional benefit: despite the horrors that await her shortly before she iskilled,untilthenshewillbetreatedlikeaqueen.Twoofherfellowslavesareappointedtoaccompanyherandtodowhateversheordersthemtodo(and,wemay surmise, to prevent her from changing hermind and trying to runaway).

While the slave girl indulges her everywhimwithmerry abandon, thepeople busy themselveswith crafting the deadman’s clothes and preparinghisshipforitsfinaluse.Thecupsintheirhandsandbytheirsidesareneverempty. They feel increasingly ill, and the thought of sobriety seems like ahappydreamtheyhadlongago.Yet,forthesakeoftheirmaster,theydrinkon.

Atlast,thedayarrivesinwhichthebodiesofthehigh-rankingmanandhisslavearetobeburned.Hisboatisdrawnoutoftheriveranddraggedupto the top of a greatwooden platform.A group ofmen place a bed in thecenter of the boat, with pillows and amattress of fine Byzantine silk, anderectanA-shapedpavilionaboveit.

Theyremovethewoodencoveringfromthenoble’stemporarygraveandexhume his body. It has turned an eerie coal-black, but otherwise it is thesameasbefore.Hedoesn’tevensmell.Withhiminhisgravehadbeenliquor,

fruit, and a drum; these, too, are removed. The corpse is dressed with theclothesthepeoplehavespentthelastseveraldayscrafting:abrocadecaftanwithbuttonsofgoldandabrocadecapwithsablefur.Heisborneuptohisboat and placed on the bed in the pavilion. Next to him are placed basil,onions,fruit,meat,bread,and,ofcourse,moreliquor.

Thepeoplebringadogbeforetheship,andtwomenholditstremblingbodyinplacewhilea thirdmancleavesit inhalfwithonemassivechopofhisaxe.Thetwohalvesoftheunfortunateanimal,gushingblood,arethrownonboard.Next, thedeadman’sweapons– axes, daggers, a spear, a sword,and a shield, all of uncommonly fineworkmanship – are placed beside hiscorpse.Twohorsesareforcedtorun,andrun,andrun,untiltheyarealmostatthe point of collapsing from exhaustion. They are then rushed by sword-bearingmenwhofuriouslyhacktheirstill-livingbodiestopieces.Twocowsaremade to suffer the same agony. The chunks ofmuscle, bone, skin, andorgansofthesefouranimalsarecollectedandthrownontotheboat.Aroosterandahenarekilledaswell,thistimebybeheading,andlikewisethrownontotheship.

Now it’s the slavegirl’s turn.Herdaysof indulgencehavecome toanend,andonefinal,shortperiodoftormentawaitsherbeforeherdeath.

First,she’spassedaroundbytheothernoblemen,eachofwhomhassexwithher in turn.“Tellyourmaster that Ionlydid thisoutof loveforhim,”eachsaystoher.Then,she’sledtoawoodendoorframebuiltintheopenair.Themen liftherupover the top,withher feeton theirpalms.Shesays thewords the ritual requires: “There I seemy father andmother.”They let herdown,thenhoistherupagain,andshesays,“ThereIseeallmydeadrelativessitting.”Theysetheronthegroundbrieflybeforeliftingherovertheframeathird time, and she says, “There I see my master sitting in paradise, andparadiseisgreenandbeautiful.Therearemenwithhim,youngandold,andIseehimmotioningtometocometohim.Takemetohim.”Thoughthewordsareonlyaformalitytoher,asshesaysthem,shefinds,unsettlingly,thatshealmostcanseewhatshetellstheothersshe’sseeing.Theyleadhertotheboatwherehermaster’scorpselies.

A thick-bodied sorceress, whom the people call the “Chooser of theSlain”(“Valkyrie”), takes thegirl’sbraceletsoffherarms.Thegirl removeshertwoankletsandgivesthemtothetwofellowslavegirlswhohaveservedherthesepastseveraldays.Theyare,infact,thedaughtersofthewitch.Themenliftherontotheboat.Theyhandheracupofliquor,andshedrinksitandsingsasong,whereinshebidsherfellowslavegirlsfarewell.Shecontinuessingingasthemengiveheranothercup.Eventually,theChooseroftheDeadcutsheroffandordershertodownthecupandenterthepavilionwhereher

master’sbodylies.Thegirldoesasshe’stold,buthesitatesatthelastmoment,leaningher

headoutofthepavilion.Thewitchgrabsherheadandpushesherin.Themenstandingaround theboat takeupwoodenclubsandbang themagainst theirshieldssothatwhenthegirlcriesoutinterrorandagony,herscreamswillbedrownedout,and theotherslavegirlswon’tbediscouragedfromfollowingtheirmasterstodeathatsomelaterdate.

Sixmoremenhavesexwiththegirlinsidethepavilionwiththeten-day-oldcorpse.Afterthey’refinished,theylayhernexttohermasteronthebed.Twohold onto her feet, and twoothers hold onto her hands.The sorceresswrapsacordaroundthegirl’sneckandgivesthetwoendstotheremainingtwomen.Then,theChooseroftheDeadtakesoutadaggerandbeginstostabthegirlbetweenherribsoverandoverandover,whilethetwomenpullonthecordaroundherneck.Atlast,hersufferingcomestoanend,andshefindstherespiteforwhichshehasbeenyearning.Themenandthesorceressexittheship.

Theclosestmale relativeof thedeceasednobleman stripsnaked,picksupa torch,andwalksbackwards toward theship,holdinghishandoverhisanustopreventthatorificefrombeingpenetratedbyanyuncouthspiritswhomightbelurkingaroundsuchahighly-chargedproceeding.Helightsafireinthewoodenstructurethatholdstheboat.Allthepeoplethenthrowtorchesoftheirownontothewood.Thefireslowlyreachesthebottomoftheboat,thenthe topof its sides,and finallyengulfs thepavilionwhere thebodiesof thedeadmanandgirllie.Thestenchofburningfleshfillstheair.Afiercewindcomesoutofnowhere,emboldeningthealreadyroaringblaze.AmanshoutsjoyfullythatOdinhassentthiswind,sothathecanhavethenoblemaninhiscompanysooner.

Within an hour, nothing remains of the ship, nobleman, slave girl,animals, and treasures but a smoldering pile of ashes. Over the ashes, thepeoplebuildahugegravemound.Atitscrest,theyplaceawoodenpillarintowhichhas been carved thenameof thedeadman andhis king.Then,withtheir longandarduous task finallycomplete, theypackup theirbelongings,getintotheirships,andresumetheirjourneyuptheVolgaRiver.

Such is how a Viking nobleman’s funeral in the land that is todaywesternRussiawasdescribedinthetenthcenturybyanArabtravelernamedAhmadIbnFadlan.1(Thisparticularretellingisinformedbytheinterpretationof archaeologist Neil Price,2 and includes my own conjectures about thecharacters’ possible inner thoughts.) Ibn Fadlan’s account can’t be taken asbeingrepresentativeofallViking funerals,orevenall funeralsofmenofaparticularclass.Forexample,manyVikings,includingthoseofnoblestature

andevenkings,wereburiedratherthancremated.Modernscholarstakeissuewith some of the details, but many of the other details – a much greaternumber–arecorroboratedbyarchaeologicalandliteraryevidence.Andthereis certainly a ritual formality involved at every step of the intricatelychoreographed, ten-day funeral, which suggests that it’s an enactment of atraditionalprocedure,perhapsevenonewithanow-lostmythbehindit.3Allin all, we can be reasonably certain that Ibn Fadlan’s account is a broadlyhonestandaccuratedescriptionofoneparticularVikingfuneral.

Clearly, thenobleman’spassingwasabigdealforhiscommunity,whotookgreatpainstoensurethathewasgivenapropersend-off.Butwhatkindofplacewashesentoffto?

THELANDOFTHEDEAD

The safest and most widely applicable characterization of what the

Vikings thoughthappened toapersonafterheor shedied ishistorianH.R.Ellis Davidson’s comment that “There is no consistent picture in Norseliterary tradition of the fate of the dead,”4 to which she adds that “tooversimplifythepositionwouldbetofalsifyit.”5ThisisyetanotherinstanceofthelackofrigiddoctrineinVikingreligion.

Theonlypointthesourcesgenerallyagreeonis that thedeceasedwentto live in the otherworld in someway or another. Archaeological evidenceseemstoconfirmthis.Thedead,includinghumansacrifices,wereburiedorcrematedinsuchawaythatsuggeststheywerebeingpreparedforajourneytosomewherefar,faraway.Sometimestheywereburned–changedintoairorspirit–alongwiththeirships,servants,andprovisions,aswesawinIbnFadlan’sdescriptionofthefuneralontheVolga.Whenthedeadwereburied,theywereoftenburiedwithsomemeansoftransportation,suchasawagon,ahorse,oraboat,aswellasfoodandotherthingsthatwouldbeusefultothemonalongjourney.6

OldNorseliteraturecontainsvividportrayalsofthejourneyofthedeadtotheotherworld.Onehadtotraversedeepanddarkvalleys,torrentialriversspanned by creaking bridges, caves, highwalls, and other such forebodingplaces.Giantsoftenguardedtheway,andhadtobeappeasedbeforeonewasallowedtoprogressfurther.Alloftheseelementsservedtodepictthedistancebetweentheotherworldandthisworld,aswellastheperilousnessofthepathtotheotherside.

Sometimes,thesourcesspeakofthelandofthedeadasasingleplaceforeveryone.Insuchcases, it’softenreferred toas“Hel,”whichmeantsimply“the grave.”7 Despite the name’s coincidental resemblance to the Christian

“Hell,” the two ideas have essentially nothing in common. We’ve alreadyseen that theVikingsdidn’tbelieve inanykindofmoralpunishment in theafterlife.8AndalthoughSnorri tendstodescribeHelasavaguelybadplace,heisaloneindoingso.Hisversionishighlyconfusedonanumberofpoints,andhasastrongairofChristianinfluence.9

Theothersources,evenwhen theymentionHel, rarelydescribe it.Butwhen they do, it’s cast in neutral or even positive terms. For example, themention that the land of the dead is “green and beautiful” in Ibn Fadlan’saccountismirroredinapassagefromSaxo(themedievalDanishhistorian,asyoulikelyrecall).InSaxo’stellingofthestoryofHadding,theherotravelstothe “underworld” and finds “a fair landwhere greenherbs growwhen it iswinteronearth.”Hiscompanionevenbeheadsa rooster justoutsideof thatlandandflingsitscarcassoverthewall,atwhichpointthebirdcriesoutandcomesbacktolife–afeatwhichishighlyreminiscentofanotherdetailfromIbnFadlan, namely the beheading of a rooster and a henwhose bodies arethen tossed into the deadman’s boat shortly before it’s set aflame. In bothcases, theemphasis isonabundant life in theworldof thedead,evenwhendeathandabsenceprevailonearth.10

Atothertimes,thedeadweresaidtogotospecificanddifferentplaces.ManyoftheseweresimplylocalvariantsofHel,“thegrave.”Oneprominentexample is the hill called Helgafell in Iceland, which was said to be therestingplaceof theearly settlerThorolfMostrarskeggandhis family.Eventhosewhodiedagreatdistanceaway from thehillwent into it afterdeath.AccordingtoEyrbyggjaSaga,Thorolf’ssonwasThorstein,afisherman.Onenight, at the age of twenty-five, Thorstein and his crew were fishing, anddrownedoutatsea.BeforewordofThorstein’sdeathreachedThorolfandhisfamily,ashepherdhappenedtobewalkingnearHelgafell.Inthedarkness,hesaw one side of the mountain open up. Firelight glowed from within. Hecouldhearthesoundsoffeastingandcelebration,andheardsomeoneexclaimthatThorsteinwasabout tobewelcomed into thehallofhisancestors, andwould sit at the head of the table opposite his father.11 Here, too, the“underworld” is hardly a place of punishment, but rather one ofmerrimentandreunion.(RecallthattheslavegirlinIbnFadlan’saccountlikewiseseesherdeadrelativeswaitingforherinhervisionoftheafterlife.)

Someof themorespecificplaces towhichthedeadwentseemtohavehadsomethingtodowiththemannerinwhichonedied.Forexample,thosewhodrownedweresometimessaid togo to theunderwater realmofRan,afemale giant.12 (Note that this contradicts Thorstein’s situation.) One poemcredits Freyawith receiving half of the “weapon-dead” into her domain ofFolkvang.13Andwhile therearenoexplicit references toThoreverbeinga

recipientofthedead,14onelineinTheSongofGray-Beardmight imply thatsome or all of the people of the lower classes did indeed go to him upondeath.15

VALHALLA

But themost prestigious of all of the distinct or semi-distinct afterlife

worlds was Odin’s Valhalla (Old Norse Valhöll, “Hall of the Fallen”).AccordingtoTheSongoftheHoodedOne,the“gold-bright”hallofOdinhadaroofmadeofshields,whichwasheldaloftbyspearsthatservedasrafters.The benches of the feasting tables were breastplates. Wolves guarded thedoor,andeaglescircledaboveit.16AndTheSongofVafthrudnirtellsus thatthe men who dwelt there, who were called einherjar (“those who fightalone”17)battledeachothereveryday,butattheendoftheday,theirwoundsallhealed,andtheysatdowntodrinkandfeastinfullhealthandhappiness.18Theyatethemeatofaboarthatcamebacktolifeeverytimeitwaskilledandeaten,providinganendlesssupplyoffoodforthehungrywarriors.19

To gain entrance toValhallawas seen as a high privilege, andwas anhonor for which many Vikings evidently yearned with great ardor. Forexample,whenthesagaheroRagnarLodbrokisabouttobeexecutedatthehandsofanAnglo-Saxonking(AellaofNorthumbria)bybeingthrownintoapitofwrithing,venomoussnakes,hedefiantlydeclares,“Ishallnotcomeinto[Odin’s] hall with words of fear on my lips. … I am eager to depart. …GladlyIshalldrinkaleinthehigh-seatwiththeÆsir.…Idiewithalaugh.”20

However, the question of how one earned admittance to Valhalla hasbeenthesubjectofconsiderablecontroversy.Aswithsomanyotheraspectsof Norse religion, the answers provided by the sources are ambiguous andconflicting. The most commonly-repeated distinction is the one given bySnorri in theProseEdda: thosewho died violentlywent toValhalla,whilethosewhodiedbypeacefulmeanswenttoHel.ButSnorrihimselfcontradictsthisinhisversionofthestoryofthedeathofBalder;Balderdiedbystabbing,yet nevertheless went to Hel. The most straightforward conclusion is thatSnorri ishere,aselsewhere, trying toartificially systematize the religionofhisforebears,andthatthistidydistinctionishisowninvention.21

Nevertheless,Snorridoesn’tseemtohavebeenentirelyoff-base.Otherpieces of Old Norse literature suggest something similar.The Song of theHoodedOne, for example, holds that half of thosewhodied in battleweretakentoValhalla,whiletheotherhalfweretakentoFolkvang,Freya’srealm.(Itsaysnothingaboutwhatcriteriawereused todivide the“weapon-dead,”however.)22Aswe’vealreadyseen,TheSongofKingEirikhasOdinstatethat

hisreasonsforadmittingthekingtoValhallaareEirik’sbloodthirstinessandsuccessinbattle.23HintsofthesameviewcanalsobefoundinSaxo,varioussagas,andotherskaldicpoems.24

However,thispicturebecomesmorecomplicatedwhenwenotethat–inadditiontothecontradictionsonpointsofdetailbetweentheaforementionedsources–Odinoftenbroughtaboutthedeathsofheroeshimself,whichwouldseem to spoil the notion of entrance to Valhalla being granted based onsomethingthatthewarriorhimselfdid.WecanalsonotethatBragi–apoetratherthanawarrior–wasaprizedresidentofOdin’shall.

It seems that the necessary credential for entering the “warrior’sparadise”ofValhallaupondeathwas,firstandforemost,simplybeingchosentoenterbyOdinandhisValkyries.Thisdecisionwas largely influencedbythingslikehavingbeenagreatwarriorduringone’slife,havingdiedaviolentdeath, havinghad ahigh social status, andhavingpiouslykept upwith theproperritualobservancesconnectedtoOdinduringone’slife.ButultimatelyitwasuptoOdin,andhechosewhomhechosefortheperfectlypersonalandselfish reason that hewanted to have themightiest possible host to defendhimselfagainstFenrir,“thewolf,”atRagnarok.Forthatwastheultimatefateof all of Valhalla’s residents: to fall by their master’s side in his hopelessstruggle during the downfall of the cosmos. Death was only a respite, achangeofstate,beforetheutterobliterationofRagnarok.

WasValhallaapartof“Hel”–“thegrave”andthemoregenerallandofthedead–oraseparaterealmaltogether?There’sgoodevidencethatitwasseenasbeingapartofHel.InSaxo,whenHaddingtravelstotherealmofthedead,he findsabattle ragingwithoutend inonearea,whichcan’thelpbutremindusofthedailyfightsoftheeinherjar.25InsouthernSweden,therearea number of prominent rocks that bear the nameValhall (apparently fromvalhallr, “the rock of the fallen”), which seem to have been seen as localrestingplacesforthedead,muchlikeHelgafell inIceland,orentrancestoamoregenerallandofthedead.GiventhatthenamesValhallandValhöllarepracticallyidentical(especiallysince,inOldNorse,abecameöundercertaincircumstances,andviceversa),it’sdifficulttocleanlydisentanglethetwo.26

Then again, some sources seem to treat Valhalla as being a part ofAsgard, which was located in the heavens. The question of Valhalla’srelationship toHel, therefore,mustultimatelyremainanopenone. It seemsthat theVikingsthemselvesheldconflictingviewsonthispoint,as theydidonsomanyothers.

THECONTINUINGPRESENCEOFTHEDEAD

Evenfromthegrave,thedeceasedstillinfluencedandinteractedwiththesocietyoftheliving.

Sometimes, famous people, especially kings who had enjoyed aparticularly prosperous reign,were thought to bring fertility to the land farbeyondthemerenutrientsandmineralstheircorpsesprovidedthesoil.Take,forexample,thetreatmentreceivedbyKingHalfdantheBlack:

His reign had beenmore fortunate in the seasons and crops than

thoseofallotherkings.Somuchtrustwasplacedinhimthat,whentheylearned he was dead and his body carried to Hringaríki to be buried,therecameinfluentialmenfromRaumaríkiandVestfoldandHeiðmörk,allbeggingtohavethebodyandtoburyitintheirowndistrict;fortheythoughtitwouldensureprosperousseasonsiftheycouldobtainit.Soitwasdecided that they shoulddivide thebodybetween fourplaces; theheadwaslaidinahoweatSteininHringaríki,andeachmanborehomeapartofthebodyandlaiditinhowe;thesehowesarecalled‘thehowesofHálfdan’.27Likewise, sacrificeswere offered to the dead in hopes that theywould

return the favor by blessing their descendants with success in any and allareasoflife.

People sometimes sat or slept on burial mounds in order to receivesomethingfromthedeadburiedthere:creativeinspiration,insight,orvariousother kinds of gifts. Intriguingly, archaeologists have noted that survivingburialmoundssometimeshave flatplatformsbuilt into their topsorat theirbase,quitepossiblytoenablepeopletocomfortablysitorlieonthem,ortoperform other kinds of solitary or communal ceremonies there. Sometimestheseareasareencircledbystonesintheshapeofaship’shull,suggestingavessel for a journey to the otherworld.28 Even the extraordinarily wise andlearnedOdinsoughtknowledgefromthedeadonnumerousoccasions.29

There’ssomeevidenceinthesourcesforrebirthofapersonwithinhisorher own family line. The closest we can probably come to an “if-then”statementthatwouldtriggerrebirthisthepracticeofnaminganewbornchildafteradeceasedrelative,butthiscertainlydoesn’tseemtohavebeenthecaseinvariably.Theredon’tseemtobeanyexamplesinOldNorseliteratureofahumanbeingrebornasananimalorviceversa–nor,forthatmatter,dothereseem to be any examples of a human being reborn into another humanfamily.30 And, as we’ve seen, one particular part of the self, the hamingja(“luck,”asyoumightrecall)wasfrequentlypasseddownalongafamilyline.

However,therewasnoclearboundarythatseparatedthedeceasedfrom

othertypesofspiritualbeings.Forexample,TheSagaofKingOlaftheHolyreferstotheking’snamesakeas“Olaf,theElfofGeirstad,”implyingthathewasbelieved tohavebecomeanelf–asuggestion thatmakes theferventlyChristiankingprofoundlyuncomfortable.31

Sometimes the dead would come back bodily (not as disembodiedghosts)andcausegreatharmtotheliving,asinthecaseofHrappandseveralother characters from The Saga of the People of Laxardal32 and Glam inGrettir’s Saga.33 The characters’ walking about occurs for no discerniblereason, and it ends when their bodies are beheaded, burned, or both. ThisseemstohavebeenapossibilityagainstwhichtheVikingstookprecautions.SomeVikingAgegraves,forexample,featureheavystonesplacedover thebodiesof thedead,whichcouldhavebeenanattempt toprevent themfromescapingandwreakinghavoc.

Finally, a kind of pseudo-immortality cherished by the Vikings was a“goodname”thatwouldberememberedwithfondnessandadmiration longafter its bearer had died. In words that bring to mind Shakespeare’s 55thsonnet,TheSongoftheHighOneproclaims:

Wealthwillpass,Menwillpass,You,too,likewise,willpass.OnethingaloneWillneverpass:Thefameofonewhohasearnedit.34

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Chapter9:FormalReligiousPracticeThe Vikings put their vibrant religious conceptions into practice in a

numberofdifferentways.Overthecourseofthepastseveralchapters,we’venotedsomeof them:hallowingweddingsandoathswitha symbolicThor’shammer, casting a spear over an enemyhost to offer themas a sacrifice toOdin, constructing farmsteads in imitation of the spatial layout of theotherworld,andmanyothers. In thischapter,we’ll roundout thepicturebylookingdirectlyatfourparticularlyimportant,andparticularlyformal,aspectsofNorsereligiouspractice:holyplaceswherepublicritualswereconducted,thecompositionofthepublicritualsthemselves,humansacrifice,andprivaterituals carried out by individual men and women. Discussions of mostmagicalandshamanicrituals,however,willbeleftforthenextchapter.

HOLYPLACES

Most – and perhaps all – sites where the Norse held formal religious

ceremonieswerelocatedoutsideintheopenair.Few,ifany,wereenclosedbybuildingsor“temples.”1ThemainwordstheNorseusedtorefertotheplaceswhere they felt the presence of the otherworld themost intenselywere vé,hörgr,andhof,2allofwhichseemtohavebeenmoreorlesssynonymous.Ifthe place was located in a wooded area, the more specific term lundr,“grove,”wassometimesused.3

These sites were often characterized by striking geographical features.One, for example, was located on the island of Frösö (“Frey’s Island”) inSweden, in the middle of a large lake with expansive views of thesurroundinglowmountains.Astatelytree,muchlikeYggdrasil,thetreethatstoodat thecenterof theNorseotherworld,marked thecenterof this ritualsite. Archaeological excavations there have revealed the stump of adeliberately-felledbirchdirectlybeneaththealtarofthechurchthatcurrentlyoccupies that spot. Amongst its roots, the archaeologists discovered a vastarray of animal bones, including five whole bears, six elk heads, two stagheads, five sheep or goat heads, eleven pig heads, two cow heads, andcountlessmiscellaneousbones from those species,aswell as fromreindeer,squirrels,horses,anddogs.Thiswasclearlyasacrificialsiteofconsiderableimportance. Radiocarbon dating tells us that the bones were placed thereduring the tenth century.TwoVikingAgeburialmounds are located in thechurchyard,andmayhavebeenpartofalargercemeterynowobscuredbythe

presenceof thechurchyard.Tellingly, thesiteof thechurchiscalledHov,amodernizedSwedishrenderingofhof.4

OtherburialmoundsthroughouttheNorselandsservedasritualsites,5asdidbogsandotherbodiesofwater.Manyofthesebodiesofwaterwereheldtopossesshealingpowers.6Sacrificesandofferingswerecommonlydroppedinto them – perhaps as a gift to local spirits, or perhaps as gifts to amoregeneralotherworldtowhichthewaterservedasaportal.7

Helgafell,thehillwheretheearlyIcelandicsettlerThorolfandhisfamilywereheldtoresideaftertheirdeaths,fitsthissamepattern.It’sanelongatedrocky outcroppingwith amagnificent view of the nearby plains, hills, andocean. Intriguingly, when seen from a certain angle, the hill looks like aVikingAgehousewithadoor.8Surelyitwasthissidethattheshepherdsawopening up towelcomeThorolf’s son Thorstein upon his death (as per thestoryofHelgafellinChapterEight).

PerhapsthemostremarkableVikingAgeholysiteofall,however,wasThingvellirinIceland,theplacewherethecountry’slegalassemblywasheld.(Recall that theVikings didn’t separate their religion from other aspects oflife.Thus,itshouldn’tbesurprisingthattheirlegalassemblieshadelementsof religious ceremonies in them.) Every year at Midsummer, people camefromallovertheislandtotakepartintheassembly,inwhichthelawswererecitedanddisputesweresettled.Thegodswerethoughttopresideoverthegathering, which was, after all, modeled on the deities’ own council atYggdrasil. The Icelanders’ council began on Thursday – Thor’s Day – inhonor of thepatrongodofmost of the earliest Icelandic settlers.Sacrificesand feasts punctuated the gathering’s legal aspects.9 And just as Yggdrasilwas the center of the otherworldwhere the gods lived,Thingvellirwas thesymbolic(althoughnotthestrictlygeographical)centerofIceland.10

IntheevocativewordsofhistorianH.R.EllisDavidson,Thingvellir

isformedbyanaturalvolcanicriftinalargesunkenvalley,wheretheswift-flowingriver(Öxará)runsintoalargelake.Alineofsinistertwisted rocksprovidesan impressivebackgroundandnatural soundingboard,whichwouldhavebeeneffectivewhenasectionofthelawswasrecited every year at the ‘LawRock’ by the Speaker or Lawmanwhopresidedover theAssembly.… It is no sheltered site, but liesopen tostrongwindsandblizzardsandevensandstormsatalltimesintheyear.Thesenseofwidedistancesandfarviewsoflakesandmountainsgiveitsomething of the same numinous quality as is possessed byHelgafell.ThesetwosacredplacesoftheVikingAgehavenoneedofmonumentsorpermanentbuildingstorenderthemmemorable.11

Committinganykindofviolenceatholysiteswasaheinouscrime,and

was punishable by outlawry.12 People were generally prohibited from eventakingweaponsintotheirprecincts.Becauseofthis,people–and,accordingto the sagas, even animals – fled to these sites for safety when they werepursuedbytheirenemies.13Inkeepingwiththecosmologicalsignificanceofthe garðr (which we explored in Chapter Four), holy places were oftenenclosedbyafence,hedge,orrope.14Theupkeepofholysiteswasfinancedbydues(hoftollar)collectedfromeveryonewhousedthem–essentiallythesamethingasChristiantithing.15

At these sites, deities were frequently represented by roughly carvedwoodenstatues.Someofthesewereverylarge,andothersweresmallenoughtobecarriedaroundinapurse.16IbnFadlandescribeswoodenfiguresofgodsthat the trading Vikings brought with them. This was likely a commonpractice among travelers, enablingmakeshift shrines to be built (or found)potentiallyanywhere.17

Religiousceremonieswerealsocommonlyconductedinsidethehallofakingorachieftain.Thisdidmakesuchhallspartial temples insomesense,buttheirreligiousfunctionwasonlyoneofseveral.Truetemples–dedicatedbuildings of worship akin to Christian churches or Islamic mosques, forexample–haveleftnoclearevidenceinthearchaeologicalrecord.18Foreignwriters such as Adam of Bremen have left us descriptions of large, lavishNorse temples, but these accounts are likely influenced by portrayals ofsimilarbuildingsamongotherpolytheisticpeoplesintheOldTestamentandtheworksofclassicalauthors.19Thesparse references to religiousbuildingsin Old Norse literature seem, in context, to refer to small, local shrines.20Givenallofthis,itseemsreasonabletoconcludethattheVikingsneverbuiltorusedtrue,large-scaletemples,preferringtheirmajesticoutdoorsanctuariesinstead.

FESTIVALSANDOTHERPUBLICCEREMONIES

Whatkindsofpracticeswentonatthesesites?In addition to legal assemblies such as the one at Thingvellir, major

public rituals were part of the celebration of the three big festivals aroundwhichtheVikingcalendarturned.OneofthesewastheWinterNights,whichwasheldoverseveraldaysduringourmonthofOctober,whichtheVikingsconsideredtobethebeginningofwinterandofthenewyearmoregenerally.Theboundarybetweentherealmofthelivingandtherealmofthedeadwasthin,andallsortsofuncanny thingswerebound tohappen.At this festival,

the divine powerswere petitioned for the general prosperity of the people.ThesecondcriticalfestivalwasYuleatmidwinter–lateDecemberandearlyJanuary – which, with the arrival of Christianity, was converted intoChristmas. Offerings were made to the gods in hopes of being grantedbountiful harvests in the coming growing season in return.The thirdmajorfestivalwascalled“SummerTime”(sumarmál),andwasheldinApril,whichtheVikingsconsideredtobethebeginningofsummer.Whenthedeitieswerecontacted during this festival, they were asked for success in the comingseason’s battles, raids, and trading expeditions. The exact times of thesefestivalsdifferedbetweencommunities.21

Publicceremonies towin thegods’ favorwerealsoheldat timeswhencircumstantialeventsposedproblemsforthecommunity’swell-being,suchaswhenenemyforcesthreatenedtoattackorwhenachieftainorkingdied.Thetime between the death of a ruler and his replacement was a dangerouslyunsettledperiod,whenthecommunitywasvulnerabletoincursionsfromtheforces of chaos – both rival human groups taking advantage of the group’stemporary leaderlessness and malevolent spirits taking advantage of thegroup’stemporarylackofoneoftheprimaryintercessorsbetweenthemandthegods.22

Aspartof theseceremonies,ananimalwasrituallyselected.Theexactmeansdifferedfromceremonytoceremony,butstepsofonesortoranotherwere taken to ensure that the animal was divinely chosen.23 Usually, thiswouldbeahorse,abull, aboar,orapig.Allof these specieswere readilyavailable to the ancient Scandinavians, and all possessed cosmologicalsignificance.24 The chosen animal was hallowed and then sacrificed to thegods upon an altar.After the sacrifice (blót inOldNorse), themeat of theanimalwascooked.Theanimal’sblood,whichhad turned thealtara thick,shinyred,wascollectedinbowlsandsprinkledonthepremisesandonthoseinattendancetoconsecratethemandtheeventinwhichtheyweretakingpart.Infact,theparticipantsoftenwentoutoftheirwaytodrinkthisbloodandtoliterally lick clean the bowls that contained it. This sacrificial blood wascalledbyaspecialname,hlaut,todistinguishitfromordinaryblood(blóð).25

Oncethemeathadfinishedcooking,itwasservedtotheparticipants.Fortheir drink, theyhadbeer,mead, or someother kindof alcoholic beverage,which was hallowed before it was served in either individual vessels or alargecommunalbowl.26Toastswereofferedtovariousgodsandancestors,aswellastotherulerandperhapsotherhumanswhowerepresent.Afterthesesolemnities,amerryfeastcommenced.27

Suchceremonieswerecommunionsbetween livingpeople,deities, anddeceasedancestors.Thebondsbetweenthem,whichtheritualstrengthened,

were embodied by the sharing of special, consecrated liquids (alcohol andhlaut).28Alcoholwas thedrinkofchoiceat these feastsdue to itspower toopen the mind to suggestion, inspiration, and emotional elevation, whichplacedtheparticipantsinclosercontactwiththedivineworld.29

Inadditiontostrengtheningbonds,thesacrificewasofferedtothegodswith theexpectation that theywouldreciprocatebybestowingsomedesiredblessingupontheirhumanworshippers–abundantharvests,victoryinbattle,generalprosperity,orsomeotherconditionforwhichthepeopleyearned.Inasense,therewasaspiritualeconomyinvolvedhere,wheredivinefavorswerepurchasedwiththecurrencyofsacrifice.

Other kindsof events oftenpeppered these festivals, especially thebigthree annual ones. Oaths – which the gods were typically charged withoverseeing–wereswornonthesacrificialanimal.Allkindsofentertainmentandsports,includingracing,wrestling,andstorytelling,couldbeenjoyedbythe audience. And since the otherworld was especially close during thesetimes, divination was thought to be especially potent. Seers and seeresseswent into their trances and told their listeners what fate had in store forthem.30

Wholedtheseceremonies?There’snocredibleevidencefor“priests”–full-time religious specialists – in the Viking Age. Instead, public worshipwas led by the “secular” authorities, especially kings and chieftains,whoseoffices were religious roles in addition to their more worldly duties.31 TheIcelandic word for “chieftain,”goði (female gyðja), comes from the wordgoð, oneof themanywords for “god,”a signof theclosenessbetween thebearer of that title and divinity.32 This is another powerful instance of theinseparability of religion fromall other realmsof life in theVikingwayoflookingatthings.

HUMANSACRIFICE

The Vikings indisputably practiced human sacrifice as part of some

public ceremonies. It doesn’t seem to have been an especially routinepractice,butwasreservedforspecialoccasionsofmanydifferentkinds.Menandwomenweresacrificedtothegodsasawayofappeasingthemwhenthepeoplewere threatenedwith the failure of the harvest or some other gravecommunalmisfortune.One ormore of those in the service of high-rankingmenandwomencouldhavebeensacrificedwhentheirmastersdied,asinthecaseof the slavegirl on theVolga in IbnFadlan’s account.Criminalsweresacrificedasaformofcapitalpunishment.Prisonersofwar, too,wereoftensacrificed,sometimesinverylargenumbersandalongwiththespoilsofwar,

to the deities the victorious army creditedwith enabling their victory, as awayofgivingthanksandreturningthefavor.33

Human sacrifice is also listed as a central part of obscure butmassiveand extravagant rituals that seem to have been held once every nine years,whichwereattendedbythepeoplewhoinhabitedanareamuchofthesizeofamodern-daycountry.AccordingtoAdamofBremen,

Itisthecustommoreovereverynineyearsforacommonfestivalof

alltheprovincesofSwedentobeheldatUppsala.KingsandcommonersoneandallsendtheirgiftstoUppsala,andwhatismorecruelthananypunishment, even those who have accepted Christianity have to buyimmunity from these ceremonies.The sacrifice is as follows: of everylivingcreaturetheyofferninehead,andwiththebloodofthoseitisthecustomtoplacatethegods,butthebodiesarehangedinagrovewhichisnearthetemple;soholyisthatgrovetotheheathensthateachtreeinitis presumed to be divine by reason of the victim’s death andputrefaction.Therealsodogsandhorseshangalongwithmen.OneoftheChristians toldme that he had seen seventy-two bodies of variouskindshangingthere.34While many of the details in Adam’s account can be readily disputed

(such as the ritual being held at a “temple”), the eleventh-century Germanhistorian Thietmar ofMerseburg describes a similar ceremony taking placeeverynineyearsatLejre,Denmark.It’sunlikely,therefore,thatAdammadeuptheentireritehimself.35

Unsurprisingly, those lower down on the ladder of social status weremorelikelytobesacrificedthanthosehigheruponit.However,inespeciallydirepredicaments,notevenkingswereimmune.TheSagaoftheYnglings,forexample,describessuchasituation.Afaminehaddevastatedakingdom.Thepeople’s responsewas towork theirwayup the ladder of statusuntil, aftereachsacrificeprovedineffective,theyreachedtheverytop:

Thefirstyear[ofthefamine]theysacrificedoxen,andtherewasno

improvement in theharvest.Thenext autumn they sacrificedmen,butthe harvestwas as before or evenworse.And the third autumnmanySwedescametoUppsalawhenthesacrificewastotakeplace.Thechiefstookcounselthen,anddecidedunanimouslythatthefaminemustbeduetotheirkingDomaldi,andthattheymustsacrificehimforagoodseasonandreddenthealtarswithhisblood,andthistheydid.36

The sacrifice of the king apparently worked; the saga tells us that thereignofDomaldi’ssuccessorwascharacterizedbybountifulharvests.37

Anespeciallygruesomeformofhumansacrificewasthe“blood-eagle”(blóðörn).Thevictim’sribswerecutapartfromtheback,exposingthelungs,whichwere then drawn out of the chest and placed over the back like thewingsofabird.Thisghastlyactseems tohavebeenreservedforoccasionswhere the person leading the sacrifice had some extreme personal vendettaagainstthevictim.38

Odinwas themain recipient of human sacrifice, but any or all of thedeitiescoulddemandorreceivethemattimes.39

PERSONALDEVOTION

But the religious practices of the Vikings didn’t just consist of public

ceremonies.Individualsoftenhadintensepersonalspiritualitiesoftheirown.Anindividualmightencounterdivinepowers throughsacrificeorother

deliberatemethods–muchasinthecommunalceremonies,justonasmallerscale – or otherworld beings might come “involuntarily” via dreams oromens.Thecontentofsuchcommunicationscouldincludeforeknowledgeofthefuture,directionsfortheguidanceofpresentorfutureaction,achangeinthenatureoftherelationshipbetweenthepersonandthedivinepower(s),orotherkindsofhiddenknowledge.

Norsemenandwomenoftenhadafulltrúi,apatrongodorgoddesswithwhom the worshipper was particularly close.40 For example, Thor was thefulltrúi of Thorolf Mostrarskegg, the early Icelandic settler whose familydrank and ate beneath Helgafell after their deaths. Thorolf was originallyfromNorway,butgotintoabaddisputewiththeking.Soheasked“hisdearfriend”ThorwhetherheshouldstayinIcelandandreconcilehimselfwiththekingorleaveforIcelandandstartanewlifethere.Thegodinstructedhimtodepartfortheisland,sohedid.ManyoftheotherearliestsettlersofIcelandwereguidedtherebytheirpatrons:HelgitheLeanlandedatEyjafjordduetoThor’sdirections;IngimundlostacherishedamuletofFreythatmysteriouslyturnedupinIceland,soIngimundsettledinthespotwhereitwasfound;andotherswereguidedtoparticularpartsoftheislandbyOdin’sravens.41

As was the case with the public mode of religion, maintaining goodrelations with one’s fulltrúi brought success, and neglecting one’s fulltrúibrought failure. For example, inThe Saga of Eirik theRed, when Thorhalland his community were in urgent need of food, Thorhall composed abeautifulpoemofpraisetohisfulltrúi,Thor.Soon,awhalebeacheditselfontheshore.Thorhallproudlyproclaimedtothereligiouslymixedcommunity:

“RedBeardprovedabetterfriendnowthanyourChrist.ThisiswhatIgetforthepoemImadeaboutÞórr[Thor]mypatron.Rarelyhashefailedme.”42

Aparticularlyinterestingandtellingexampleoftwocompetingmodesofprivate religiosity comes fromViga-Glum’s Saga. Two rivals, Thorkell andGlum,arelockedinabitterdisputeovercattleandfamilyhonor.Bothappealto their patrons for help. Thorkell leads an ox into Frey’s sanctuary tosacrifice it to thegod, inhopes thatFreywillcometohisaid inhisdisputewith Glum. He asks for a sign that Frey accepts the bargain, and the oxpromptly lets out a tremendous bellow and falls down dead on the spot.43Glum,bycontrast,statesatafeastthathehasthreepatrons:“thefirstismybagofmoney,thesecondismyaxe,[and]thethirdthestorehouse.”44Inotherwords,heisbasicallywhatwetodaywouldcallamaterialist,andtrustsinhiswitsandpossessionsratherthananyspiritualbeing.ThiscouldbeChristianliterarysymbolismcraftedbythesaga’sauthor,butit’snotatallastretchtoimagine that people of such a persuasion existed during the Viking Age.People like Glum could have been accommodated by the wider societalreligious framework,whichdemandedparticipation in thepublic ritualsbutdidn’trewardorpunishindividualsfortheirprivatebeliefsorpractices.

Sometimes,aperson’sfulltrúiwasanotherkindofdivinebeingbesidesagodoragoddess.Landspiritsseemtohavebeenespeciallycommonpatrons.We’ve already seen one example of this in the case of Goat-Bjorn, whobecamerichthroughthelandspirits’aid.45

Occasionally, someone might even have a giant as his or her fulltrúi.Such seems to have been the case with Earl Hakon Sigurdarson, who iswidely reported to have had a giantess named Thorgerd Holgabrud for hispatron.TheSagaoftheJomsvikingsrecountshowhewonagreatnavalbattlewithhersupport–forahideousprice:

Hakonlefthiscompanionsandrowedtoan islandalone.HeknewthatthedreadedJomsvikingfleetwasheadedtowardhim,andthatheandhismenstoodlittlechanceofovercomingtheminbattle.Withtheseeminglyendlessvastnessofthegrimfjordsallaroundhim,heturnedtothenorthandprayedto Thorgerd. His entreaties only angered the capriciously temperamentalgiantess, and she refused every sacrifice he offered to her, even a humanvictim.Atlast,Hakonmadeheranoffershewaswillingtoaccept:fortheaidofherandhersisterIrpainthecomingbattle,thelifeofHakon’sseven-year-oldson.Hakonfetchedtheboyandhadaslavekillhim.Thedealwassealed.

Theearlreturnedtohisshipandpreparedforthefightwithanewfoundconfidence.HisfleetrowedouttomeettheJomsvikings,andaterriblebattleensued. From the north came a storm so thick it blotted out the daylightalmostasifthesunhadbeeneclipsed.Lightningflashedandthunderroared

all around the fighters. A piercingly cold wind blasted against theJomsvikingsandbatteredthemwithdrivingrainandhail.Theyhurledrocks,arrows,andspearsatHakon’sarmy,butthewindturnedalloftheirmissilesbackonthem,doublingtheonslaughtfromHakon.

Those few Jomsvikings giftedwith second sight could barely glimpse,throughthetorrent,twoshockinglysinisterbeingsstandingamongstHakon’smen,shootingarrowsfromtheirfingertips into theJomsvikings.WhentheytoldthistoSigvaldi,theJomsvikings’leader,hisfacegrewpale.Heshoutedabove the clamor, “In that case, I amgoing to flee.Youand theothermenshouldflee,too.Ihavevowedtofightagainstmen,butIhavenotvowedtofightagainstgiantesses.”46

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Chapter10:MagicandShamanismAdirefaminehadseizedGreenland.TheVikingsettlershadbeenableto

relyontheirstorestoprovidethemwithaspare,bleakdietoverthewinter,but itwas clear that if the famine swallowed the comingyear as it had thepreviousone,theywouldallstarvetodeath.

Thorkell, the leading farmer in his settlement, sent for Thorbjorg, theisland’s premier seeress. Thorbjorg usually spent the winter traveling fromfarmtofarm,receivingroomandboardinexchangeforforetellingwhatthecoming year held. This winter, Thorkell and his neighbors were especiallyanxioustohearwhatshehadtosay.

WhenThorbjorgarrivedwith themanwhohadbeensent toescorther,shewasdressedinadarkbluecloakthatglistenedwiththecountlesspreciousgemstonesthathadbeensewnintoit.Aglassbeadnecklacehungaroundherneck.Herheadwaspartiallycoveredbyahoodmadeofblacklambskinandlinedwithwhitecatskin.Inherhands,sheheldastaffwithaknobontopthatwascoveredbybrassandmoregemstones.Alargeleatherpouchsatonherwoodenbelt.Inthispouchwereallkindsofmystifyingcharms.Herfeetwerecoveredbyhairycalfskinshoeswithmetalknobsatthetoe.Herhandswerecoveredbywhite,furrycatskingloves.

The people received her withmeticulously respectful greetings, whichsherespondedtobasedonheropinionoftheperson.Thorkelltookherbythehandandledhertothehigh-seatthathadbeenpreparedforher,uponwhichhadbeenplacedacushionnewlystuffedwithfreshhenfeathers.Thiswouldbe the platform from which she would give her prophecies. She seemedpleasedbyit,butsaid little.Besides,beforeshewouldtell thepeopleabouttheirfuture,herstomachhadtobefilled–andnotwithjustanyfood.

Thetableswerepreparedfordinner,andallsatdowntoeat.Thorbjorgwasgivenaporridgemadewithgoat’smilk,andforhermaincourse,aheartfromeveryspeciesoflivestockkeptatThorkell’sfarm.Theyevengaveherspecial silverware: a brass spoon and an ivory-handledknifewith thepointbrokenoff.Afterdinner,ThorkellapproachedThorbjorgandaskedherwhenshemightbereadytogivethepeoplewhattheywanted.Sherepliedthatshewouldfirsthavetospendanightatthefarm.Soshewasprovidedwithoneofthefinestbedstheyhad,andallwenttosleep.

The following evening, she was provided with all of the tools sherequested toaidher inhersorcery.Thenshe told thepeople to findwomenwhoknew the proper chants (varðlokkur) to accompany herwork.But this

was the late tenth century. Many of the people had already converted toChristianity,andoldcustomslikethevarðlokkurwerefallingintodisuse.Asaresult,noonecouldbefoundwhoknewtheincantations.Atlast,Gudrid,ayoungwoman, spokeup:“Iamnot skilledat sorcery,norcan Ibecountedamongthewisewomen,butmyfoster-motherinIcelandtaughtmethesongswhenIwasachild,andI thinkIstillrememberthem.”Thorbjorgsmiledatherandsaid,“ThenyouknowmorethanIexpected.”ButGudridaddedthatshe was a Christian woman, and therefore wasn’t comfortable withparticipating in the rituals of her forebears who hadn’t revered Christ.Thorbjorg pointed out to her that her people were in great need, andperformingthechantswouldbeagreatservicetothem.Shetheninsinuated,inanot-so-subtlemanner,thatThorkellshouldforceGudridtosing.Thorkelltookthehintandpressuredthegirluntilsheagreedtosing.

ThenThorbjorggotupontothehigh-seat,andthewomenmadeacirclearound her.Gudrid began to recite the chants.Afterwards, everyonewouldsay that the sounds had flowed fromher so beautifully that they had neverheardanyonedoabetterjob.

When Gudrid had finished, Thorbjorg thanked her and said that theincantationhadprovensuccessful.Agreatnumberofspirits,manyofwhomhad earlier hardened their hearts against the people, had come to assist theritual. And now, she said, with their help, she could see the year ahead:“When thiswinter ends, so, too,will this famine.When spring arrives, thelandwillheal,andyoushall lacknothing.”Thenshe turned toGudrid,andsaid:“Asforyou,Gudrid,Iwillrewardyouforyouworkbytellingyouwhatfate has in store for you, for it is very pleasant indeed.Youwillmarry themosthonorablemaninallofGreenland,butitwillnotlastlong.Thatisforthebetter,however,becauseyourpathleadsovertheseastoIceland.There,youwillbecomethemotherofalineofmenandwomensogreatthatitwillbeasifabrightrayofsunlightwentoutofitswaytoshineonyourfamily.Healthtoyou,andfareyouwell.”

Then each personwhowas presentwent before Thorbjorg in turn andaskedwhattheyearheldforthem.Fewofheranswersdidn’tcometopass.

Thorbjorg was called away to another farm, and bade goodbye toThorkellandhispeople.Andwhenspringcame, thefamineabated,andthepeoplehadfullbelliesandpeacefulminds.1

ThetaleofThorbjorg’sdivinationinTheSagaofEiriktheRedisoneofthe most detailed and telling depictions of Viking magic in Old Norseliterature.Lotsof theparticulars that appear againandagain inother,morelimitedaccountsofthepracticeofmagicintheVikingAgearecontainedinthisonepassage.

InaNorsecontext,“magic”canprobablybemostappropriatelydefinedas the knowledge of how to manipulate spiritual forces, and the skilledapplicationofthatknowledgeinpractice.Magicwasdistinguishedfromtherestof religionby the fact that thepractitionerofmagicdidn’t justworshipspiritualforcesandhumblyaskthemforfavors;heorshesoughttoactivelycontrolsomeoftheminordertoaccomplishparticularoutcomes.Itshouldgowithout saying that thereareno recorded instancesof anyoneattempting tocontrol thedeities themselves throughmagic– thatwouldhavebeen futile,and might have brought dire consequences for any mere human whoattempted something so insulting to the very powers who held the cosmostogether.Butspiritualentitiesofalesserstature,suchasthepartsoftheselfdiscussedinChapterSeven,werefairgame.Thepractitionerwouldalsoworkwithspiritsaspowerfulas,ormorepowerfulthan,thepractitionerhimselforherself,withwhomthesorcererorsorceresshadaworkingrelationship.

Knowledge was central to the magician’s craft. Themost general OldNorsewordfor“magic,”fjölkyngi,2meant“greatknowledge.”Itwasderivedfromtheverbkunna,whichmeant“toknow,”butdidn’trefertojustanykindofknowledge.Itsignifiedanunderstandingoftheinnerworkingsofpeople,things, and theworld as awhole, aswell as amastery of ancient lore andtraditions.3

Such insight and erudition was the necessary basis of the successfulpractice ofmagic.Any random person couldn’t just say “abracadabra” andexpectsomething“magical”tohappenanymorethanamodernpersoncouldjust say “car” and “magically” endupwith a newcar.Building a car is animpressivefeat thatrequireshighlyspecializedknowledgeandskill,andso,fortheNorse,wasthemanipulationofspiritualentities.

IntheVikingAgewayoflookingatthings,magicwasn’tirrational,nordiditviolatewhatwewouldcallthe“lawsofnature.”Thepotentialefficacyof magic was perfectly rational relative to the Vikings’ fundamentalassumptionsaboutreality,anditworkedwiththe“lawsofnature”–which,aswe’veseen,essentiallycamedowntofate–ratherthanagainstthem.

SEID

TheOldNorsesourcesusetheword“seid”(seiðr)inwhatappeartobetwodifferentways:asonetypeofmagicamongothers,andasasynonymfor“magic”initstotality.ThisisyetanotherinstanceofthefluidityandlackofsystematizationinNorsereligion,athemewe’vealreadynotedanddiscussedseveraltimes.Whilesomemodernwritershaveattemptedtoisolateseidasaparticularkindofmagiccleanlydistinctfromotherkinds,theveryvagueness

with which the sources delineate seid seems to argue against thisinterpretation. Furthermore, there aren’t any magical practices that aren’treferred to as “seid” at some point inOldNorse literature, so the idea thattherewereotherformsofNorsemagicthatwereneverthoughttobeapartofseid rests on rather shaky ground. The safest andmost widely applicableinterpretation,therefore,isthatseidwasseenasbeingeffectivelysynonymouswithmagicasawhole.4

The commonOldNorsenounseiðrmeant “string, cord, snare, halter.”Foralongtime,scholarswerereluctanttoacceptthatseiðr,thenameofthemagicaltradition,camefromthecommonnounseiðr,becauseitisn’tclearatfirstglancewhattherelationshipbetweenweavingandecstaticsorcerywouldbe.Butcloserandmore recent researchhasmadesenseof thisconundrum,and along the way has revealed much about what seid consisted of inpractice.5

ConsiderThorbjorg’s jewel-studded staff, for example.The staff seemsto have been a near-universal accessory of seid practitioners (“volur,” OldNorsevölur;singular“volva,”völva).6Itwasasymbolicdistaff–atoolusedin the process of spinning fiber.With his or her ritual distaff in hand, thesorcereror sorceresswouldsendout spiritualpartsofhimselforherself,orotherspirits,todohisorherbidding.Theywouldbetetheredtothedistaffbyan imagined string so that theycouldbe readilycalledbackwhen theyhadachievedtheirpurpose.7

Anotherpartoftheconnectionbetween“magic”and“string,cord,snare,halter”wassurelytheprevalenceofimageryofbindingandlooseningbondsininstancesofmagicinOldNorseliterature.Tocontrolsomeonebymagicalmeanswas tometaphoricallybind them,and theevidencesuggests that thiswas more than just a metaphor for the Norse. The tethers that tied thetravelingspiritstotheirmasters’staffscouldalso“ensnare”victims–orbreaksnares.

Forexample,oneof themostdreadedcircumstancesin theVikingAgewas to find oneself paralyzed in battle by the so-called “war-fetters”(herfjöturr) of an enemy magician, as happened to the protagonist of TheSagaofHordandthePeopleofHolm.Atacrucialmomentinbattle,avolvaplaced thewar-fetters aroundHord.Suchwas thewarrior’s strength thathewasabletobreakfreeandcontinuetofight.Thewar-fetterscameuponhimagain, and after great exertion, he again escaped and took up his weaponsagainst his enemies. But then he was ensnared a third time, and he foundhimselfhelplessagainsttheringofenemiesclosinginonhim.8

Furthermore, recall the weaving imagery that was sometimes used todepict the Norns’ crafting of fate (Chapter Five). The volur, too, are

occasionally called “norns” in Old Norse texts. Given this strikingconvergence of images, it seems reasonable to assume that the spinningactivitiesinvolvedinseidalsohadsomethingtodowiththreadingadditionsto theweb of fate. It’s highly unlikely, however, that human sorcerers andsorceresseswere thought tobecapableofundoingwhat theNorns“proper”had alreadywoven – they probably “only” contributed a few extra patternsaroundtheweb’sedges.

Seidritualswereoftenperformedatthetopofaraisedplatformcalledaseiðhjallr, as Thorbjorg did inThe Saga of Eirik the Red.9 The varðlokkur(“guardianspiritenticements”)chantsthatGudridsangwereanothercommonfeature,andsummonedspiritstoaidthevolvainhisorherwork.Thesongsweresaidtobeexceptionallypleasingtotheear,andthisallurewasthoughttonaturallyattractthespirits.Duetothispleasantness,thesongscouldalsobeusedtodrawsoon-to-bevictimsofinjuriousmagictothesituationwheretheywouldbeharmed.10

Howdidthevolurenterthetrancestatesinwhichtheyperformedtheirwork?Thesourcesdon’ttellusdirectly,buttheydooffersomeclues.Foronething,there’snoevidenceforawidespreaduseofentheogens(mind-alteringplantsusedinareligiouscontext,literally“substancesthatbringoneintothepresence of the divine”) among the Norse. It probably occurred here andthere, but it certainlydoesn’t seem tohavebeen anything like an extensivepractice.11(Thesole–andobvious–exceptiontothisisalcohol,butthatwasusedinlarger,moreregular,morecommunalritualsliketheoneswesawinChapterNine,andnosourcerecordsavolvaimbibingasignificantamountofalcoholbeforebeginninghisorherrituals.)

Instead,it’sprobablethatthevolurgotthemselvesintotheproperframeof mind via the sweet music of the varðlokkur, as well as deep breathingexercises– thesourcessometimes refer tovolur“yawning”at thestartofaritual,whichcouldpointtosuchapractice(andwouldaccordwiththeNorseidentificationofbreathandspirit).But,onceagain,wedon’treallyknowforsure.

Words,whetherspoken,sung,orwritten,wereanothercentralfeatureofthepracticeofmagicintheVikingAge.FortheNorse,wordsweren’tmerelysymbolsthatreferredtosomethingelseinthe“realworld”afterthefact.Theyweren’t spoken idly. Instead, a word was thought to bring into being thatwhichitsymbolized.Bybeingspokenorsungaloud,orwrittenonaphysicalsurface, words had a physical presence of their own, and were part of thefabricofphysicalreality.Theytransformedanabstractintentionorideaintosomethingconcrete.Words–andtheintentionsandideasbehindthem–hadthepowertochangephysicalreality,justlikeanyotherphysicalphenomenon.

Therefore,whensomeonepronouncedablessingoracurse,forexample,thatblessing or cursewas believed to actually take place simply because it hadbeenarticulated.12

The volur harnessed this incredible power in several ways. One waswritingthetextofaspellinrunes,theNorsealphabet.Afterthewordswererecorded,thelettersweretypicallyreddenedwithsacrificialblood(hlaut)torenderthemmorepotent.13

Anotherwassingingthespellsaloud,apracticewhichwascalledgaldr.Thewordgaldrprimarilymeantsimply“sungorchantedspell,”butitcarriedasecondaryconnotationof“animalnoises,”especiallythoseofroostersandother birdswith especially piercing calls. An insane personwas said to begalinn – roughly “the object ofgaldr.”Nevertheless,galdr was said to bepleasingtotheear,anditmayhavebeenintonedinaspecialmeter,preservedinafewpiecesofEddicpoetry,calledgaldralag.14

Anothertechniqueusedbysorcerersandsorceresseswasútiseta,literally“sittingout.”Whilenota ritual inandof itself, it formeda framework thatcould give rituals a context that would make them particularly effective.Útiseta involved sitting outside at night in places of great spiritual power,suchasburialmounds,beneaththedanglingbodiesofthehanged,orbesiderunningwater.Unsurprisingly,itseemstohavebeenusedespeciallyofteninritualsthatinvolvedcommunicationwiththedead.15

THEUSESOFSEID

Magicmayseemlikesomethinghopelesslyexoticandbizarre.Buteven

atitsmostoutlandish,itwas(and,insomecornersoftheworld,stillis)awayofaddressingbigandsmallanxieties thatarean inherentpartof thehumancondition. Being as old as humanity itself, they are naturally still with ustoday, even though our methods of attempting to overcome them may bedifferent.

Whatarethethingsthatstressyououtinyourownlife,andwhichyouspend a lot of time trying to control? Money, love, lust, friendships,reputation, health, and/or an uncertain future, perhaps? These are the samethings theVikings struggledwith, andmagic – the skilledmanipulation ofsubtle, unseen forces –wasoneof the techniques theyused to try tomakeimportanteventsturnoutthewaytheywantedthemtoturnout.

Seidwassometimesamatterofpassivelyperceiving the future, like inThorbjorg’s ritual in Greenland, and at other times a matter of activelyaltering it. Sometimes it was used within the context of “domestic” or“civilian” life, and at other times as part of war. Archaeologist Neil Price

offersanelegantsummaryofitsuses:

Therewereseiðrritualsfordivinationandclairvoyance;forseekingoutthehidden,bothinthesecretsofthemindandinphysicallocations;forhealingthesick;forbringinggoodluck;forcontrollingtheweather;forcallinggameanimalsandfish.Importantly,itcouldalsobeusedfortheoppositeofthesethings-tocurseanindividualoranenterprise;toblightthelandandmakeitbarren;toinduceillness;totellfalsefuturesandthustosettheirrecipientsonaroadtodisaster;toinjure,maimandkill,indomesticdisputesandespeciallyinbattle.16Divination served first and foremost to discern the workings of

impersonal fate, and secondarily to discern the wills of deities that werethought to have a hand in the situation in question. As we’ve seen, theVikingslivedinaworldcharacterizedbyaconstanttensionbetweenfateandfreechoice.Peeringintothefuturethroughdivination–aVikingAgeversionofaweatherforecast,ifyoulike–enabledpeopletohaveaclearersenseofthe range of possibilities thatwere available to them, andwhich oneswerebeyond their reach. Then they could develop plans for acting within theselimits.17

GiventheprevalenceofwarandstrifeintheVikingAge,itmakessensethatoneofthemainusesofseidtoactivelyproducechangewasdirectingtheoutcome of violent disputes. To quote Price again, seid’s battlefieldapplicationsincluded

instilling fear and confusion, conferring courage and clarity of

mind, instilling physical weakness, conferring physical strength,magically hindering the body's movements, breaking or strengtheningweaponsandarmour,providinginvulnerabilityinbattle,killingpeople,resurrecting dead warriors to fight again, providing protection fromsorcerers,[and]fightingorkillingsorcerers.18In other words, it could influence essentially any and every aspect of

VikingAgeconflict,anditfrequentlyplayedasignificantroleinturningthetideofbattle.

THESEXUALDYNAMICSOFSEID

Seid had a pronounced sexual component, even in instanceswhere the

ultimateintentionsoftheworkingsweren’tsexualinnature.19

Recallthediscussionofsexualandgender-basedmoralityintheVikingAgefromChapterSix.Tobrieflyrecap,themostshamefulanddishonorablething a Viking man could be was argr, a word that meant “unmanly,”“cowardly,” and “receptive homosexual.” For the Norse, these were threewaysofsayingthesamething–hencetheironewordforallthree.Thenounformofargr–thestateofbeingargr–wasergi.

TheNorse considered thepracticeof seid tobe inherentlyargr. In theEddicpoemLoki’sTaunts,LokiaccusesOdinofbeingavolva–“Andthat,itseemstome,iswhollyargr.”20Likewise,TheSagaoftheYnglingssays thatafter seidwas invented, “itwas found to bring somuch ergi to thosewhopracticeditthathonorablemenwantednothingtodowithit,anditwastaughttothesorceressesinstead.”21Whileitwasmoreorlessokayforawomantopracticemagic,thesamecan’tbesaidformen.

Why would the Vikings have considered it to be so profoundlydisgraceful foraman topracticemagic?At firstglance, this seemsbizarre.Andthesourcesnevertellusexplicitly.However,theygiveusseveralcluesthat,takentogether,formaconsistentpicture.

Foronething,inaculturewheretheforthright,physical,violentdefenseofone’shonorwassocentraltotheconceptof“manliness,”gaininganupperhandinadisputethroughamethodassurreptitiousandintellectualasmagicwaslikelyseenasbeinghighlycowardly.

For another thing, the association between seid on the one hand andspinningandweavingthreadontheothergaveseidanairofbeing“women’swork,”unfittingforany“true”man.22

Also, during the seid ritual itself, the staff seems to have been heldbetween the legs in a sexually suggestivemanner, as if the performer was“riding”it.23(Couldthisbetheoriginofthepopularimageofwitchesridingbroomsticks?)Thesexualconnotationsof thispositionwereunderscoredbythefactthatthewordgandr,oneofthewordsusedtorefertothemagicstaff,couldalsomean“penis.”24

Gandrcouldalsomean“spirit,”25andit ishere thatwefind theclue towhat seems to have been the single most important reason why seid wasconsideredtobeargr.Asaseidritualbegan,thepractitioneryawned,whichhadtheintentofbreathinginspiritsthatwouldhelpthework.26IntheVikingwayofthinking,heorshewastherebyallowingoneofhisorherorificestobe penetrated by those spirits – andwas therefore effectively the receptivepartnerinasexualact.27

Bythesametoken,amanwhowasaffectedbyaseidritualbecameargras the practitioner’s emissary spirits entered his body. An especially vividexampleofthiscanbefoundinTheStoryofThorleiftheEarl’sPoet.Anearl

was attacked by seid, and his anus became so unbearably itchy (due to thespiritsentering it) thathefoundhimselfunable tositstill.Theonlywayhecouldfindreliefwastohavetwomenpullacoarse,knottedclothbetweenhisbuttocks. As if the tale’s early medieval audience needed any additionalconfirmation of just how “unmanly” the earl had become, his beard rottedawayasanothersideeffectofthemagic.28

Nevertheless,despitethesupremestigmaassociatedwithseid,menfromallsocialstratawereapparentlydrawntopracticeitduetotheextraordinarypowersitgavethem.AccordingtoTheSagaofHaraldFair-Hair, thisevenincluded a king’s son.When King Harald admonished his poet Vitgeir forpracticing seid, Vitgeir retorted that the king would do better to direct hisorder to his son Rognvald, who was a known sorcerer. This was sohumiliatingforKingHaraldthathehadanotheroneofhissons–noneotherthanthebrutalEirikBlood-Axe–murderRognvaldbyburninghimaliveinahallwhere he and eighty other “seidmen” had gathered.29 Evidently,KingHarald’sshameathavingasorcererinthefamilywasdeeperthanhisloveforhisownson.

THESOCIALSTATUSOFPRACTITIONERSOFSEID

Asyou’d probably expect, the social status of thosewho practiced the

fearsomeartofseiddependedlargelyonthegenderofthevolvainquestion.Malevolurseemtohavebeenmoreorlessuniversallyreviled,althoughtheywould still be called upon to perform their services when their clients hadneedof them.Theirclients’contemptwasalsomitigatedbya senseof fearandaweattheirpowers.

The status of female volur wasmore complex. Seid-womenwere stillquite marginal characters, but more in the sense of being “set apart” thanscorned.Theyinhabitedthehazyborderlandsbetweentheworldsofhumans,divinities,andotherkindsofbeings.Toemphasizethis,eventheirgravesaredescribed as being literally “set apart” from the graves of others at themarginsofburialgrounds.30

Theywerealsoseeninahighlyambivalentlight.Ontheonehand,theywere often received with honor, with feasts and lavish gifts, includingexpensivejewelry,asiftheywereofexceptionallyhighstatus.WesawsomeofthisinthestoryofThorbjorgfromTheSagaofEiriktheRed.However–and this, too, can be glimpsed in Thorbjorg’s tale – they were seen asuntrustworthy and therefore bad company to keep, since their hosts’hospitalitywas often dependent on themprophesying good fortune and notmentioningbadfortune.Inotherwords,thevolurwereheldtoaVikingAge

versionofourownplatitude that “Ifyoucan’t sayanythingnice,don’t sayanything at all.” Price aptly characterizes this aspect of their social role aslargelybeingoneof“ritualreassurance.”31Theywerethoughttotrulypossessthe ability to see into the future, but they were expected to report backsomethingpleasantregardlessofwhattheyactuallysaw.

When seid was used to actively accomplish some particular purposeratherthantomerelyperceivethefuture,itseffectscouldfallanywhereinthespectrumbetweenhelpandharm.Forthatmatter,thesetwopoleswereoftentwosidesofthesamecoin;tohelponepersonoftenmeanttoharmanother.ThiswasespeciallythecasefortheVikings,whobelievedinan“economyoffortune:” there was a fixed amount of luck in the world, and when oneperson’s luck changed for the better, someone else’s luck necessarily musthave changed for the worse.32When seid harmed someone – especially incaseswheresomeoneactuallydied–thevolvawhohadcausedtheharmwasdealtwithjustlikeanyoneelsewhohadcommittedsuchacrime.

Sorcerers and sorceresses were not infrequently killed by official orvigilantejustice.Thesagasinparticulararerepletewithexamplesofthis.Tocitebutafew:inGisli’sSaga,anelderlyvolvanamedAudbjorgkillstwelvepeople,andisstonedtodeath.HerbrotherThorgrim,likewiseaperformerofinjurioussorcery,islaterkilled,too.33InTheSagaofthePeopleofLaxardal,amannamedHrutisinvolvedinadisputeovertheownershipofsomehorses.The sorcererKotkell and his sons are enlisted byHrut’s opponent to harmhim.Onenight,theyclimbontotheroofofHrut’shouseandbeginchantingan exceptionally pleasing and soothing song. Hrut, understanding what’sgoing on, orders his family to stay inside and to stay awake. However,everyoneissoonlulledtosleepbythemusicexceptforHrut’syoungestandfavoriteson,Kari.Enthralledbytheenchantingsounds,Karistepsoutofthehouse.Inthewordsofthesaga,“hewalkedintotheseidandfelldowndeadatonce.”34For this andother crimes,Kotkell, hiswife, andhis sons are allstonedtodeathordrowned.35InEyrbyggjaSaga, thesorceressKatlamakessexualadvancestowardamannamedGunnlaug.Afterherepeatedlyrefuses,Katla’sspiritattackshimandleaveshimincapacitatedformanymonthswithsevere injuries. When the people discover what has happened, Katla isexecuted.36

Those who practiced magic weren’t rounded up and killedindiscriminately,likeintheinfamousWitchTrialsoftheearlymodernperiod.In the above examples from the sagas, the executed sorcerers aren’t killedbecausethey’resorcerers,butratheraspartofthemoregeneralhonor/bloodfeudculture,whereanymurderorgrave injurywas liable tobeavengedbyanother murder or grave injury. The one partial exception to this in the

examples we’ve seen is the case of the king’s son Rognvald and hiscompanions. Apparently, a man’s becoming a volva was seen as sufficientgroundsforhimtobekilledbyhisfamilyduetothedishonorhehadbroughtuponthemall.

SHAMANISM

“Shaman” and “shamanism” are notoriously difficult words to define.

Themostpreciseandgenerallyapplicabledefinitiontodateisprobablythatof anthropologist Åke Hultkrantz: “we may define the shaman as a socialfunctionarywho,withthehelpofguardianspirits,attainsecstasyinordertocreate a rapport with the supernatural world on behalf of his groupmembers.”37That’sthedefinitionwe’llusehere.

The term “shaman” comes from theEvenkiwordšaman. (The EvenkiareaSiberianindigenouspeople.)Technically,theconceptof“shamanism”inthesenseof“whattheshamandoes”wasinventedbymodernanthropologistsandapplied tosufficiently“shamanic”activities incultures fromaround theworld in order tomore readily discuss them in relation to one another.Buttheydidn’tinventthetermortheconceptoutofwholecloth,sincethereareritual functionaries in many, many cultures from all over the world whoserolesandactivitiesaremoreorless,butofcourseneverexactly, thesameasthoseoftheEvenkišaman.Thismakestheconceptahighlyusefulone–evennecessary in some contexts – but it can become problematicwhen used togloss over cultural differences rather than merely highlighting very realcommonalitiesamongstveryrealdifferences.Inthisregard, it’snodifferentfromtheconceptsof“religion,”“ritual,”and“worship.”38Tothrowoutthoselatterconceptsinabookofthissortwouldbetolosetheforestforthetrees–and so, too, with the concept of “shamanism.” A discussion of Norseshamanism is therefore not only appropriate, but necessary in order toilluminateandcontextualizeparticularaspectsofNorsereligion.

While the elements in Norse religion that could legitimately beconsidered to be “shamanic” in some way or another are too numerous todiscussinfullhere,twoaspectsofVikingreligiouspracticestandoutasbeingespecially noteworthy in this regard. Broadly speaking, we can divide theshamanismpracticedbytheVikingsintoafemalesphereandamalesphere.

Thefemalesphere,inaword,wasseid.Thevolvaperformedherorhisritual actions in the ecstatic trance that forms one of the hallmarks ofshamanism, as per Hultkrantz’s definition. As we’ve seen, the practitionersummoned and sent out helping spirits during the course of the seid ritual.Andwhile volur performed rituals on their ownbehalf inmany cases, they

weremorecommonlycommissionedbyothers.Seid-workers–andFreyaandOdinastheirdivinemodels–wereclassicshamans.

The male sphere of Norse shamanism consisted of the elite warriorgroups known as theberserkir (“bear-shirts”) andúlfheðnar (“wolf-skins”).Theberserkers(aswe’llrefertomembersofbothofthosegroupsforthesakeof convenience),were shamans of a very different sort.After undergoing aperiodofrigoroustrainingandinitiation,theydevelopedanabilitytofightinan ecstatic trance that rendered them fearless – and, according to somesources, impervious todanger39–whilenevertheless inspiringa tremendousamount of fear in their opponents by their behavior, which was at onceanimalistic and otherworldly. Perhaps needless to say, there was no ergiassociatedwithbeingaberserker.Quitetheopposite, infact–theberserkerwasseenasbeingsomethingofamodelofmanliness.

In theyear970, theGreekhistorianLeoDiaconuswitnessedabandoffar-traveling berserkers as they fought against the army of the Byzantineemperor, his employer.He says that they fought in a burning frenzybesidewhichordinarybattleragepaledincomparison.Theyroared,growled,bayed,andshriekedlikeanimals,andinanespeciallyeerieanduncannyway.Theyseemed utterly indifferent to their ownwell-being, as if lost to themselves.Their leader, who embodied all of these traits to an extreme degree, wasthought byLeo to have literally gone insane.Leo and theByzantine forceswere veterans of countless battles, so the reactions elicited by theScandinavian’s behavior in Leo and his companions strongly suggests thatwhattheywitnessedinthatbattlewassomethinguniquetotheScandinavians,andsomethingwhichchilledLeoandtheByzantinestotheircore.40

Theberserkersseemtohaveworkedwithanumberofhelpingspiritsoftheir own, such as the bear-spirits andwolf-spirits indicatedby the groups’namesandantics.SomehadValkyriesastheir“spirit-wives,”apracticetheyhad in common with other northern Eurasian shamanic traditions.41 Whentheyfought,theyusuallyfoughtforthegoodoftheirwarband,aswellas,inmany cases, their civilian communities. Thus, the berserkers, too, fitHultkrantz’sdefinitionofashaman.

BoththefemaleandmalespheresofNorseshamanismhadOdin,“TheEcstatic One,” as the exemplar of their traditions. Their wild, empoweringecstasywasagiftbestoweduponthembythat“terriblesovereign”ofagodwho kept vats of spiritual mead to be dispensed to those whom he foundworthy. When the volur and the berserkers went into their intoxicatingtrances,theywerethoughttohavebeengivenacovetedsipofthismead.

ButhowdidOdinacquirethismysteriousliquorinthefirstplace?Thatmyth,andmanyothers,willbethesubjectofthesecondpartofthisbook,to

whichwenowturn.

OceanofPDF.com

PartTwo:NorseMythologyOceanofPDF.com

Chapter11:WhatisNorseMythology?The question “What isNorsemythology?”may seem very simple and

straightforwardatfirstglance.Butit’sactuallyagoodbitmorecomplexthanonemightthink.

Let’s begin to answer the question “What is Norse mythology?” bybreaking the phrase “Norse mythology” into its two parts: “Norse” and“mythology.”We’ve already defined and discussedwhat theword “Norse”meansinChapterOne.Whatabout“mythology”anditsrootword,“myth?”

WHATISAMYTH?

The word “myth” can be most appropriately and simply defined as a

storyintendedtoconveysomekindoftimeless,sacredtruth.Why use a story, instead of some other means, to convey what are

perceived tobe timeless,sacred truths?Storiesengagemore–andarguablydeeper – parts of ourselves than bare, conceptual discourse usually does.They’re more entertaining, and they can be more emotionally moving.They’re not necessarily irrational – especially when one understands thebasicassumptionsof theworldviewoutofwhichtheyspring–but theyaregenerallynonrational.Theydon’tnecessarilycontradictaparticular rationalunderstanding of the world, but they’re not concerned with the rationalvalidityorlackthereofinwhattheypurporttodescribe.Theybypassreasonaltogether, for better or for worse. Rather than stating an idea and thenarguingforwhythatideaisanaccuratereflectionofreality,storiesgostraightto the example, depicting the cosmos as seen through the lens of the idea.Theyshowratherthantell.Thesefactorsmakestoriesmorepersuasivethanrationalargument,formostpeopleandasageneralrule,whichiswhymostifnotallsocietieshaveentrustedtheircorebeliefstomythmoreoftenthantorationalargument.

Somepeoplehavea tendency to thinkofmythasanearly,“primitive”gropingtowardourmodernconceptionofhistory,sointheinterestofarrivingatafullerunderstandingofwhatmythisandisnot,let’sgoaheadanddispelthat notion.Whilemyth and history both take the form of narrating eventsthat supposedly happened in some kind of past, that’s where the similaritybetweenthemends.Mythandhistoryhavefundamentallydifferentgoals,andbecauseofthat,theyhavefundamentallydifferentmethodsaswell.

Historytries,byrationalmeans,todeterminewhat’smostlikelytohave

factuallyhappenedinthepast.Mythtries,bynonrationalmeans,todepictthepast as itmust have been or should have been in order to give rise to theworld (the social world as well as the natural world) in which the personnarratingthemythlivesorwantstolive.Ratherthantryingtodepictthepastas factuallyaccuratelyaspossible,myth tries todepict thepast inwhateverlightbestservestolegitimizetheworlditwantstolegitimize.Thisisn’ttosaythat myth attempts to actively subvert what we would call a “historical”understanding of the past, but rather that it treats such a historicalunderstandingasirrelevant.Tothinkofmythasmerelydeficienthistoryistofundamentallymisunderstandmyth.

A“mythology” is simplyacollectionofmyths. Itdoesn’thave tobearationallycoherentsystem–andmostmythologiesaren’t.Norsemythology,forexample,definitelywasn’tsuchasystem.Atleastnotoriginally.

THETWONORSEMYTHOLOGIES

Despite the fact that Norse mythology was never systematized or

codifiedduring theVikingAge (this common refrain fromPartOneof thisbookappliesequallytoPartTwo),numerousattemptshavebeenmadesincethentocreateasingle,tidysystemoutofthedisparatestoriesandfragmentsofstoriesthathavesurvivedthedeathofthereligiontowhichtheyoriginallybelonged. This endeavor goes all theway back to thePoetic Edda and theProseEddaoftheearlymedievalperiod,andcontinuestothepresentday.

This effort toward rationalization and systematization, rather thanclarifying aspects of “original” Norse mythology that would otherwise beenigmatic or contradictory, actually creates an additional and unnecessarybarrier to understanding both the letter and the spirit ofVikingAgeNorsemythology.Thisisbecausethesenewelementsthathavebeenintroducedto“smoothout” theoldmythsare just that:newadditions.This tendencyhas,overtime,createdwhatiseffectivelyasecondNorsemythologythatoverlapswiththefirst,butshouldn’tbeconfusedwithit.

The first or “original” Norse mythology is simply the collection ofscattered sacred stories that the Vikings told to each other. DifferentcommunitieshadtheirownmythsandtheirownversionsoftherelativelyfewmythsthatseemtohavebeenknownandtoldacrosstheentireNorseworld.Even within particular communities, stories would have naturally changedover time.Recall also thatVikingsocietywasanoralone inwhichwritingwasrarelypracticeduntil theintroductionofChristianity.Forthesereasons,by far the majority of “original” Norse mythology is now lost andirrecoverable.

But even though themajority of “original”Norsemythology has beenlost,theliterarysourcesdiscussedinChapterOnepreservesomemagnificentfragmentsofwhatwasonceevidentlyanincalculablerichness.Aswesawinthatsamediscussion,fewifanyofthoseliterarysourcescanbetakenatfacevalue. The tendency toward rationalization and systematization began withthem. Their authors were mostly Christians with centuries of distancebetween them and the living practice of the traditions they purported todescribe. And those authors, even the ones writing in the later part of theViking Age itself, had agendas that were often antithetical to the faithfulrecording of their ancestors’ lore. The voice of the “original” myths isfrequentlymuffledinthesesources,butthey’reallwehavetogoon.

Nevertheless,bycriticallyanalyzingthecontentsof thesesources–thesecondNorsemythology–incomparisonwithoneanotherandwiththeotherkindsofsourcesweexaminedinChapterOne,wecanmakesomeeducatedguessesaboutwhichpartsofthempreservesomethingauthenticfromthefirstNorsemythologyof theVikingAge,andwhichpartsrepresentcreationsbytheauthorsthemselves.Allisnotlost.

INTERPRETINGTHENORSEMYTHS

OncewedeterminewhichofthetalesfromthesecondNorsemythology

aremostlikelytopreserveauthenticmythsfromthefirst,howshouldwegoabouttryingtointerpretthem?

When trying to interpretanymyth,manypeople reflexively turn to thetheoriesofpeoplelikeJamesGeorgeFrazer,CarlJung,SigmundFreud,andJosephCampbell.While eachof those thinkershasdevelopedan intriguingpersonal philosophy that uses various ancient mythologies as points ofreference, their works are dubious guides to any one particularmythology.Theirgoalisnottounderstandanyonemythologyasdeeplyaspossibleonitsownterms,butrathertoidentifysupposeduniversalpatternswithinmythassuch, which inevitably turns a blind eye toward the factors that make anygivenmythologyunique.Thesethinkers,whilefascinatingintheirownright,havelittletonolighttoshedonhowtheVikingsthemselvesunderstoodtheirownmyths–whichis,afterall,thekindofinterpretationthatmattersbyfarthemostinabookofthissort.

So,then,howweretheNorsemythsinterpretedduringtheVikingAge,when they were still part of a living tradition? The sources never tell usexplicitly. But when we attentively examine the content of the mythsthemselves in theirhistoricalandculturalcontext,wecangetaprettygoodidea of what they were trying to do and how their listeners would have

understood them. The myths seem to have served to convey cosmologicallore,todepictthepersonalitiesandrolesofthegodsandotherlarger-than-lifebeings,andtoprovideexamplesofconceptslikefateandhonoratwork.Theyillustratedsacredideasandbeingsinaction.FortheVikings,itwouldseem,the truthofamyth laynot somuch in, forexample,“DidThoractuallydosuch-and-such?” but rather in, “Does this story demonstrate somethingauthenticaboutThor’scharacterandroles?”

Finally, we shouldn’t underestimate the importance of looking at theNorsemythsas,atleastononelevel,simply“goodstories.”Humanitybeingwhat it is, this was surely the only capacity in whichmany Vikings caredabout them.And in addition to providing high entertainment value, awell-composed and well-told story can be meaningful in a way that has littleintrinsicconnectiontoideas.AsscholarofreligionElainePagelshaspointedout in one of her studies of early Christian texts and communities, whichcontained an incredible and seldom-acknowledged diversity of perspectivesandopinions,“WhatsustainedmanyChristians,evenmorethanbelief,werestories – above all, shared stories of Jesus’ birth and baptism, and histeachings,hisdeath,andhisresurrection.”1Thestoriesthemselveswerewhattiedpeople together in thecommunal religion,despite thegreatdiversityoftheinterpretationspeoplewhobelongedtothatcommunityhadoftheirsharedstories.ThesamewassurelytruefortheNorseinrelationtotheirownsacredstories.

THESTRUCTUREOFNORSEMYTHOLOGY

There’s no indication that Norse mythology was ever given an

overarching,rationallycoherentstructureintheVikingAge.Givenalloftheother instanceswe’vefoundof the lackofsystematization inNorsereligionasawhole, itwouldbestrange if theVikings’mythologyalonewasrigidlyandpreciselycodified.InthewordsofhistorianH.R.EllisDavidson,

Some scholars… have persevered in the hope that a convincing

structurecouldbebuiltup fromthescatteredclues,acceptingallasofequal value; but this is a hopeless quest, based on the erroneousassumptionthatasetmythologyonceexistedthatwaslogicalandtidyineverydetail,andremainedsooveralongperiod.Allthatcanbeclaimedis that certain conceptions concerning the Otherworld were generallyaccepted, and that themost powerfulmyths were enacted against thisvividbut[bymodernstandards]confusedbackground.2

Ourmodernzealforrationalstructurecan’treasonablybeprojectedontosocieties far removed from ours, especially when they have given us noindication of sharing that value. Thus, while the lack of systematization inNorsemythologymightbeadeficiencytous,theVikingsseemtohavebeenutterlyuntroubledbyit.Perhapstheyevensawitasgivingthemythsacertainvitality that kept them swept up in the dynamic flows of lived experience,ratherthanisolatedandstaticfossils.

Inkeepingwith theVikings’ linearviewof time(ChapterFour),Norsemythology does seem to have had a clear beginning in the creation of thecosmos,andaclearendinRagnarok,thedestructionofthecosmos.However,everything thatwas said to take place in between these two points doesn’tseem tohavebeen thought tohaveoccurred inanyparticularchronologicalorder. Instances in whichmythA assumes that the events ofmyth B havealready taken place, but myth B assumes that the events of myth A havealready taken place, are common. To someone hearing any one of thesestories (or somethingmuch like it) in theVikingAge, the talewould havebeen recognized asboth a standalonenarrative andpart of agreaterwhole,butitsprecisepositioninthatgreaterwholesimplywasn’tofmuchinterest,asfaraswecantell.

The chapters that follow retell the entire body of the most significant

NorsemythscontainedintheliterarysourcesdescribedinChapterOne.Eachofthesestoriesaboutthedeedsofgodsandhumanheroesbeginswithabriefintroduction that notes the sources for that specific tale and providesevidence-basedguessesastowhetherornot(ortowhatdegree)thatstoryisanauthenticpre-Christianmyth,andifso,howwidespreaditmayhavebeen.The retellings make a point to be faithful to the sources from which theycome,whilefleshingoutsomescenesinminorwaysthatdon’taltertheplotsthemselves.Wherepossible and relevant, I’veprovidedEnglish translationsofOldNorsepropernouns.

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Chapter12:TheCreationoftheCosmosFragmentsofaNorsecreationmythcanbefoundinthreepoemsinthe

PoeticEdda:TheProphecyoftheSeeress(Völuspá),TheSongoftheHoodedOne (Grímnismál), and The Song of Vafthrudnir (Vafþrúðnismál). ThemedievalIcelandicscholarSnorriSturlusonusedallthreeofthesepoemsassources for his account of a Norse creation myth in his Prose Edda, andquoteseachofthem.

Snorri’s version of the Viking story of creation is the only one wepossess that’s actually a full story, but we shouldn’t let that trick us intoassuming that it’s therefore necessarily an authentic product of the VikingAge. The elements in Snorri’s story that aren’t found in those three Eddicpoems are found in no other sources, either, so we have little basis forevaluating which ones originated in the Viking Age, and which onesoriginatedinSnorri’sownimagination.Thisisatopicoffierceandprobablyirresolvabledebateamongscholars.

Furthermore, aswe’ve seen, theEddicpoemsareproblematic for theirownreasons.ThisisparticularlytrueofTheProphecyoftheSeeress,due tothe Christian or at least Christian-leaning theological intentions thatapparently frame much of the narrative. But even that poem certainlypreservesmuch true Viking lore along the way. To cite but one especiallystriking example, one of the lines in the third stanza, jörð fannsk æva néupphiminn(“neithertheheavensnortheearthexisted”),isaformulathatcanbe found virtually word-for-word in religious poetry from throughout theGermanic world.1 The poet who composed The Prophecy of the Seeressevidentlypossessedanexpertknowledgeof the loreofhisorherancestors,regardlessofthewaythepoetchosetoframethatlore.

DespitethedifficultiesinherentinSnorri’sversionoftheNorsecreationmyth,it’stheonlyostensibly“complete”onewehave,andregardlessofthedegreeofitsauthenticity,it’squiteagrandstoryinitsownright.

THECREATIONOFTHECOSMOS

Beforetherewassky,orground,orsun,orocean,orgrass,oranything

weknowfromourworld,therewasnothingbutGinnungagap,the“YawningAbyss.”Thisvoidofuninterruptedsilenceanddarknessstretchedinfinitelyinalldirections.

TheninthesouthappearedMuspelheim,the“LandofFire,”andinthe

north,Niflheim,the“LandofFog.”ThefiresofMuspelheimblewsparksoutinto thevoid,while the icywaters ofNiflheimoverflowed into thevoid aswell.Fireandicecrepttowardeachotheruntil,atlast,theymetinthemiddle.Amid the hissing and sputtering, the drops from the melting ice formed abeing namedYmir, “Scream,” the first of the giants.WhenYmir slept, hesweated,andfromthesweatofhishandsandfeetcamemoregiants.Andsotheirkindwasestablished.

The drops from the ice also gave rise to another being: the first cow,whose name was Audhumbla, “The Hornless One Rich in Milk.” ShenourishedYmir withmilk from her bulging udder, while she, in turn, wasnourishedbyblocksofsaltintheice.Aftershehadlickedtheiceforawholeday,aman’shairemergedintheevening.Bytheendofthesecondday,hisentireheadhadbeenuncovered.Andbytheendofthethirdday,Audhumblaatlastlickedthemanfreeoftheice.Hewashandsomeandstrong.ThiswasBuri,“Father,”thefirstofthegods.

Buri had a son named Bor, “Son.” Bor slept with a maiden from thegiants,Bestla.Hernamemeant“Wife,”andshewasthedaughterofBolthorn,“ThornofMisfortune.”Bestlaconceivedandborethreesons:Odin,Vili,andVe.“The InspiredOne,”“Will,”and“Holiness” turnedon theprogenitoroftheirmother’sline,andslewhim.SomuchbloodgushedforthfromYmir’sbodythatallof thegiantsweredrowned.Well,almostallof them, that is–one named Bergelmir, “Mountain-Bellower,” escaped with his family, andfromthemaredescendedallthegiantsinthecosmos.

ThenthesonsofBorfashionedtheworldfromYmir’scorpse.Fromhisblood theymade theseas, rivers,and lakes.His flesh theysculpted to formtheground,withallofitssubtlecontours,andfromhisbonestheymadethegreat stones that lie beneath the ground and sometimes stick up from it.Smallerrocksweremadefromhisteethandfromthebonesthatwerebrokenduringhismurder.Greenandwoodyplantswereshapedwithhishair.Whenthelandhadtakenitsshape,theysettheoceansinaringaroundit.Hisskulltheymadeintothedomeofthesky,andappointedfourburlydwarves–whohadbeguntheirlivesasmaggotswrithinginYmir’sputridflesh–toholditupatthefourcardinalpoints:Nordriinthenorth,Austriintheeast,Sudriinthe south, andVestri in thewest.Odin,Vili, andVe next took embers andsparks fromMuspelheim, some great and some small, and placed them inintricateformationsrotatingaroundtheearth.Whentheyareabovetheearth,theirlightshinesdownuponit,andbythemtimecanbereckoned.

Thebrothersappointedtheoutermostpartoftheland,thatwhichabuttedtheencirclingsea,asthedwellingplaceofBergelmirandhiskin.Butinthecentertheymadeaplaceforhumans,whoatthattimehadnotyetbeenmade.

TheycalledthispartoftheworldMidgard,andtoprotectitfromthegiants,theymadeagreatwallarounditfromYmir’seyebrows.

Bythatpoint,outofallofthepiecesofYmir’scorpse,onlyhisbrainwasleftunused.Thecraftybrotherstosseditintotheskyandteaseditapartintomanystrands,whichbecametheclouds.Ymirhadbeenquitehard-mooded,as youmight expect for a giant, and this iswhy clouds are so gloomy andsombertothisday.

Finally, from the finest parts of the cosmos, the gods constructed amagnificentdwelling-placeforthemselves,andcalleditAsgard.

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Chapter13:TheCreationoftheFirstHumans

Thetaleofhowthefirsthumanpairwascreatedcomesprimarilyfrom

TheProphecyof theSeeress in thePoeticEdda. Snorri repeats the accountfromthatpoeminhisProseEddawithafewchanges.

In its broad outlines, the tale is probably an authentic literary artifactfromtheVikingAge.Humansfirstemergingfromtreesorgrovesisathemethat’sfoundinseveralinstancesthroughouttheancientGermanicworld,andAsk (“AshTree”) the nameof the firstman,was amythical ancestor of atleast one Germanic family.1 Some of the details of the version in TheProphecyoftheSeeressseemconfusedandarbitrary,anditcanbereasonablyassumedthatSnorri’sversionisthemoreauthenticofthetwo.ThefollowingretellingthereforefollowstheaccountfromtheProseEdda.

THECREATIONOFTHEFIRSTHUMANS

AfterOdinandhisbrothershadformedthecosmosfromYmir’scorpse,

andappointedadwellingplaceforhumansatthecenterofthevisibleworld,thetaskofcreatingthefirsthumanstoinhabitthatlandstillremained.

Onedaynot longthereafter,Odin,Vili,andVewerewalkingalongthebeach of the newly-raised landmass. They came upon two large andcuriously-shaped pieces of driftwood that had washed up onto the shore.Odin,witha lookof solemnexcitementonhis face, stopped theother two.Thiswasthemomenthehadbeenwaitingfor.

The three gods picked up the two pieces of driftwood and carefullycarvedthemuntiltheyhadtakenontheformsofahumanmanandwoman.Butthesewoodensculptures,thoughshapely,werestilllifeless.

Odinbentdownoverthemandimpartedtothemthebreathoflife.Thetwohumansbegantoawakena littlebit,openingtheireyelids intoslitsandtaking their first breaths. Then Vili leaned in and gave them wits andemotions.Theireyesopenedwider,andtheirmusclesbegantotwitch.NextitwasVe’sturn.Hegavethepairspeech,hearing,sight,andthefinaldetailsoftheirappearance.Nowtheformerpairoflogsbecamefullyawakeandaware,and stared at everything around them with a startled wonder. The godsbroughtthemclothesanddressedthem.Then,theygavethemnames:themantheycalledAsk,andthewomantheycalledEmbla.

ThethreedivinebrothersescortedthemtotheirhomeinMidgardatthe

centeroftheland,ringedbythenewly-erectedwalltoprotectthemfromthebaleful giants. From them have come all of the humans who have everinhabitedtheearth.

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Chapter14:HeimdallFatherstheSocialClasses

This talecomesfromTheSongofRig (Rígsþula),apoeminserted into

one (and only one) of the surviving manuscripts of Snorri’s Prose Edda.Scholars are divided on the questions of its age and howwell it representsviewsthatwereheldduringtheVikingAge.

While some elements of the poemmay be as young as the fourteenthcentury–approximatelythreehundredyearsafterthecloseoftheVikingAge–othersaresurelymucholderthanthat.TheideathatHeimdallhadahandinfatheringhumankind,forexample,canalsobefoundinTheProphecyoftheSeeress,whichsuggeststhatbothpoemsdrewfromacommonbodyoflore.1

However,sincetheactionsofRigareonesthatcouldbeexpectedmuchmorereadilyfromOdinthanfromHeimdall,it’squitepossiblethatOdinwastheoriginalprotagonistofthisparticularstory.

HEIMDALLFATHERSTHESOCIALCLASSES

When thegodswanted to travel amongsthumansandaccomplish their

often-inscrutablegoals,theyoftentookupadisguiseandanicknamesothatnoonewouldknowwhotheyreallywere.So,whenHeimdallleftAsgardforMidgard, he called himselfRig, “King,” to those hemet alonghisway.Atthis time, humankind was wayward. No one knew what his proper workshouldbe,andnooneknewwhoshouldcommandwhom,and towardwhatends.Heimdallsetouttoremedythissituationbyorganizinghumankindintoa true society,onewithclasses, ranks, and titles.Eachclasswouldhave itsownappointedtasktocarryout.

RigwalkedalongthegrassypathwaysthatconnectedthefewhousesthatstoodinMidgardatthattimeuntilhecametoasmall,shoddily-builthovel.Thiswas thehomeofacouplewhosenameswereAi,“Great-Grandfather,”andEdda,“Great-Grandmother.”AiandEddahospitablyinvitedthetravelerin to have dinnerwith them and spend the night.After the three had eatentheir meager portions of coarse, husk-filled bread, the couple lay down tosleep.ThecleverRigconvincedthemtolethimsleepbetweenthem.

After three nights of this sleeping arrangement, Rig went on his way.Edda,meanwhile,foundthatshewaspregnant,andinduetimeshegavebirthto a son named Thraell, “Farmhand.” He had an exceptionally ugly face,roughskin,oversizedhandsandfeet,gnarledfingersandtoes,andatwisted

back.Butdespitehisuncomelyappearance,heprovedtobequitestrong.Hewasgivenhardmanual labor toperform,andheperformed itably,carryingheavyburdens all day long.ThraellmarriedThir, “Bondwoman,” amaidenwith bent legs, sunburnt arms, and a flat nose. Thraell and Thir hadmanychildren,whohadnameslike“HayStack”and“CowShed.”Thefamilyspenttheirdayscaringfortheirhouse,diggingturf,spreadingmanureoverthesoil,and tending goats and pigs. From them is descended the lowest class, themanuallaborers.

Rigcamenext toahouseof ample sizeandbuiltwith somedegreeofcareandart.Whenheknockedonthedoor,hewasgreetedbyacouplewhointroducedthemselvesasAfi,“Grandfather,”andAmma,“Grandmother.”Afiwasawoodcarverbytrade,andAmmaspentherdaysspinningandweaving.Both had neatly trimmed hair, and both were dressed in nice, well-fittingclothes.Inthecornerofthehallwasachestfilledwiththeirpossessions.

After a hearty dinner of boiled calfmeat, vegetables, andwine, itwastimeforbed.Ashehaddonebefore,Rigcharmedthecoupleintolettinghimsleepbetweenthemintheirbed.Afterthreesuchnights,Rigdeparted.

Ammasoonfoundherselfwithchild,andninemonthsfromRig’svisit,she gave birth to a son namedKarl, “Freeman.” He had a ruddy face andbright,intelligenteyes.Ashegrewup,hebecameanexpertcraftsmanandadefthandleroftheplow.HemarriedSnor,“String,”aprettygirlwhodressedinniceclothes.Together,theyhadmanychildren,including“Smith,”“ManofHonor,” and “Farmer,” and from their line came themiddle classof skilledprofessionals,merchants,andyeomen.

Rig continued on hisway, and at last came to a broad hall withwidedoorsandaregalringonthedoor-posts.Inside,hefoundacoupledressedinfine clothes andmuch jewelry.Themanwaspolishing anewhuntingbow,and the woman was smoothing out a small wrinkle she had found in herflowingbluegown.ThemanintroducedhimselftoRigasFadir,“Father,”andthe lady introducedherselfasModir,“Mother.”TheyinvitedRig toeatandspendthenightwiththem.

Modir laid a finely embroidered linen tablecloth over her large,intricately carved table. All kinds of rare meats and wines were served insilvervessels.Aftereatingtheirfill,theygotuptogotobed,andonceagain,Rigpersuadedthecoupletoallowhimtosleepinbetweenthemintheirbed.Afterthreenights,hewentonhisway.

Ninemonthslater,ModirgavebirthtoasonwhowascalledJarl,“Earl.”Jarlwasexceptionallyhandsomeineveryway,andhiseyesflashedwithallthe knowledge and cunning of a serpent. As a youth, he demonstratedconsummate skill at archery, hunting, war, horsemanship, and all kinds of

sports.One day, while he was honing his skills by the side of a wood, Rig

emergedfromthetreesandcalledtheboybyhisname.Herevealedthathewashisfather,andtaughthimtherunessothathecouldbroadenhistrainingtoincludetheirmysterious,esotericknowledgeandpowers.

Jarlbecameamightywarlord,expandinghisdomain throughcountlessmilitaryconquests.HemarriedErna,abeautifulmaidenfromanothernoblefamily. Their children bore names like “Noble” and “Young King.” Fromthem came the highest class, that of the aristocrats. In time, one of themsurpassed even their father Jarl at all his skills, and took the name Rig inhonorofthefounderofhisline.

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Chapter15:TheWaroftheGodsTheearliestsourcethattellsaversionofthestoryofthefirstwarinthe

cosmosisTheProphecyoftheSeeressfromthePoeticEdda,whichcontainsit in an abbreviated and very vague form. Snorri Sturluson gives twomorepartial accounts in his Prose Edda, and a fuller one in The Saga of theYnglings.

All four of these accounts aremutually contradictory on various basicpoints.It’sdifficulttotellwhetherthisisduetomisunderstandingsorcreativelibertieson thepartof theauthorsof thosesources,orwhether theysimplyrecountdifferentversionsthatwerecurrentintheVikingAge.Thefollowingretelling isnecessarilyasynthesis thatpickselements fromeach inorder toform a single, coherent narrative. Where possible, I’ve made a point toincludepartsofthevariousversionsthatarecorroboratedtosomedegreebyscattered allusions elsewhere in Old Norse literature, and to leave outuncorroboratedelementsthatconflictwiththecorroboratedones.

THEWAROFTHEGODS

Oneday, as theAesirgodsandgoddesseswentabout theirbusiness in

Asgard, a sorceress traveled up the rainbow bridge to the entrance of theirfortress. At the gate, she gave her name as Gullveig, “Lust for Gold” –althoughshewassurelynoneotherthanFreya,thebeautifulwitch-goddessoftheVanir.Thegodswerewaryofher,andallagreedthatthosewhopracticedsorceryweren’tthebestcompanytokeep.Nevertheless,intheend,theywerewonoverbyhercharmsandherpromisetobringthemsuccessinallrealmsoflife.

Once in Asgard, Gullveig began going into her trances and runningspiritual errandsonbehalf ofwhichever deitieswouldpayher handsomely.For a while, the Aesir appreciated her talents. But as time went by, hermagical interventions in theaffairsof thegodscreatedstrifeamongst them.Each deity became jealous of the unearned privileges that others weregaining, especiallywhen they allowedone godor goddess towin an upperhand in a dispute against another. Eventually, the discord amongst themreachedafeverpitch.TheAesirheldanemergencyassemblytodecidewhattodoaboutthesituation,andintheendtheydecidedthattheyhadtogetridof Gullveig andmake her atone for what she had done to them. The onlyfittingwaytodoboth,theyagreed,wastoputthesorceresstodeath.

They seized Gullveig and tied her up. Then they hurled spears at herfrom all directions – somany that, under ordinary circumstances, her bodywouldhavebeenreducedtoonescarcelyrecognizable,spear-riddenwound.But thegods failed to take into account the sorceress’s ability to turn awayweapons, and the sharp points blithely bounced off of her. She laughedgleefullyandmockinglyatherwould-beexecutioners.

TheAesir then resolved toburnher.Butaswith thespears, the flamesfailedtosomuchassingeatoeorafinger.Theyattemptedtoburnhernolessthanthreetimes,addingmorefueltotheflameseachtime,buteachtimetheyaccomplished nothing but triggering a long train of scornful cackling fromtheircaptive.

But the Aesir did accomplish one thing with their attempts to murderFreya: they earned the vengeful ire of her kin, the Vanir, who promptlydeclaredwarontheAesir.Thetwosidesmetontheplainofbattle,andwhenOdincasthisspearovertheVanir,symbolicallysacrificingthemtohimself,bothsidesknewthatthefightwason.

Afuriousstruggleensued.BoththeAesirandtheVanirfoughtvaliantly.ThoughtheAesirhadmoreandbetterwarriors,theVanirhadFreya’ssorceryon their side.With it, she reduced themighty planks ofAsgard’swall to aheapofsplintersanddust.

After the fighting had stretched to encompassmany battles, both sidesfoundthattheywereevenlymatched.Neithercouldgainadecisiveadvantageover the other, and bothwere growingweary ofwhat had proven to be anunwinnable conflict. So thewarring parties sat down together and forged atruce,agreeingtoliveinharmonywitheachotherandtoshareasonebodythetributehumanspaidtothemthroughtheirsacrifices.

To seal their pact, they exchanged hostages. The Vanir deities Freya,Frey,andNjordwenttolivewiththeAesir,whiletheAesirdeitiesMimirandHoenirweresenttotheVanir.

TheAesirwerequitesatisfiedwiththegiftedgodsandgoddesstheyhadreceived.Unfortunately,however,thesamecan’tbesaidoftheVanir.ThoughHoenirhadbeenpresentedtothemasakeen,just,andperceptiveruler,theyfoundhimtobedismayinglyindecisive.TheAesirknewthatMimirwasthewiseandimpartialone,andHoenir’sbeautifullyfittingpronouncementsweresimplyrepetitionsofwhatMimirwhisperedintohisear.Hoenirmadeupforhis lackofwitswithhis strengthandcourage inbattle,but theVanirnevertestedhiminthatfield,andremainedunawareofhismartialabilities.NeitherdidtheyrealizethatMimirwasthesourceofHoenir’sapparentwisdom.Alltheyknewwasthatattimes,Hoenirwouldbecomeinexplicablyincapableofissuing judgments, andwould stammer out an anxious “Let others decide.”

They never noticed the pattern: when Mimir was present, Hoenir spokebeautifully and righteously, but when he was absent, Hoenir could barelyspeakatall.

Thinking they had been sorely tricked, the enraged Vanir beheadedMimirandsentthegod’sseveredheadtoAsgard.WhenOdinlaideyesonit,he was overcome with grief, for Mimir had been one of his most trustedcounselors.

By that time, however, Odin had learned some of Freya’s magic. Heembalmed the head of his fallen companion with herbs and chanted spellsover it, preserving it and giving it life once again. From that day, OdinconsultedMimir’sheadwheneverhewasingraveneedofadvice.

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Chapter16:TheMeadofPoetryTheplotofthetaleofOdin’sacquisitionoftheMeadofPoetrybeginsas

analternateversionofthetrucebetweentheAesirandtheVanirthatwereadaboutinthelastchapter.Ratherthanexchanginghostages,thisversiongoes,theyallspatintoacontainerandproducedanew,exceptionalbeingfromthepoolofsaliva.

TheEddicpoemTheSayingsoftheHighOne(Hávamál)alludestothreedifferent and mutually contradictory versions of the tale of the Mead ofPoetry.ButwedopossessonecompleteretellingofoneparticularversionofthetaleinSnorriSturluson’sProseEdda,whichistheversionuponwhichtheretellingbelowisbased.WhereSnorri’sversiondiffersfromtheaccountsinTheSayingsoftheHighOne,thedetailsofhisversionareoftencorroboratedbykenningsandotherpassingreferencesfromskaldicpoetry,sowecanbecertainthatSnorribasedhistaleonlegitimatesourcesthatarenowlost.1

In addition to these textual sources for the narrative, scenes from thisstory are also portrayed in pictorial form on the Lärbro St. Hammars IIIrunestone from Gotland, which was erected around 700 CE.2 We can becertain, therefore, that some versions of this story were in widespreadcirculationamongsttheNorseevenbeforetheVikingAge.

TheOldNorsenameof themead,which is traditionally translated intoEnglish as “Mead of Poetry,” isÓðrœrir, “Stirrer of óðr” – and óðr, youmight remember, is the root ofOdin’sOldNorse name (Óðinn).ThemeadshouldthereforesurelybeunderstoodasnotonlyapossessionofOdin’s,butalsoacentralattributeofhischaracterandanextensionofhisverynature.

THEMEADOFPOETRY

Aftermanylongandtumultuousyet inconclusivebattles, theAesirand

the Vanir arrived at the same bitter conclusion: victory was impossible,becausebothsideswereequal inmightand inskill.So theydecided toendtheirconflictpeaceablyandwithmutualaccord.Tomaketheirtreatyofficialandtopreserveareminderofitforposterity,thetwotribesofdeitiesspatintoone communal vat.When their spittle mingled, it fermented and formed anewdivinebeingwhobelongedtobothtribesyetneither.Sincehecombinedalltheirpowers,hewasthewisestbeinginallthecosmos.Noonecouldfinda question to put to him for which he didn’t immediately have a perfect,irreproachableanswer.TheycalledhimKvasir,“FermentedBerryJuice.”

Kvasir traveled throughout the cosmos dispensing his knowledge toanyonewhohadneedof it.Oneday,hecametotheabodeof twodwarves,whose nameswereFjalar, “Deceiver,” andGalar, “Screamer.”ThedwarvesfeignedadesiretospeaktoKvasirinprivateaboutamatterthatwastroublingthemdeeply.Oncethegodwasinsidetheirhomeandoutofsightofanyoneelse,theycruellymurderedhim.Theydrainedhisbloodintoalargecontainerandbrewedmeadwithit.TheynamedtheirprizemeadOdroerir,andanyonewhodrankofitbecameaformidablepoetorscholar.

WhenKvasirwentmissing,thegodsretracedhisjourneyandinquiredastowherehehad lastbeen seen.When theyheard thatFjalar andGalarhadbeen his final hosts, they went straight to their dwelling and demanded toknowwhathadbecomeofhim.ThedwarvesrespondedwithacontemptuoussmirkandanassertionthatKvasirhadbeentoowiseforhisowngood,andhadchokedonhisoverabundanceofwisdom.

Kvasirwasn’tFjalarandGalar’sonlyvictim,however.Soonthereafter,thepair invited thegiantGilling for apleasant tripout to sea in their boat.KnowingthatGillingcouldn’tswim,thedwarvespushedhimoverboardoncetheyhadrowedagooddistancefromshore,andwatchedhimdrownjustforthesportofit.

Afterwards, theyrowedbacktolandandreportedGilling’sdeathtohiswife, painting it as a tragic accident forwhich they bore no responsibility.Theyasked thegiant’ssobbingwife ifshewould like tosee thespotwhereherhusbandhaddied,andshesaidyes.Oneofthedwarvesfoundapretexttogooutsidethehouseof thegiantessbeforetheothers,whereuponhepickedupanenormousmillstoneandcarrieditupto thegiantess’sroof.Whenshewalked through the doorway on her way out, the dwarf dropped it on herhead,andshe,too,died.Thetwodwarvesagreedthatthishadbeenabsolutelynecessary,becausethesoundofherweepinghadbeenunbearablyannoying.

ButFjalar andGalar forgot toget ridof the last remainingmemberofGilling’sfamily:hissonSuttung,“HeavywithDrink.”WhenSuttungfoundoutabout themannerofhis father’sdeath,he flew intoa rage,grabbed thedwarves,andwadedoutatlowtidetoareefthatwouldbesubmergedwhenthetidecamein.TherehedroppedFjalarandGalar,intendingforthemtobedrowned just as they had drowned his father. The dwarves pleaded withSuttung to spare them, but the furious giant remained impervious to theirdesperate entreaties. Until, that is, they offered him something even morevaluablethanhisrevenge:theMeadofPoetry.Thegiantcarriedthembacktotheirhome,wheretheyquicklytookoutthemeadandpresentedittoSuttung.So,forasecondtime,thefermentedsalivaofthegodsbecametheoccasionforareconciliationbetweenwarringparties.

Suttung poured the precious drink into three vats and hid them deepbeneaththemountainHnitbjorg,“PulsingRock,”andappointedhisdaughterGunnlod,“Invitation toBattle,” tokeepwatchover themin thatdim,dampchamber.

The far-seeing Odin watched all of this happen from his throne inAsgard.He felt that themead rightlybelonged to thegods, since thebeingfrom whose blood it had been brewed was one of them and had beenmurderedincoldblood.Healsocravedthepowerfulelixirinordertoexpandhisownalreadyprodigious abilities.Sohe cameupwith adeviousplan toobtainit.

Odin leftAsgard and came to a fieldwhere nine thrallsweremowinghay.Hewalkeduptothefarmhandswithawhetstoneinhishandandaskedthemiftheywouldliketheirscythessharpened.Themenhadbeenworkingalldayandtheirbladesweredull.Theywelcomedtheoffer.Odinsharpenedtheirblades,andthemenreturnedtotheirwork.Theyimmediatelyfoundthatthe scythes cut better than ever before. The grass gave way effortlessly assoonasthebladestouchedit.Themenwereamazed,andaskedOdiniftheycouldpurchase thewhetstone fromhim.Odinsaidhewaswilling tosell it,butwarnedthatthepricewouldbesteep.Theworkersinsistedthattheywerestill interested, so Odin threw the whetstone into the air a little above thethralls’heads.Intheirscrambletocatchit,eachcutthethroatofanotherwithhisscythe,andalldiedthereinthefield.

ThesehadbeenthefarmhandsofthegiantBaugi,thebrotherofSuttung.Odin,disguisedasasimpletravelerandcallinghimselfBolverk,“WorkerofMalice,”knockedonBaugi’sdoorandaskedforlodgingforthenight.Overdinner,BaugitoldOdinofhisanxietyoverwhowouldcuthishayfields,nowthat his workers had all mysteriously killed one another. Odin seized hischanceandofferedtodotheworkofallnineofthemenif,ashispayment,hewasgivenonesipofSuttung’smead.Baugiprotested thathehadnosay inwhatSuttungdidwithhismead,andthathisbrotherwasdeterminedtohoardit all forhimself.But eventuallyBaugi agreed toOdin’s terms, and saidhewouldgowithhisnewworkertohelphimobtainhispayment–once,thatis,Odinhadkeptuphisendofthebargain.

SoBolverksettowork.Bytheendofthesummer,hehadcompletedtheharvest,theworkofninemen,andhewenttoBaugiandaskedforthefeehehad been promised. The two went to Suttung’s house. Baugi, with someembarrassment, told his brother of the deal he hadmadewith his talented,industriousworker.ButSuttungflatlyrefusedtogranteitherofthemevenadrop of his cherished liquor. Baugi was ready to turn back in defeat, butBolverk insisted on getting the payment his employer owed him, and

suggestedanalternativemethodtoobtainit.ThetwomadetheirwaytoHnitbjorg,wherethedisguisedgoddrewan

augeroutofhiscloakandhandedittothegiant.ThestrongBaugiboredandbored, and after a great deal of time had passed, he pronounced the holecomplete.TomakesurethatBaugiwastellingthetruth,Bolverkblewintothehole.Chipsflewbackintohisface.Baugiwaseithermistaken,orwastryingtodeliberatelydeceivehim.Thenow-suspiciousBolverktoldBaugitokeepdrilling until he had finished his task. This time, when Baugi said he wasfinishedandBolverkblewintothehole,heblewtheremainingchipsthroughtotheotherside,andheknewthattheholewastrulycomplete.

IfBaugihadharboredanydoubts as to thedivine identityofhisguestworker, theywere laid to restwhenOdin transformed himself into a snakeandslitheredthroughtheaugerhole.Baugijabbedtheaugerinafterhim,butOdin,whohadanticipatedsuchtreachery,wastooquickforhim.OdinmadeitintoGunnlod’scave,andBaugistormedawayinanger.

WhenOdin came toGunnlod, he used all his charms on her, and shebecamesmitten.Heagreedtosleepwithherforthreenightsifshewouldgivehim three drinks of themead in exchange. Even though she knew shewasbetraying her father, she was so overwhelmed with lust for Odin that sheconsentedtothebargain.Afterthreenights,Odindownedthecontentsofallthreeofthevatsofmeadinthreeenormousgulps,shiftedhisshapeintothatofaneagle,andflewoutofthecaveandtowardAsgard.

Suttung saw the eagle fly out of themountain, and guessed what hadhappened.He,too,transformedintoaneagleandtookoffinclosepursuitofthegod.

WhenOdinapproachedAsgard,hisfellowgodssetoutseverallargevatsintowhichhecould regurgitate themead.Hemade it tohis fortress just intimeanddisgorgedthecontentsofhisstomach.Sincethen,hehasgivenoutdrinks of theMeadofPoetry to those greatmen andwomenwhomhe hasdeemedworthyofsuchaninvaluablegift.

ButtoavoidbeingcaughtbySuttung,Odinhadhadtospitoutthemeadin great haste, and a few drops accidentally fell from Asgard to MidgardwithoutOdinintendingthemtodoso.Fromthesepaltrydropletshavecomethe abilities of all the mediocre artists and intellectuals that have sinceclumsilyattemptedtoplytheircrafts.

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Chapter17:TheTreasuresoftheGodsThe tale of how the gods came to possess some of their most

characteristic belongings – Thor’s hammer, Odin’s spear, Frey’s ship, andSif’shair– is toldonly inSnorriSturluson’sProseEdda.Everything in thestoryisconsistentwithother,bettercorroboratedaspectsofNorsemythologyandreligion,butthere’snodirectevidencefortheparticularsofthenarrativeoutsideofSnorri.Therefore,there’slittlebasisforevaluatingtowhatdegreethe tale is an invention of Snorri’s and to what degree it derives from anauthenticVikingAgemyth.

THETREASURESOFTHEGODS

Thor’swife,Sif,wasadmiredbyallforherdazzlinggoldenhair.Loki,

that incorrigiblemakerofmischief, slicedoff all of it oneday fornootherreason thanhisdelight innaughtiness.WhenSif’s fearsomehusband foundout what had happened, he flew into a rage and seized Loki, intending tobreak every bone in his body. But Loki pleaded with Thor, promising thethundergodthatifhislifeweresparedhe’dhavethedwarvesforgeforSifaheadofhairmadeofrealgold,butwhichwouldgrowlikerealhair.ThorletthepantingLokidroptothefloor,andagreedtolethimliveontheconditionthathefulfilledthispromise.

So Loki made his way to the subterranean home of the dwarves, andfound the dwelling and forge of the master craftsman Ivaldi and his sons.Theytookprideandcareincraftingnotonlythegoldenhair,butalsotheshipSkidbladnir, whichwas so big that it could carry all of the gods and theirweaponsatonce,yetcouldbefoldedupandfitintoasmallbag,andalwayshadafavorablewind;andthespearGungnir,“Swaying,”whichneverfailedtohititsmark.

Lokihadaccomplishedhistask,buthehadn’tfullysatisfiedhisitchforprankishness. So he went to the dwarf Brokk, “Metalworker,” and bet hisheadthatBrokk’sfamedbrotherSindri,“SprayerofSparks,”couldn’tfashionthreeobjectsonparwith the three that Ivaldiandhisfamilyhad justmade.BrokkandSindriacceptedthechallenge.

Sindri laidapigskinbellowsonthehearthandinstructedhisbrothertoblowintoit.Sindriworkedforalongtimewithintenseconcentrationuntilafly(whowasnootherthanLokiindisguise)landedonhishandandbithim.Butthefly’sinterferencewasunsuccessful,forshortlythereafter,Sindrilifted

out of the hearth Gullinborsti, a stout boar whose mane and bristles weremadeofgoldsobrightthatitprovidedlightindarkness,andwhocouldrunfaster and longer thananyhorse.ThenSindriplacedablockofgold in thehearthand toldBrokk tokeepblowingwhilehewentout for a littlewhile.Brokkbreathedintothepigskinsteadfastly,butbeforetoolong,aflybuzzedaround his head, settled on his neck, and bit him hard. Yet still he keptblowing, and soon Sindri returned and took out of the fire Draupnir(“Dripper”),asplendidarmringfromwhicheightmoreringsofequalweightfelleveryninthnight.

Then Sindri placed iron in the hearth, and bade his brother to blowespeciallycarefullyandsteadilythistime,becausetheprojectwasespeciallysensitiveandwouldbespoiledifheweretofalter.TheflyseizedhischanceandstungBrokk’seyelid,causingbloodtoflowintohiseyes.Brokklefthispositiontowipehisfaceandswattheflyaway,whichprovedtobejustlongenoughforthebellowstogoflat.Sindri’sfacewasgrave,andhesaidthatthismisstephadcomeclosetoruiningtheundertaking.Luckily,however,itwasstillsalvageable,andbeforelong,Sindripulledahammeroutofthefire.HehandedthehammertoBrokk,alongwiththeringandtheboar,andsenthimofftoAsgardtoclaimthepaymenttheywereduefromLoki.

WhenLokiandBrokkbotharrivedinAsgard,thegodssatincouncilandallowedLoki topresentwhathehadobtainedfirst.He laidbefore themtheshininghair,whichwenttoSif;theship,whichwenttoFrey;andthespear,whichwenttoOdin.

ThenitwasBrokk’sturn.ThedwarfpresentedtheringtoOdin,theboartoFrey,and,atlast,thehammertoThor.Thishammer,thedwarfproclaimed,hadabilitiesthatrivaledthoseofanyoftheothergiftsthegodshadreceivedthatday.LikeOdin’sspear,thehammeralwayshititsmark.Notonlythat,butwhen thrown it would return to its owner’s hand after striking his foe.Nevertheless,Brokkhadtoadmitthatthehammerhadadefectonaccountofthefly’sinterference:itwasshortinthehandle.

Thegodsdecidedthatdespitethehammer’sflaw,itwasthebestofallofthewondrouspiecesofworkmanshiptheyhadbeengiventhatday,becauseitgave the gods their best defense yet against the giants. On that basis, theydecreedthatBrokkhadrightfullywonhisbetwithLokiandwasentitled tohishead.

Asbefore,Lokiprotestedandoffered to redeemhimself,but thedwarfdeclared that the trickster had already caused enough grief and would begivennorespite.Loki thendaredBrokktocatchhim,andtookoffrunning.HewaspromptlycaughtbyThor,however,andreturnedtothedwarf.JustasBrokkwasabouttochopoffLoki’shead,thewilygodthoughtofawayoutat

last.“Ipromisedyoumyhead,”headmitted,andthenaddedslyly,“butnotmy neck.My neck youmust leave intact.” Brokkwas enraged, but had toconcedethatLokihadapoint.SohetookanawlandstringandsewedLoki’slipstogether,takingcaretoinflictasmuchpainaspossible,whichhethoughtafittingvengeanceforthegriefLoki’swordshadcausedhim.

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Chapter18:HowAsgard’sWallWasBuiltThetaleofhowthegods’heavenlyfortressbecamefortifiedistoldonly

bySnorriintheProseEdda.SnorriquotestwostanzasfromTheProphecyofthe Seeress as a source, but those verses are extremely vague, and containnothing that definitively connects them to Snorri’s story. Nevertheless,Snorri’snarrativereflectsVikingAgecosmologicalandmoralconceptionsinsuchdetailthatthestoryisalmostcertainlyatbottomanauthenticproductoftheVikingAge,andSnorriislikelyjustifiedinconnectingthosecrypticlinesfromTheProphecyoftheSeeresstohistale.

HOWASGARD’SWALLWASBUILT

WhenOdinandthegodsfirstbuiltAsgard,itlackedanywalltoprotect

it from invading forces. This absence caused the gods no small worry,becausethegiantsposedanever-presentthreat.

One day, a stonemason of the giants appeared before the gods andoffered to remedy this situation. However, his demands were harsh: if hecouldcompletethewallinthreeseasons,hispaymentwouldbethesun,themoon,andthehandofFreyainmarriage.Thegods,fearfulattheprospectoflosing the beings that brought light, warmth, and fecundity to their world,bargainedwiththemason.

For obvious reasons, Freya was adamantly against the deal. But Lokiargued on the craftsman’s behalf, and eventually the following terms werereached:themasonwouldhavetofinishhisworkinonlyonewinter,andif,bythefirstdayofsummer,somuchasonestonehadyettobelaid,hewouldforfeithisentirepayment.Hewas tobehelpedbynoonesavehis stallion,Svadilfari, “Unlucky Traveler.” Surely, the gods thought, such a feat wasimpossible, and they’d get at least part of a wall without having to payanything in return. All swore oaths to uphold the terms of the deal and toensurethegiant’ssafetyinAsgard.Thelatterwasaconditionuponwhichthemasoninsisted,sincethemightyThorheldsuchhatredofhiskind.

Onthefirstdayofwinter,thegiantwenttowork.Bynightheusedhishorsetocarryhugeboulderstothebuildingsite,andbydayheplacedthemonthewall.Allthegodsmarveledatthestrengthandskillofbothmanandbeast,nottomentionhowquicklytheedificewasbeingerected.Assummerdrew closer and closer, the gods grew more and more worried that theimpossiblewasbecomingpossible: themasonwason track tocompletehis

workintime,andFreya,themoon,andthesunwouldbelosttohim.Whensummerwasonlythreedaysaway,thewallwassostrongandhigh

thatitwouldbeunassailableifanyofthefoesofAsgardmountedanassaultagainst it. It was still incomplete, but only technically. The terrified godsspokeofbreakingtheoaththeyhadsworntothegiantmason,andofkillinghim before hewas able to finish hiswork. But Thorwas away in the eastfightingothergiantsatthetime,sotheirbestgiant-slayerwasunavailableforthepurpose.

Though all of the gods were to blame for this sorry state of affairs,having all sworn the same oath, they did what we humans so often do insituationsof thissort: theyfoundascapegoat.Loki, theyrecalled,hadgoneoutofhiswaytoargueonthegiant’sbehalf.Therefore,theircollectivepanicreasoned,hewasuniquely responsible for this terrible stateof affairs.Theyresolvedtoputhimtodeath.

But theever-wilyLokisworethathecouldturnthisdesperatesituationintoavictoryforthegods,evenatgreatcosttohimself,ifonlytheywouldlethim live. The gods agreed and released him on the condition that hemakegoodonhispledge.

Night fell.The giant and his stallionwent on theirway to procure thefinalstonestheyneededtobuildthegateinthewall.JustoutsideofAsgard,astheypassedthroughaforest,amareappearedinthepathbeforethemandwhinniedtothestallion.Thensheboundedawayintothewood.Thearousedstallion snapped his reins and leapt into the forest in pursuit of her. Thefuriousgiantchargedinafterthem,butfoundhimselfunabletokeepup.Soonhehadlosttheirtrackaltogether.

Bydawn, theentirenight’sworkhadbeen lost.Thegiantsurveyedthegapinthewallwherethegateshouldbeandrealizedthattherewasnowayhecouldfinishinthescanttimehehadleft.Heflewintoamurderousrage,bellowingandshakingtheground.Hewasabouttosmashthewallhehadsolaboriously constructed over the past severalmonths and kill anyone insidewhom he could get his hands on, when Thor returned from the east. Thethundergodwastedno time in raisinghishammerandpaying thegiant thewage he felt he was now due.With one blow, the giant’s skull burst intocrumbs,andhisspirittumbleddowntoHel.

Meanwhile,afoalwasgrowinginsideLoki.And,induetime,Lokigavebirth.Thegray,eight-leggedhorsegrewintothefinestandswifteststallioninallthecosmos.HewasnamedSleipnir,“TheSlidingOne,”andhewouldgoon to faithfully transportOdin all over theuniverse on that god’s countlessshamanicerrands.

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Chapter19:Odin’sDiscoveryoftheRunes

The word “rune,” Old Norse rúna, referred to the characters of theancientGermanicalphabet(s).But italsomeant“mystery.”1Theruneswerenotmerely letters; theywere symbolic encapsulations of some of themostpotentforcesinthecosmos.Simplywritingwiththemcouldbeaninherentlymagical act, whereby the forces behind the symbols would bring to passwhateverhadbeeninscribed.Theknowledgeoftherunesthereforeimpartedimmensepowertowhomeverpossessedit.

The Norse believed that the runes had originally been discovered byOdin,whothentaughtthemtoaselectfewhumans.

The storyofhowOdindiscovered the runes isoneof themostwidelyattestedofallthestoriesthathavecomedowntousfromtheVikingAge.Themainversionofthestorycomesfromstanzas138-141oftheEddicpoemTheSayingsof theHighOne (Hávamál), a section that has little to dowith theearlier part of the poem (a compendium of earthy wisdom) and clearlybelongs to a different poem (stanzas 138-164) that was combined into thesame manuscript, probably at a relatively late date. However, the scenedescribed in these verses influenced depictions of Christ’s crucifixion inViking-controlledEngland, theShetlandIslands,andelsewhere.Songsfromthose areas contain lines that are almost the same, word-for-word, as linesfromthissectionofTheSayingsoftheHighOne.2

Therefore, we can be certain that this tale not only comes from theViking Age, but that the very wording of the relevant stanzas from TheSayingsof theHighOne is based on thewordingof pre-Christian religiouspoetry.ThesepoemswerequitewidespreadthroughouttheVikingworld.

Odin’s ordeal in this tale has often been interpreted as a shamanicinitiation.3Whileit’simpossibletoknowforsurewhetherornotthiswasthecaseduetothelackofdescriptionsofsuchritualsintheOldNorsesources,the scene contains virtually all of the hallmarks of a classic shamanicinitiation,sothesuggestionishighlyplausible.

ODIN’SDISCOVERYOFTHERUNES

Odinwaswillingtobringuponhimselfunimaginablepainandsuffering

ifitservedtofurtherhisrelentlesspursuitofknowledge,wisdom,andpower.One day, while sitting on his throne in Asgard, from which he could seenearlyanythingthatoccurredintheentirecosmos,hegazedlonginglyatthe

runestheNornshadinscribedinthetrunkandrootsofthegreattreethatheldAsgard in its highest branches. He was seized by an insatiable desire toacquireforhimselfthispowertowriteanideaandmakeitmanifest.

WhenOdinbenthiswilltowardagoal,heletnoobstaclesstophimuntilhehadacquiredtheobjectofhisdesire.Inthiscase,heknewthatthiswouldentailnothingshortofhisowndeath–andrebirth.

Thecustomarymethodof sacrificingahuman toOdinwas tohave thevictimbebothstrangledandstabbedatthesametime.SoOdindidthesameto himself, hanging himself from Yggdrasil and stabbing himself with hisspearGungnir.Itwasadouble“self-sacrifice:”asacrificenotonlyofhimself,butalsotohimself.

For no less thannine days andnights,Odin dangled from the tree, hisnearly-dead body swaying in the piercingly coldwind.No onewas able tooffer him any food, nor any drink. His mind, more dead than alive,maintainedonlyonethoughtinit:therunes.

Then,atlast,theycametohimandfilledhismind.Hesawtheirforms,grasped their secrets, and received nine chants of power thatwould enablehimtoput themtouse.Withabloodcurdlingscreamofexultant joy,hecuthimself free and fell to the ground. His nine-day fast ended when he wasrevivedbyadrinkfromtheMeadofPoetry.

Fromthatday,his lifebecamelikeaseed thathadbeenfertilized.Onediscoveryledtoanother,andoneaccomplishmentledtoanother.Heacquiredpowersthatothersthoughtbeyondthemeansofeventhegods,anditseemedthatnothingbutunyieldingfatestoodinhisway.

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Chapter20:WhyOdinIsOne-EyedThemotifofOdinhavingonlyoneeye is foundfrequentlynotonly in

Old Norse literature, but in archaeology as well.1 This was inarguably agenuineVikingAgeconception.

ThestoryofhowOdinlostoneofhiseyes–nosourcessaywhetheritwastherighteyeorthelefteye,andthequestionisprobablybesidethepoint–isnevertoldin“full”intheliterarysources.SnorrireferencesitscentralactintheProseEdda,andcitesastanzafromTheProphecyoftheSeeressalongtheway.That stanza, likemany from thatpoem, isveryvague,and it’snotabsolutelycertainthatitevenreferstothestorySnorriclaimsitdoes.

Nevertheless,thisstory,allbutthegistofwhichisnowlost,isinkeepingwithdepictionsofOdininmorereliabletales,especiallythatofhisdiscoveryof the runes. It’s likely a truly pre-Christian story, but there’s insufficientevidenceforustobeabletomakethatclaimwithcertainty.

WHYODINISONE-EYED

OneofthewisestofallbeingstohaveeverlivedwasMimir,asolitary

god – or was he actually a giant? – who dwelt by the well at the base ofYggdrasil.Thewatersofthatwellwerefullofmagicalproperties,andmuchof his legendarywisdom came fromhis daily ritual of taking a drink fromthosemurkydepths.

Odin, who lusted insatiably for ever greater wisdom, one day rodeSleipnirdownYggdrasil’strunktoitsbaseandtoMimir’sdwellingthere.HefoundMimirsittingattheedgeofthemistypool,sippingfromhisdrinkinghorn, with the expression of one deep in thought.WhenMimir looked upfromhisreverielongenoughtonoticeOdin,hefinishedhisdrinkandwenttogreet the god. “What brings you here?” he asked, knowing thatOdinwentnowhere idly. Odin answered that he wanted to partake of the source ofMimir’swisdom–tohaveadrinkfromthewell.

“Ah,” said Mimir with a hard smile, “and what will you give to theguardianofthewellinreturn?”

“What kind of payment do you demand?” asked Odin, a bit ofnervousnessshowingfrombeneathhisresolutedemeanor.

The old warden of the waters replied, “Something of equal or greatervaluetome,naturally.YouknowthatI,too,amagreatloverofwisdom,sosomethingthatwouldincreasemyownstorewouldbemostfitting.Youare

knownforyourabilitytoseefarandwide,likeabirdofprey.Howaboutoneofyoureyes,then?”

Odinclosedhiseyesandbreatheddeeplyforamoment,shockedbythesteepnessoftheprice.Butheknewwhathisanswerwouldbeevenbeforehehadconsciouslymadeuphismind.Hereachedup,dughisfingersintooneofhiseyesockets,carvedout theeyeitcontained,andhandedit toMimir.Asblood spurted from the wound and Odin reeled in stabbing pain, Mimirhanded him a full drinking horn with a gesture of solemn honor andadmiration.

MimirplacedOdin’seyeinthewell,anditsownimmensewisdomandpowersinfusedthewatersfromwhichMimircontinuedtodrinkeveryday.

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Chapter21:TheBindingoftheWolfThetaleofthebirthandcaptureofthegreatwolfFenrircomesonlyfrom

Snorri’s Prose Edda. Loki’s Taunts (Lokasenna), one of the poems in thePoeticEdda,brieflyalludes to thegodTyrhaving lostahandtoFenrir,butsays nothing more about how this occurred.1 The motif of Fenrir beingchained and breaking free at Ragnarok is found throughout Old Norseliterature, however. Snorri’s tale likely has a basis in ancient lore, but theoriginofthedetailsofthestoryisanyone’sguess.

THEBINDINGOFTHEWOLF

Lokihadmanychildrenwithmanydifferentmothers–andfathers.With

the giantess Angrboda, “Distress-Bringer,” he had three. One was Hel,“Grave,”theghastlygoddesswhopresidedovertheunderworld.ThesecondwasJormungand,“MightyBeast,”thegreatserpentwhofesteredbeneaththeocean, his elongated body encircling the land. And the third was Fenrir,“Marsh-Dweller,”anenormousandravenouswolf.

When they were first born, however, these children of Loki had notacquiredtheserolesthattheywouldlaterassume.AngrbodasuckledtheminJotunheim, the land of the giants, and at first they seemed scarcely moredangerousthananyothergiants.Butastheygrew–andasthegodsgotwindofominouspropheciesthatforetoldthat thedoomofthecosmoswouldoneday come through these fell creatures – the deities assembled together toaddress the peril that loomed before them. Odin ordered the three to bebrought before him. As soon as he saw how prodigiously they had grownsince the last timehehad laid eyeson them, andhowmuchmoredreadfuleachof themonsters seemed thanbefore, he immediately cast twoof themintoremoteregionsfromwhichtheycoulddothegodsrelativelylittleharm,atleastforthetimebeing.Helhesankintotheunderworld,whichishowshereceivedherpositionastherulerofthedead.AndJormungandhethrewintotheocean,whichintimehealmostoutgrew,tothepointthathehadtowraphimselfaroundtheentirelandmassinordertofit.

Fenrir, however, inspired so much fear in the gods’ hearts that theydecidedtorearthepupthemselvesinAsgard,wheretheycouldkeepaneyeonhim.Ofallofthem,onlythebraveTyrdaredtogonearenoughtohispentogivehimtheevermoremassiveslabsofmeatthatherequiredeverydaytokeephim fed.Eventually, however, thewolf grew sogrotesquely large that

the divinities could no longer bear tomaintain him so close to them.Theythoughtofkillinghim,butcouldn’tbearthethoughtofdesecratingtheirholystrongholdwithbloodshed.Sotheyhatchedaplantodisarmhim.

TheypresentedFenrirwithastrongchain,andproposedagametohim:they would tie him in the fetter and let him break free to demonstrate hisincredible strength. The wolf scoffed at what seemed to him like a punystring,andagreedtoplay.Assoonashewasbound,hegaveahalf-heartedstruggle and easily snapped the chain. Then the gods had another chainforged,onethatwasstrongerbyhalfthanthefirstchain,andpresentedthistoFenrir on the same terms. Thewolf thought the task of escaping from thisbond to bemore daunting than the previous one.But hewanted thewholeworld toknowhis strength, sohe accepted the risk and agreed to a secondround of the game. When the fetter was placed around him, he struggledmightily for a long time, but in the end tore through this chain, too, andgloriedinhisfeat.

Afterthisformidableaccomplishment,thegodsbegantoworrythattheymight never successfully bind the wolf. Their only hope was to have thedwarves, thosemastercraftsmen,buildthemostexquisitechainthatanyonehadeverseen.TheysentFrey’semissary,Skirnir,tothelandofthedwarvestoexplainthesituationandenlist theiraidinneutralizingthiscosmicterror.TheresultofthismissionwasthefetterGleipnir,“Open,”whichthedwarvesmade from the sound of a cat’s footsteps, awoman’s beard, the roots of amountain,abear’stendons,afish’sbreaths,andthespittleofabird.Thesearethingsthatnoonehaseverencountered–andwhich,therefore,canneverbeputtothetest.

ThegodstookFenrirwiththemtoaremote,marshyislandinthemiddleofawidelake.There,thegodspresentedthethirdchaintoFenrir.Thewolfappraiseditwithpuzzlement.Itlookedlikeatinysilkcord,sothinthatitwasalmost invisible. The beast suspected trickery, but knew that he would becalledacoward,andhisreputationruined,ifherefused.Sohedeclaredthathewouldagreetobeboundwiththismanacle,butonlyifoneofthedeitieswouldplacehisorherhandinthewolf’smouthasapledgethattheyweren’ttryingtodeceivehim.

Thedeitieswereastonishedandafraid.Theyshouldhaveexpectedsuchademandfromthewolf,andperhaps in theirhearts theyhad.Butnowthatthetimehadcomeforoneofthemtosacrificeahandtoupholdafalseoath,orforallofthemtorefuseandallowthewolftoknowtheirplotandarousehisanger,theyalldemurred.All,thatis,exceptTyr,whoagreedtothewolf’sterms.Hestuckhistremblinghandinthebeast’shot,wetmouth,andfelthisrazor-sharpteethlayinglightlyonhiswrist.

GleipnirwastiedaroundFenrir,andthecontestbegan.Fenrirstruggledwith all hismight. But themore he struggled, the tighter the fetter wounditselfaroundhim.Intheendhefoundhimselfunabletobreakfree.Allofthegodsweredoubledoverinlaughteratthewolf’ssorrypredicament–exceptforTyr,whodulylosthishand.

The gods tied a heavy chain toGleipnir, then tied the chain to a greatboulder, then drove that boulder into the groundwith an even greater one,pinning the wolf in place. When he opened his mouth to try to bite hiscaptors,theythrustaswordbetweenhisjawstoholdthemagapeandunabletoclampdown.Hehowledferociouslyandunceasingly,andhissalivabeganto form into a gushing river. And there has he laid throughout the eons,striving futilely against his imprisonment. But at Ragnarok, the propheciesforetell,hewillwinhisfreedomatlast,andshallhavehisvengeanceuponthegodsandtheirworld.

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Chapter22:ThorFishesfortheGreatSerpent

Thor’sattempttohoisthisarch-enemyJormungandoutoftheoceanand

slay him forms the backbone of one of the oldest and best-attested Norsemythsthathascomedowntous.Nolessthanfourliterarysourcestellthetalein “full,” although the details naturally differ between them. These includetwo Viking Age skaldic poems: Bragi the Old’s Poem of Ragnar(Ragnarsdrápa)andUlfUggason’sHousePoem(Húsdrápa).ThetaleisalsocontainedinThePoemofHymir(Hymiskviða),whichisoneofthepiecesinthePoeticEdda,andisgivenalengthytreatmentinSnorri’sProseEdda.

Archaeology furnishesuswith additional corroborations in the formofscenesfromthestoryvisuallydepictedonlargepicture-stones,mostnotablytheAltunastoneinSwedenandtheGosforthstoneinEngland.1

Therefore,inthesurelyaccurateestimationofphilologistRudolfSimek,“aknowledgeofthemythcanbeassumedforthewholeofVikingAgeandmedievalScandinavia.”2

THORFISHESFORTHEGREATSERPENT

ThortraveledtoJotunheim,thewild,forbiddinglandattheouteredgeof

thecosmos,onnumerousoccasions.Often,hewentwiththesoleintentionofkillinggiants,inwhichcaseheneedednodisguise.Butsometimes,hisgoalinvolved enlisting the aid of particular giants along the way. Suchundertakingscalledforassumingacharactersothatthegiantswhomhemetwouldn’t recognizehim forwhohewas: the foremost enemyof their kind,whohadkilledmoreofthemthananyotherbeingintheuniversebyfar.

Once,Thorjourneyedtothelandofthegiantsinhopesofobtainingwhatwas, to his mind, the greatest prize out there to obtain: the head ofJormungand,thatgrislysonofLokiwhocoiledaroundallthelandinthevastocean that laybeyond its shores.Due to thedelicatenatureof thismission,whichwouldinvolvelodgingwiththegiantsthemselvesonhiswaytothefarside of Jotunheim,Thor prudently decided to don a disguise – in this case,thatofasimpleyoungmanfromMidgard.

Thehumble ladmadeit to thehouseof thegiantHymir,whodweltonthe rugged, weather-beaten coast, and he stayed there overnight. In themorning,hishost,whowasafishermanbytrade,preparedtorowouttosea.Thorannouncedthathewantedtobeahelpfulguest,andtogowithhimto

fish. ButHymir scoffed at the offer, saying that the youthwould freeze todeathbeforetheendoftheday’swork.Thorwassoincensedthathehadtosummonallhisstrengthtoresisttheurgetopullouthishammerandsmitethegiantrightthenandthere.Butheturnedhisdesiredown,andinsteadcalmlyinsistedtothegiantthathewouldnotfreeze,andthatfurthermorehewantedto row farther out and stay longer than the giant was accustomed. Hymirlaughedatwhathethoughtwasjustabrash,foolhardyboy,andagreedtolethimcome.

ThoraskedHymirwhattheywoulduseasbait.Hishostrepliedthatifhewassoconfidentinhisabilitiesasafisherman,heshouldgogethisownbait.SoThorwalkedoutofHymir’shouseandintothepenwheretheoxenwerekept.Hegrabbedthelargestox,ahumongousbull,andbeheadedhim.

Whenhereachedtheshorewith theox’sheadunderhisarm,hefoundthatHymir had already pushed the boat out.He splashed over to the boat,climbed into the stern, grabbed two oars, and started to row. Hymir wasstartledbyhowfasthisguestwasabletorow.Beforelong,theyhadreachedthe area whereHymir usually stopped to fish. “That’s enough rowing,” hecalledtohiscompanioninthestern.“We’rehere.”

But Thor kept rowing, and rowing, and rowing. The shore recededfurtherintothedistance,andthendisappearedaltogether.Hymircommandedhis guest to rowno further, lest they drawnear to the dreaded serpent thatdweltinthesedeepwaters.ButThorrepliedthatheintendedtogooutjustalittlefurther,and,overthegiant’sprotestations,hedidso.BythetimeThorreachedthepointwherehewascontenttostoprowing,Hymir’sfearchilledhimmore than thecold,hardwind thatblewrelentlesslyover thosewaters.Hemarveledathowsuchamediocre-lookingyouthnotonlyhadthestaminatomakeitoutthisfar,butthecouragetodosoaswell.

Thedisguisedgod laiddownhisoars.He readied a strong fishing lineandtiedanenormoushooktoitsend.Onthehook,heplacedtheox’shead.Thenhecasthislineandwaited.

After a while, the two began to hear a faint rumble coming from allaround them.As it grew closer, it became louder andmore fearsome. Theboat trembled,andthefishinggear in thebottomclankedandclatteredas itwastossedtoandfro.Thentherewasagreatcrashastheserpentsnappedatthebait,andthenthewholeoceanseemedtojerkawayasthesnakeclampeddownonthehookandtriedtofreehimself.Thorbracedhimselfandbegantoreel inhis linewithallhismight.His feetbroke through thebottomof theboat,butstillhepulledandpulled.Atlast,Jormungand’sheadbegantorisefromthewaves.HisburningeyesstaredimplacablyintothoseofThor,whoglaredbackathimwithafaceofutterenmityanddetermination.Thesnake

spat venom, and the god swerved to avoid it. Thor raised his hammer andpreparedtodeliverthedeathblowtohisenemy.

ButtheprophecythatneitherthemonsternorthegodweretoslayeachotheruntilRagnarokhadtobefulfilled.Hymirhadbeencoweringinfearatthefarcorneroftheboatthiswholetime,butwhenhesawthebeast’sheadbefore him, he could bear thismortifying scene no longer.With one swift,anxiousmotion,heswipedatthelinewithhisfishingknife,slicingthroughitandcuttingJormungandfree.Thebleedingghoulwastednotimeindivingtothebottomoftheocean,whereThorcouldn’treachhim.

Thor’sragewasnowgreaterthaneverbefore,andhelungedatthegiantwhohadpreventedhimfromsmitinghisarch-foe.Withonemightyblowtothehead,Hymirwasknockedoverboard, and fell face first into thewaters.Whenthesolesof thegiant’sfeethaddisappeared into thecoldmurk,Thorabandonedthewaterloggedboatandwadedtoshore.

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Chapter23:TheKidnappingofIdunTheobscuregoddessIdun“stars”onlyinthisonemyth.Thetaleofher

kidnappingand rescuecomes from the tenth-century skaldicpoemAutumn-Long (Haustlöng)byThjodolfofHvin,aswellasSnorri’sversionfromtheProse Edda, which is based on Thjodolf’s poem but adds a considerableamount ofmaterial that can’t be found in it.Numerous kennings and otherbriefallusionsinskaldicpoetrydemonstratethatseveraldifferentversionsofthis tale were in circulation in pre-Christian times.1Most of the otherwiseunattestedelements inSnorri’sversionprobablycome fromoneormoreofthesenow-lostvariants.

TherejuvenatingfoodthatIdunkeptisusuallyreferredtoas“apples”inmodernliteratureonNorsemythology.However,it’svirtuallyimpossiblethatthis was originally the case, since apples were only introduced intoScandinavia in theMiddleAges. TheOldNorseword used to refer to herfruit, epli, was a generic word for any fruit or nut, so it’s unclear whichspeciesIdun’sproducewasthoughttobe.2

THEKIDNAPPINGOFIDUN

Odin, Loki, and Hoenir went on a journey that took them through a

barren,mountainous land.They could find little food to eat, and theywerehungry.Then,whentheyroundedacertainmountaincrestandcaughtsightofthevalleybelow,theysawthataherdofoxenwasgrazinginthevalley.Here,atlast,wasenoughmeatforapropermeal!Theycutthethroatofoneoftheoxen,madecamp,andstartedcookingthemeatontheirfire.

Afterwhat seemed to them like sufficient time to cook themeat, theytookitoutofthefire.Totheirgreatsurprise,itwasstillascoldanduncookedasithadbeenwhentheyputitinthefire.Sotheyputitbackin,rearrangedtheembersaroundit,andchattedforawhile.Whentheytookthemeatoutforasecondtime,itwasjustasrawasbefore.Theywerequiteperplexedbythis,anddiscussedwhatmighthavebeengoingon.

In the midst of their deliberations, a low, cruel voice addressed themfromabove,saying,“ItisIwhohaverenderedyourfireuseless.”Startled,thethreegodslookedup,andsawanexceptionallylargeeaglesittingonthebarebranchofagnarled,deadtree.Theeaglesaidtothethree,“Ifyouwillgivemeashareofyourmeat,Iwillreleasemymagicandallowyourfiretocook.”Afterbrieflyconsultingwitheachother,thethreegodsagreedtothetermsof

thismysteriousbird.Theeaglethenflewdownfromthetree,alightedbythemeat,andbeganselectinghisportion.Whenhehadfinished,hehadsetasideallthechoicestpartsoftheoxforhimself.ThisperturbedthetemperamentalLoki,whopickedupathickstickthatwaslyingbesidehimandstruckattheeaglewithit.Butthebranchstucktothebird’sback,andLoki’shandsstucktothebranch.Theeagleflewoff,withLokihelplesslyboundtohim.

The sorcerer bird darted over the bleak terrain just low enough to thegroundthatLoki’slegsslammedintotrees,boulders,andmountainsides.Lokifeltlikehisbodywasabouttoripapart.Atlast,fearandpainovercamehisrage, andhebeggedhis captor to let himgo.The eagle chuckled, and saidsternlythathewouldnot.Lokicriedandpleaded,andthebirdfinallysaidtohim, “Well, there isone thingyoucoulddo to secureyour release,butonething only. I have seen howyougods are nourished by the succulent fruitsthat arekept by thebeautiful goddess Idun.Becauseyou eat that fruit, younevergrowold,nordieofage.Swearanoathtomehereandnowthatyouwillbringmeboth Idunandher fruit, and Iwill setyoudown.”Desperate,Lokisworetheoath,andwasreturnedtohiscompanions.

Loki and the eagle had agreed that at a certain time,Lokiwould coaxIdun out of Asgard, and the eagle would be there to carry her off. Lokifollowedthroughwithhisendofthebargain,andledIduntobelievethathehad found a grove outside of Asgard’s walls where there grew fruits evenmoremarvelousthanhers.Heofferedtoshowittoher,andsuggestedthatshebringherbasketoffruitsothatshecouldcompareherstotheonesthatgrewthere. She could scarcely believe the tale, but couldn’t pass up such anopportunity. When the two had gone a sufficient distance from the gods’stronghold,theeagle–whowasnoneotherthanthegiantThjazi–swoopedin,snatchedupthegoddess,andcarriedherawaytohishomeinThrymheim,“TheHome of Thunder.” Thrymheimwas an icy land high in Jotunheim’smountainswherenothingevergrewandnobirdseversang.

Without Idunandher rejuvenating fruits,oldagebegan tocreepuponthegods.Theirskinwrinkled, theirhair turnedwhiteandstartedtofallout,and their bodies became frail and diseased. They held a council to decidewhattodoaboutthis.WhentheyattemptedtoretracewhereandwhenIdunhadlastbeenseen,itbecameclearthatitwaswhenshewentoutofAsgardwith Loki. “Ah, of course,” the deities sighed, practically in unison,embarrassed that they hadn’t thought to consider the possibility of Loki’sinvolvementsooner.

Loki was seized and dragged before the assembly, where he wasthreatenedwithaslow,torturousexecutionifhedidn’tretrieveIdunandherfruit himself. Terrified, he immediately agreed to get her back, and he

instantly thought of a plan bywhich he could do so. Freya owned a set ofhawkwingsthatenabledtheirwearertotransformintoahawk,andLokisaidhe would need these. Freya – perhaps the most anxious of all about herdiminishingbeauty–grantedhisrequest.

LokiputonthehawkwingsandtookoffinflighttoThrymheim.WhenhearrivedatthehomeofThjazi,hefoundthatthegiantwasawayatseaonafishingtrip,andIdunwasaloneinhishouse.Hechangedhershapeintothatofanut,pickedherupinhistalons,andspedawaytoAsgard.

Ashortwhilelater,Thjazireturnedfromhisfishingtrip.WhenhefoundIdunmissing,hesurmisedwhathadhappened.Thoughtiredfromhistrip,hewastedno time indonninghiseagleplumesand takingoff forAsgard.Thesoundofhiswingsswooshedandboomedthroughtheair.

WhenthedeitiesspiedthehawkflyingtowardAsgardwiththenutinhisclaws,andthemightyeagleinpursuit, theyspreadoutpilesofsawdustandkindling along the fortress walls. The moment Loki had passed the wallssafely, they threwtorcheson thefuel,andhugeflames immediatelyshotuphighintothesky.Thjazitriedtoturnback,buthisfuriousmomentumprovedtobehisdownfall.Heflewstraightintotheflames,whichburnedoffallhisfeathers,andhefell to theground insideAsgard.Thegodsgatheredaroundhissquirmingandbadlyburntbody,andfinishedhimoff.BothyouthandthepreciousIdunwererestoredtothegods.

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Chapter24:TheMarriageofNjordandSkadi

Theplotof the storyof themarriagebetween the summery, fun-loving

godNjordandthestern,wintrygiantess(andhonorarygoddess)Skadipicksupwhere theplot of the storyof the theft of Idun left off.This tale comesonly from Snorri’sProse Edda.While the myth’s contents are certainly inkeepingwith talesweknow for suredate from theVikingAge, the lackofindependentcorroborationofmanyofthedetailsofSnorri’snarrativemakesitdifficulttosaywithcertaintytowhatdegreeit’sanauthenticproductofpre-Christian times, and to what degree particular elements may have beencreatedbySnorri.

THEMARRIAGEOFNJORDANDSKADI

Whilethegodswerefeastingincelebrationoftheirslayingofthegiant

Thjaziand the returnof Idun to theirhalls, anuninvitedguest stormed intotheirmerrymaking.

Itwas thegiantessSkadi, thedaughterofThjazi,whohadarrivedwitharmorandweaponstoavengethedeathofherfather.Thegodswerepatientwith her, and after many conciliatory words, they convinced her to acceptcompensationinsteadofseekingvengeance.

Their payment came in three parts. First, Odin took Thjazi’s eyes andceremoniouslycastthemintothenightsky,wheretheybecametwostars.

Second, the gods set out tomake Skadi laugh. Aftermany feats weretried,nonesucceededinbringingasmiletothestonyfaceofthegiantess.Atlast, Loki tied one end of a rope to a goat and the other end around histesticlesandbeganagameof tugofwarwith thegoat.Eachscreechedandhowled in turn, until at last Loki fell over into Skadi’s lap. The giantess’smoodthawed,andshecouldn’thelpbutgiggle.

Third,Skadiwastobegivenagodofherchoosinginmarriage,butshewastoselecthimbythesightofhislegsandfeetalone.Shepickedthefairestpairoflegsshecouldsee,thinkingthemtobethoseofBalder.However,asitturnedout,theywerethoseoftheseagodNjord.

SkadiandNjordhadamagnificent,lavishweddingfittingforagodandhisbride.Afterwards,thenewlywedshadtodecidewheretolive,andfoundthefestivemoodoftheirweddingalreadygivingwaytocontention.Njord’shomewasNoatun,“ThePlaceofShips,”abright,warmlandon thebeach.

Thrymheim, Skadi’s home, couldn’t have been more different: a dark,forebodingplaceinthehighestmountainpeakswherethesnownevermelts.

The pair first spent nine nights in Thrymheim. When this time hadpassed and theymade theirway down from themountains,Njord declaredthat,althoughbrief,histimeinThrymheimhadbeenloathsome.Hehadbeenparticularly dismayed by the sounds of the wolves, to which heoverwhelmingly preferred the songs of the swans to which he wasaccustomed.

After the two had slept for nine nights in Noatun, Skadi had similaropinions to express regarding the sunny home of Njord. The cries of theseabirds had been unbearably abrasive to her ears, and she had found itimpossible to sleep. So she departed for themountains, and the two partedways.

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Chapter25:ThorandGeirrodTheearliestsurvivingsourceforthemythofThor’sjourneytothecourt

of the giant Geirrod (“Protection from Spears”) in Jotunheim is the tenth-century skaldic poem Poem of Thor (Þórsdrápa) by Eilif Godrunarson.Snorri, using Eilif’s poem as his main source, retells the tale in the ProseEdda.ElementsfromthenarrativeareincludedbySaxoGrammaticusinhisHistoryoftheDanes,andafourteenth-centuryIcelandicshortstorycalledtheTaleofThorstein(ÞorsteinsÞáttr)recountsanotherversionofthetale.1Sincewepossessno less than fourdifferentversionsof the tale,andsinceoneofthemcomesfromthelaterpartoftheVikingAgeitself,wecanbecertainthatthisisindeedanauthenticNorsemyth.

THORANDGEIRROD

Frigg,likeFreya,ownedafinesetofhawkwingsthathadthepowerto

transform their wearer into that bird of prey. One day, Loki, in his usualprankish mood, stole them and put them on. In his assumed form, hegallivanted around the land of the giants, enjoying the thrill of the bracingwind in his wings and the sight of mountain beyond mountain beyondmountainbelow.

When he flew near the hall of Geirrod, a giant chieftain, curiosityovercamehim.Heflewinthroughawindowandalightedonawoodenbeamso that he could watch and hear what was going on inside. But Geirrodspotted him and ordered one of his men to capture the regal-looking bird.Lokitookgreatpleasureinflittingthroughthegreathall,maneuveringaroundthemany beams and poles that held up its toweringwalls and ceilings.Hewould landandwait forGeirrod’sman to shimmyup thenearestpoleafterhim, then take off at the last instant before he could be grabbed. But afterdoingthiscountlesstimes,heatlastfoundhisfeetstucktothewoodasifbymagic,andhewascaught.

He was taken before Geirrod, who noted a sparkle of peculiarintelligenceinthebird’seyes.Suspectingthatthehawkwasactuallyanothergiantor agod indisguise,Geirrod lockedhimaway in a trunkand starvedhimfornolessthanthreemonths.

Whenhewasfinallytakenoutofthetrunk,Loki–stillinhishawkform–wasatthebrinkofdeath.Hewasinnopositiontocontinueplayinggames.SowhenGeirrodaskedhimwhohe reallywas,heanswered,andanswered

honestly.ThisdelightedGeirrod,fornowthealready-greatchieftainhadachance

to become even greater. He told Loki sternly that there was one conditionuponwhichhislifewouldbespared,andonealone:hewouldcoaxThor,theforemostenemyofGeirrod’skind,tocometothechieftain’shallwithouthishammer, his belt that doubled his strength, or anyweaponor armor of anykind.Loki,havinglittlechoice,agreed,andwasreleased.

WhenhearrivedbackinAsgard,LokiconjuredupacunningrationaletoobtainThor’sconsenttoaccompanyhimonatriptoGeirrod’scourtunarmed.Along theway, they spent thenight at thehouseof agiantessnamedGrid,“Greed.”Whensheheardwhatthedestinationofherguests’journeywas,shebecame tense. Shewarned them that Geirrodwas crafty, and dangerous tohavedealingswith.AlarmedthatherguestsweretravelingtoGeirrod’shallunarmed,sheequippedThorwithseveralofherownpossessions,whichsheassured him would serve him well: her own Belt ofMight, a pair of irongloves,andametalrod.

After thankingGridanddepartingfromherhouse, the twocameto theRiverVimur,“Frothing,”andhad tocross to theother sideof the torrentialcurrent. Thor put on the Belt ofMight that Grid had given him, and LokiclungtoThorbythatbelt.Whenthepairhadreachedthemiddleoftheriver,thewaters began to rise and the current became even stronger than before.Thorwasnowinuptohisshoulders,andevenwithhisBeltofMight,hehadto fight hard tomaintainhis footing.Looking around to seewhatmight becausingthesuddenblast,hespiedthegiantessGjalp,“Roarer,”adaughterofGeirrod,standingupstreamfromthem.Shestraddled theriver,withone legononebank andherother legon theoppositebank, and shewasurinatingintothewater,doublingitsflow.Thorrecitedtheproverbthat“arivershouldbestemmedatitssource,”pickedupaheftyrock,andhurleditatthegushinggiantess.Hisaimwastrue,andshefelldowndeadinherowndischarge.

ThorthenlungedtowardarowantreegrowingbythebankoftheRiverVimur, grabbed onto it, and pulled himself out of the raging torrent. Afterthis, to commemorate the rowan’s role in saving the thunder god’s life, itsspecieswascalled“Thor’srescue.”

WhenThorandLokiarrivedatGeirrod’shall,theirhostshowedthemtothebarnwheregoatswerekept.Therewouldbegreatentertainmentthere,hepromised.Onceinside,theyfoundthattherewasasingleseat,andThorwasinvitedtositonitastheguestofhonor.Justwhenhehadgottencomfortable,however, the chair began to rise toward the ceiling. An instant before hewouldhavebeencrushedbetween thechair and the rafters,he tookout therod that Grid had given him and pushed against the ceiling with all his

strength. Two hideous snapping sounds followed, and then a cacophony ofwildshrieksbeforethechairtumbledtothegroundwithagreatthud.TwoofGeirrod’s daughters, as it turned out, had been lifting the chair up frombeneath, andwhenThor forcibly stopped its rise, he had broken both theirbacks. As the two lay on the floor, helplesslywrithing in unbearable pain,theirfatherinvitedtheguestsintohismainhalltoplaygames.

Bright, warm fires glowed from the sides of the chieftain’s otherwisedark hall. Geirrod’s face glowed eerily in the dim, shifting light as heproposed a wrestling match between himself and Thor. Naturally, thechampionofAsgardaccepted.When thefightbegan,Thor threwhimselfatGeirrodwithutterabandon.ButGeirrodswerved toavoidhim. In thesamemotion,hebentdownandgraspedapairoftongs.Withthese,hepickedupabarofglowinghotironfromthefireandhurleditathisopponent.

ButThorcaught thebar in the irongloveshehadbeengivenbyGrid.When he raised his arm to throw it back at his assailant, Geirrod duckedbehindan ironpillar inhopesof savinghimself.But the thundergod’sarmlaunched the blazing bar through the iron pillar, through Geirrod’s body,through the side of the hall, and into the ground outside,where, at a greatdepth,itfinallycametorest.ThusdiedGeirrodthegiant.

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Chapter26:TheTheftofFreya’sNecklaceOnlyafragmentofonelateversionofthismythsurvives.Itcomesfrom

the Tale of Sorli (Sörla Þáttr) in the Flat Island Book (Flateyjarbók), acompendiumofsagaswritteninIcelandinthefourteenthcentury.Duetothecenturies thathadelapsedbetween thecompositionof theTaleof Sorli andViking religion as a living practice, the narrative in its present form hasundoubtedlybeen“corrupted”bytheadditionofelementsthatweren’tfoundinanyversionofthestoryfromtheVikingAge.(Intheretellingbelow,I’vemade a few minor changes to “restore” the most blatantly Christianizedmoments toahypothesizedmoreoriginal form.)However, thebasicoutlineof the story is alluded to elsewhere in the sources, and the actions of thecharacters are generally consistent with their portrayals in earlier, morereliablesources,sowecanconcludethatthestoryisultimatelywovenaroundanauthenticVikingmyth.1

BasedonthepassingreferencestothistaleinotherOldNorsesources,itseemsthatoneofthenow-lostpartsofthenarrativefeaturedafightbetweenLokiandHeimdalloverpossessionofthenecklace.2

AnothernoteworthyaspectoftheversionofthisstoryintheTaleofSorliis that the somewhatartificialandstrainedsplittingofFreya-Frigg into twoseparategoddesses,andOdin-Odintotwoseparategods,isabsenthere.Freyais said to beOdin’swife – a “rationalistic” gloss thatmay suit ourmoderntastefortheeliminationofredundancy.

THETHEFTOFFREYA’SNECKLACE

While out walking one day, Freya happened to come upon a craggy

boulder thatwasknowntobeanentranceto thewindingcavernswhere thedwarves lived.Onthisparticularday, therockhadbeen leftaskew,andshesnuck a peek down into their subterranean forges. She couldn’t help butnotice that four dwarves were forging a gorgeous golden necklace. It wasalmostcompleted,andhadalreadybeeninlaidwiththefinest,mostbrilliantjewels shehadever seen.Before sheknew it, shehadmadeherwaydowninto the cave and had struck up a conversationwith the smiths about theirwork.

The four dwarves were named Alfregg, “Accomplished;” Dvalin,“Short;”Berling,“ShortBeam;”andGrer,“Bellower.”TheyrefusedFreya’sofferstopurchasetheirhandiworkwithgold,silver,andothertreasures.But

when the exasperated and covetous goddess asked if there was anything,anythingatall,forwhichthey’dbewillingtosellthenecklace,thedwarvessmiledknowinglyatoneanother, and thenbackatFreya.Theywouldonlygiveherthenecklace,theysaid,ifshewouldspendonenightwitheachoneoftheminturn.AsrepulsedasFreyawasbythegrimy,sooty,andjustplanugly dwarves, her lust for the necklace overcame her aversion to such anunwelcomedeed,andsheconsentedtothedwarves’terms.

Four days later, Alfregg, Dvalin, Berling, and Grer handed her thenecklace,whichwascalledBrisingamen.ShetookitbackwithhertoAsgardandactedas ifnothingoutof theordinaryhadhappened.But theschemingLoki found out about Freya’s necklace, and how she had come to be inpossession of it. He told this to Odin, who commanded Loki to pilfer thenecklacefromhiswifeandbringittohim.Lokiprotested,sayingthatFreya’sbedroom was impenetrable due to how jealously Odin himself had herguarded. But this only angered the chief of the gods, and he repeated hiscommand to Loki, this time more sternly than before. Loki gave in, andsulkedaway.Afteragreatdealofwaywardbrooding,however,anideafinallycametohim.

Nightfell.Lokitookontheformofaflyandslippedthroughanalmostimperceptible crack in the door to Freya’s chamber. Inside, he foundFreyaandallofherservantssleepingsoundly.Butthegoddesswassleepingonherbackwiththenecklacearoundherneck,andtheclaspwasunderneathher.SoLokiturnedintoafleaandbitthegoddessontheneck.Thiswokeherupjustenoughthatsheturnedontooneside,exposingtheclasp.Lokichangedbackintohisregularform,delicatelypeeled thenecklaceoffofherneckwithoutwaking her, and tiptoed out of the room through the door without wakinganyone.

Freya awoke in the morning to find that her door was ajar and herprecious necklace was gone. When she deduced what had happened, hershock turned to anger. After throwing on a robe, she stormed into herhusband’s court and demanded that he return the Brisingamen to her. ButOdinwas unmoved, and said that because of themanner inwhich she hadobtained thenecklace, shedidn’tdeserve toeverhave itback.“Unless,”headded, feigning thesuddenarrivalof the idea,“youcanpit twokings,eachwith twenty other kings in their service, against each other. Enable greatheroestoariseamongmen,andfilltheranksofmyarmiesinValhalla.”

Freya agreed to these terms. Before long, she had incited the kings tobattle,andamightyfeudensuedthatclaimeduntoldlives.TheBrisingamen,unparalleledamongallpiecesofjewelry,becameFreya’sonceagain,andsheworeitproudlyfromthatdayon.

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Chapter27:Odin’sExileWe’ve seen how members of Norse society might be outlawed for

committingespeciallyseriousoffencesagainstothers.Odin,youmayrecall,wasthepatrongodofoutlaws.Thiswasprobablyat leastpartiallybecause,onatleastoneoccasion,OdinhimselfwasbanishedfromAsgardbytheothergods.

Thesourcesprovideuswithnolessthanthree(allverybrief)accountsofthemythofOdin’sexile:oneinSnorri’sTheSagaof theYnglings,and twofromSaxo’sHistory of theDanes.All three versions are radically differentfrom one another – they have scarcely more in common than the generalthemeofthechiefofthegodsbeingbanishedfromthekingdomoverwhichhe ruled. This diversity is hardly surprising for myths that were originallypassed down orally, but it does present problems for those who want a“canonical”versionofanygivenmyth.

Theretellingbelowismyowncompositeversion.Itselectspiecesfromeachofthethreevariantsandstitchesthemtogethertoformasinglecoherentnarrative. I’ve tried to include theelements that seemmost inkeepingwithmotifsandattitudesthatrunthroughoutthesources,andtoexcludethosethathavearingofmedievalfolklore,fantasy,andmisunderstanding.Perhapsthisversion is thereforeactuallycloser to theversions theVikings toldamongstthemselves,butperhapsnot.

ODIN’SEXILE

The gods got together and decided to honor their illustrious ruler by

erectingastatueofhiminAsgard.Theycommissionedthedwarvestocraftit,and those expert smithsdid amarvelous job. Itwas a spitting imageof thechieftainofthegods,emphasizedallofhismostflatteringaspects,andhadapowerfulairofthewisdom,insight,andwarlikeprowessforwhichOdinwassofamous.Theentirestatue,fromthetopofitsheadtothebaseuponwhichit stood,was covered in gold.When the gods presented it toOdin, hewasdeeplyproudandgrateful,andhaditplacedattheentrancetohiscourt.

ButOdin’swife,Frigg,was asgreat a loverofgold as shewasofherhusband.Sheyearned to possess such an enormous amount of the preciousmetalforherself.Onenight,shehadseveralsmithsstealthestatueandmeltdown all of its gold tomake jewelry for her.WhenOdin found the statuemissing thenextmorning,heflewintoarage,andwhenhefoundoutwhat

hadhappened,hehadallofthesmithsexecutedbyhanging.Then,oncethestatue had been rebuilt, he cast secret seid spells over it so that wheneversomeonetouchedit,itwouldcryout.

Frigghadbeendisgracedbytheexposureandfailureofherthievery,andsheburnedfor revengeagainstherhusband.First, shesleptwithoneofhermale servants, and made sure that everyone knew about it. Then, sheconvincedhimtodestroyOdin’sstatueonceandforallandhidethegoldthatadornedit.

By then, thegods’opinionofOdinhadchanged.Hiswifehadputhimsorely toshame;whatwifeofa truemanwould rather sleepwitha servantthanherhusband?Odin’sownactionshadbroughtshameuponhimaswell.Hehadbeen shown tobeweakand ineffective inhis failure toprevent thestatue’sdestruction– that, too,wasunbecomingofa trueman.Andhehadresortedtoseidtofurtherhisaims,ashehadoncountlessoccasionsbefore–andthatwascertainlyunbecomingofatrueman.

Thegodsdecidedthat their leader’smanlyhonorhadlefthim,andthathe was no longer fit to be their king. So, at a council they called for thepurpose,theybanishedhimfromAsgard.

ThiswashardnewsforOdin,buthetookitwell.Afterall,hehadbeenabsentfromhisthroneforlongstretchesatatimebefore,whiletravelingfarandwidethroughoutthecosmosonhiscountlessquestsforknowledge.Sohedidthesameonthisoccasion,andputhisillfortunetogooduse.

Yearspassed.Odinlodgedwithhismanyfriendsinalltheworldsheldinthe branches and roots of Yggdrasil, learned much from them, andaccomplishedmanygreatfeatsalongtheway.

Butoneday,wordreachedhimthathisbrothers,ViliandVe,hadtakenoverhispositioninhisabsence.Theyhaddivideduphispossessionsbetweenthem, but had chosen to share hiswife.Ah,Frigg– her unfaithfulness, herjealousy,andheraffrontstohishonorseemedsodistantastobetrivial,andwhenhethoughtofhisbelovedwife,theonlyimagethatfilledhismindwasthat of her gorgeous face smiling at him.He beganmaking preparations toreclaimhiskingdom.

With his sword in one hand and his sorcerer’s staff in the other,OdinfoughthiswaybackintoAsgard,deposedViliandVe,andretookhisthrone.Afterthisshiningdisplayofhispower,thegodshadlittlereasontodoubthisrighttoruletheirrealm.Soheresumedhisoldposition,andsavoredFrigg’sembracesonceagain.

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Chapter28:Frey’sWooingofGerdThemythofFrey’sviolentwooingofthegiantessGerdcomesfromThe

SongofSkirnir(Skírnismál),oneof thepoems in thePoeticEdda.Scholarsaredividedontheageofthepoem,andnoparticularlyconvincingtheoryhasbeenputforwardsofar.However,otherpiecesofOldNorseliteraturealludetopartsoftheplotofthisstory,sowecanbecertainthatit’satleastbasedonanauthenticVikingAgemyth.1

TheelevengoldenfruitsthatFrey’semissary,Skirnir(“Shining”),offerstoGerd in hopes ofwinning her hand voluntarilymight be some of Idun’sfruitsthatconferperpetualyouth,butthere’snothinginthetextthatsaysthatdefinitively.2

FREY’SWOOINGOFGERD

Frey once sat inOdin’s throne for a daywhile its usual occupantwas

elsewhere.He thought itwould be amusing, and that surely no harm couldcomeofit.

Themajestic seat had a commanding view of the entire cosmos. Freywatchedwhatwasgoingon in eachof themany lands in theuniverse, andfound it to be quite an entertaining and illuminatingway to spend his day.Whenhegazedintothelandofthegiants,however,hiseyesgrewwide,andhecouldbarelybreathe.Aflutteringsensationfilledhisbellyandhischest.There, in thatotherwisesodrearyandforebodingterrain,hewatchedas themostbeautifulmaidenhehadeverseenstrolledthroughherfather’sfortressonherwaytoherbedchamber.Herskinseemedtoglowwithalltheradianceofthesky.Freywasstrickenwithadebilitatinglove-sickness,andrefusedtoletanyoneseehimfordays.

Frey’s father, Njord, grew worried about his son when he failed toemergefromhisquartersformanydaysinarow.SoNjordsentSkirnir,oneofFrey’sservants,toseewhatwastroublinghim.

Inagentletoneofvoice,SkirnirsaidtoFrey,“Rememberwhenwewereyoung,howwegrewuptogether,andcouldalwaystrusteachother?Surely,oldfriend,youcanstillconfideinmenow.Iwanttohearthesourceofyoursorrow,inhopesthatImightbeabletorelieveyouofsomeofit.”

After much hesitation, Frey sighed and responded, “I know that youmean well. But I don’t think you’ll understand the anguish I’m goingthrough.”ThenhetoldhimaboutthemaidenhehadseenfromOdin’sthrone,

her appearance, herwalk, andhowhepined for herwith every fiber in hisbody.Hecouldn’tsleep,andhecouldn’teat;hecoulddonothingbutsitandlong for her. Sighing again, he finished: “But there’s no way that she, agiantess,andI,agod,couldeverbetogether.”

Skirnir,deeplymovedbyhisfriendandmaster’sstory,stoodupboldlyandsaid,“IfIcanhelpit,therewillbeaway.Lendmeyourbesthorseandyourswordthatfightsbyitselfandneverfailstoslayitstarget,andIshallgotothestrongholdofGymir,herfather,andwinherhandonyourbehalf.”Freydidn’t believe that Skirnir could succeed, but he saw how badly his loyalfriendwantedtohelphim.SohegrantedSkirnir’srequestsandsenthimoff.

Skirnirrodelongandhardoverdark,wildhillsuntilatlasthespottedtheimposingfortressofGymir in thedistance.Asheapproached,Gerdfelt theground tremble and the walls of her bower quake. A thunderous crashingsound drew nearer and nearer. She ran out and fearfully asked one of herservantgirlswhowasapproaching.Thegirltoldherthatitwasanunknownman,likelyademigod,whohadjustdismountedandlethishorsegraze.Gerdtoldhertoletthefellowinsoshecouldquestionhim.

Skirnirenteredthehall,andfoundGerdtheretogreethim.Herfacewasstern.“Whoareyou?”sheasked.“Areyouanelf?Agod?Howdidyouevergettoourremotestronghold?”

“Iamnotanelf,noragod,”answeredSkirnir.Evadingherquestionandgettingrightdowntohisbusiness,hepulledelevenround,goldenfruitsoutofhis sack andpresented them toher. “Thesewill beyours,” he said, “if youwill consent to be the bride of the great Frey.”A look of scorn came overGerd’sface,andsheflatlyrefusedtheoffer,sayingthatnothingintheworldcouldcausehertodesiretomarryFrey.

Skirnirthenpulledoutofhissatchelsomethingevenmoremagnificent:Draupnir,thatgoldenringofOdin’sfromwhicheightmoregoldenringsfalleveryninthnight.“ThiswasburnedonthepyreofBalder,”Skirnirtoldher,“anditwillbeyourstokeepifyouacceptmymaster’soffer.”Gerdrefusedthering, too,saying thatherfatherhadmoregold thanshecouldeverwishfor.

Skirnir’s facedarkened.He took theunerringswordoutofhisbagandflasheditinGerd’sface.“Seethissword?”heaskedher.“Byit,yourfathershallfall.”Thenhehelduphismagicstaffandbegantointoneacurseuponthegiantess:“Withthisstaff,grimmerthananysword,Istrikeyou.Yourwillshallbebent tomine.Youshallbecomesohideouslyugly thatyouwillbefamousforit.Youshallknownothingbutsorrow,loneliness,andragealltherestofyourdays.Thoughyourfaceshallbegrisly,andyourloinsasdryasathistle,youshallburnwithunquenchable,maddeninglust.Youshallcrawlto

men and beg them to lay you, but none will have you. Three of the mostloathsomerunesIamnowabouttowriteforyou,andallofthisshallcometopass–but if youwouldchangeyourmind, andacceptmymaster’soffer, Icouldleaveallthreeunwritten.”

Gerd’s demeanor transformed abruptly. “I neverwould have thought itpossible,”shesaid,“butIamfilledwithlongingforFrey.Takemywordstohimasyouwouldacupoffinemeadtohislips,andtellhimthatIwillcometohimafterninenights,andweshallbemarried.”

When Skirnir arrived back in Asgard, Frey ran up to him and said,“Beforeyouevengetoffofthehorse,tellme,whatdidshesay?”Skirnirtoldhim, taking care to leave out the part about the threats and curses. “Ah,”sighedFreycontentedly.“Idon’tknowhowIwillbeable tobearevenonenightwithoutouthernow.Twowillbetorture.Andthethird?Halfofanyoneofthesenightswillfeellikeamonthtome.”

ButFreymadeitthroughtheninenights,andonthefollowingmorning,heandGerdweremarriedinalush,leafygrove.

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Chapter29:TheOrdealoftheHoodedOneThis tale comes from the poem The Song of the Hooded One

(Grímnismál)inthePoeticEdda.Thepoem’sprimaryaimis todidacticallyconveycosmologicalloreinamannerthat’saboutasclosetoanencyclopediaasyoucangetinpoetry.Itspresentationisremarkablysystematicforapre-Christianpoem,yetcontainsnotraceofdirectChristianinfluence.Therefore,TheSongoftheHoodedOnewaslikelycomposedduringthelateVikingAgeor very earlymedieval period,when theNorse religionwas dying out, butwasstillpracticedbyasubstantialproportionoftheNorsepeople.1

Even though the main intent of the poem is to dispense cosmologicalknowledge, the fairly well-developed framing story is quite possibly atraditionalNorsemyth.Inmyretellingofitbelow,Idon’trepeatmuchoftheexhaustivelydetailedcosmological lore.That’sbecause thecentralpointsofthat lorehavealreadybeendiscussedinPartOne,andbecauseitscontent–apartfromitssheervolume–isn’tparticularlyrelevanttothestoryline,whichiswhatconcernsushereinthispresentchapter.

THEORDEALOFTHEHOODEDONE

AkingnamedHraudunghadtwosons,AgnarandGeirrod.(Geirrodwas

unrelatedtothegiantofthesamename.)OnanautumndaywhenAgnarwastenyearsoldandGeirrodeight, the twoboyswerefishingatsea inasmallboat.A strongwindarose andblew them far from the shore.Atdusk, theymadeittoland–butonlywhentheirlittleboat,drivenbythefuriouswind,crashedandsplinteredagainstrockstheyhadneverbeforeseen.

They found themselves in a vast wilderness, which in the twilightappearedtothemasoneloomingdarkness,unbrokenexceptforasingletiny,orange light in the distance. Drenched, shivering, hungry, and scared, theymadetheirwaytowardsthelonepointoflight.Astheyapproached,itturnedout to be firelight coming from the window of a peasant cottage. Theyknockedonthedoor,andwererelievedwhentheywerewelcomedinbytheoldmanandwomanwholivedthere.Fortherestofthewinter,thetwoboysstayedinthecottageandwerelookedafterbytheelderlycouple.ThewomantookaparticularinterestincaringforAgnar,andthemanmostlyconcernedhimselfwithGeirrod.Theoldmanpridedhimselfonhiswisdom,andtaughtsomeofittoGeirrodoverthecourseoftheseason.

Whenspringcame,thecouplegavetheboysaboatandtoldthemhowto

make their way back to their father’s house. The old man whisperedsomething inGeirrod’s ear, and the brothers at last set out for their home.Geirrodwasinthefrontoftheboat,andAgnarintheback.Whentheyhadalmostreachedtheshore,Geirrodleapttolandandpushedtheboatbackintothewaves,cursinghisbrotherandleavinghimtohelplesslydriftbackintotheopenocean.

Geirrod strutted up to the opulent, fortified mansion where his familylived – a far cry from the humble peasant cottage, he thought. When hearrivedatthedoor,theentirehouseholdwasoverjoyedtoseehimalive–all,thatis,excepthisfathertheking,whohaddiedoverthewinter.SinceAgnarwas dead – or soGeirrod had told everyone, feigning grief –Geirrodwascrownedking.

Manyyears later,whenGeirrodandAgnarweregrownmen,OdinandFrigg sat in their throne room inAsgard, looking out over theworld.OdinpointedtoGeirrod’skingdominMidgard,andsaidtohiswife,“SeewhathasbecomeofAgnar,yourfoster-son?Hedwells inacaveandfatherschildrenwithgiantesses.Butlookatmyfoster-son,Geirrod.Heisaking,andhaswonforhimselfwiderenown.”

Frigg shot back, “YourGeirrod is themostmiserly kingwhohas everreignedamongmen.Whenhehastoomanyguestsforhisliking,hetorturesthemtodeath!”

Odinwasincensedatthesuggestionthathisfoster-sonhadturnedouttobesuchastingyanddishonorableman.SohemadeabetwithFriggthatifheweretogotoMidgardindisguiseandseeklodgingwithGeirrod,hewouldbetreatedashospitablyashehadtreatedGeirrodthoseyearsagointheforest.

Soonthereafter,astrangerappearedinGeirrod’srealm.HeworeadarkbluecloakandcalledhimselfGrimnir,“HoodedOne,”butwouldsaynothingmoreaboutwhohewas,wherehehadcomefrom,orwhyhewasthere.Nodogwoulddaretoevenbarkathim.FrigghadsentamessengertoGeirrod’scourt to tell the king that amagician full ofmalicewas on hisway to thekingdom, and that the kingwould know theman by his suspiciously goodtreatmentbythedogs.

WhenGrimnir came toGeirrod’s court, the king had him arrested andtortured.Wantingtoknowwhothismysteriousstrangerwas,Geirrodtiedhimupbetweentworoaringfiresuntilhewouldtalkandrevealhistrueidentity.Grimnirsatbetweenthetwoblazesforeightnights,assilentasthegrave.

Geirrodhada ten-year-oldsonnamedAgnarafterhis forsakenbrother.On theninthnightofGrimnir’sordeal, theboybrought the strangerahornfullofmead.Pressingittotheman’slips,Agnarsaidtohim,withcompassioninhisvoice, that itwasprofoundlyunjust forhis father to inflict suchpain

uponsomeonefornoreason.Grimnirdrankthehorntothedregs.Thefirescamesoclosetohimthat

hiscloakbegantoburn.Then,atlast,hespoke:“ForninenightshaveIsatherebetweenthesefires,andnooneinallof

Geirrod’skingdomhasbroughtmeanythingtoeatordrinkbutlittleAgnar.Itell younow,noonewill ever receive a greater payment for a single drinkthanhe!”

Then he began to regale the king and all who were present with anenormous hoard of lore about every corner of the cosmos. The assembledcrowd was astonished, and they wondered amongst themselves who couldpossibly know so much about so much. Gradually, it dawned on theirhorrifiedminds thatonlyonebeing in theentireuniversecouldpulloff thefeattheywereseeingunfoldingbeforetheireyes:itcouldbenoneotherthanOdin, foremostof thegods,whomtheyhadbeensocruelly torturingforsolong.

Towardtheendofhisspeech,Odinlisteddozensofhisnames,saying,“Ihave never been known by just one name amongmen, nor among anyoneelse.”Afterremindingthosegatheredthereofjustafewofhisgreatdeeds,heturnedtoGeirrod,whofinallysawthatthisstrangerwastheoldpeasantwhohad cared for him in the woods those many years ago. Now, those samekindlyeyesglaredright intohimwithpurehatredandcontempt.“Geirrod,”Odinsnarled,“youaredrunk.Yourstuporhascostyoumorethanyouknow,andmorethanyouwilleverbeabletobear.Ioncesavedyourlife,butneveragainwillyoureceiveanyaidfromme.Infact,Iseeinmymindyoursword,and it dripswith your blood.Your reign is over, and the reign of your sonAgnarhasbegun.”

TheterrifiedGeirrodstoodandrantoOdinwithhisswordinhishand,hoping to earn the god’smercy by cutting him free.But the sword slippedfrom his hand, and in that same instant he tripped. The swordwas caughtbetweenthefloorandhischest,withthebladepointingup,anditpiercedhimstraightthrough.

Everyonepresent rushed toGeirrod’s side toattend tohim,buthewasalreadydead.Whentheylookedup,theysawthattherewasonlyemptyspacebetweenthetwofires,andtheashesofadarkbluecloakbetweenthem.Theprisonerhadvanished.

Agnar’s reignwas long, and songs about himwere sung for countlessgenerations.

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Chapter30:GefjunPlowsZealandfromSweden

The island of Zealand (“Sjaelland” in Danish) lies in the Baltic Sea

betweenDenmark and Sweden. Politically, it’s a part of Denmark, and theDanishcapital,Copenhagen,islocatedontheisland.

Accordingtothisstory,Zealandwasn’talwayslocatedwhereitistoday.Instead,itusedtobepartoftheSwedishmainland,andwasdraggedintotheoceanbythegoddessGefjuninancienttimes.

ThetaleofhowthishappenedisgivenbySnorriintwoofhisworks:theProseEddaandTheSagaoftheYnglings.Thebasicoutlineofthestoryisthesameinbothversions,butsomeofthedetailsdiffer.Tosupporthisclaimtoauthenticity,Snorri cites a stanza fromapoemby theninth-century skaldicpoetBragiBoddason.1Because of this corroboration,we can be reasonablysurethatSnorri’staleisatleastbasedonamythfromtheVikingAge.

GEFJUNPLOWSZEALANDFROMSWEDEN

Long ago, when King Gylfi reigned in Sweden, a female minstrel

wanderedintohiscourt.Sheentertainedthekingandhismenlongandwellwithallmannerof songs,dances, and tales.At theendofher act, thekingwasinsuchapleasantmoodthatheofferedheraplotoflandofwhateversizefouroxencouldplowinasingledayandnight.

HadKingGylfiknownthatthisminstrelwasnoneotherthanthegoddessGefjun in disguise, he probablywouldn’t havemade such an offer. Gefjunsummonedthefoursonsshehadbornebyagiantandtransformedthemintooxen.Eachoxhadfourheadsandeightmoonlikeeyes.Gefjunyokedthemtoaplow,whichshedugintothelandofZealand.Withtheirlegsintheocean,theygruntedandsweatedas they towed thevastplotof landwestward intothewater,whereitbecameanislandunderthecontrolofDenmark.Thekingcoulddonothingbuthelplesslywatchashelostahugeportionofsomeofthefinest land in his kingdom. Gefjun, fittingly, became the island’s patrongoddess.

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Chapter31:Thor’sDuelwithHrungnirThis myth is found in the skaldic poemAutumn-Long (Haustlöng) by

ThjodolfofHvin,aswellas inSnorri’sProseEdda.SnorriusesThjodolf’spoemasasourceforhisaccount,butaddsmaterialthatisn’tfoundthereorinany other source thatwe possess.We don’t knowwhere Snorri’s additionscome from – lost skaldic poems, late and unreliable poems, Snorri’s ownimagination,orsomewhereelse?Nevertheless,thebasicoutlineofthestoryiswell-attestedinAutumn-Longandinbriefreferencesinotherskaldicpoems,sowecanbesurethatthisis,atbottom,agenuineVikingAgemyth.

THOR’SDUELWITHHRUNGNIR

Oneday,Hrungnir,thestrongestofthegiantsandtheirbestfighter,sawa

strangerridingtowardhishousedeepinthesombermountainsofJotunheim.Theman’sgoldenhelmetshimmeredinthemiddaysun,andhiseight-leggedhorsegallopedeffortlessly through theairbetween themountains, andoverthewaterofthelagoonsthatpunctuatedthem.WhenthestrangercamenearHrungnir, thegiantcalledout tohim,saying thathissteedwasawonder tobehold. ThenHrungnir asked theman,whose facewas hidden beneath hisgoldenhelmet,whohewas.Thevisitor–whowasnoneother thanOdin–didn’tanswerhisquestion,butinsteadchallengedthegianttoabet.“Iwouldwagermyhead,”hedeclared,“thatthereisnofinersteedthanmineinallofJotunheim.”

Hrungnirwas insulted, and angrily replied that although the stranger’shorsewasfineenough, itwasnomatchforhisownhorse,Gullfaxi,“Gold-Mane.”Tobackuphisclaim,HrungnirmountedGullfaxithenandthereandgalloped after Odin and Sleipnir. The two raced furiously over the craggytundraandglaciersofthemountainheights,andthegreenvalleysinbetweenthem.Thelandscapechangedtoflatpasturesandcropfieldswithpocketsofwoodsattheirmargins,andstillthetwohorsessprintedon,almostneckandneckwith each other, along thewinding dirt roads and past the occasionalbewilderedpeasant.Hrungnir’sattentionwassoabsorbedinthematchthathehardlynoticedthechangingscenesaroundhimuntilheandhisopponenthadgonepastthegateofAsgardandintoitsshininghalls.Odindismountedandinvitedhisformidablechallengertoshareadrinkwithhim.

Seemingly from his first sip inside the gods’ ornate feasting hall,Hrungnir became boastful and bellicose. He ordered all of Thor’s drinking

hornstobebroughtbeforehim,andhedrankfromeachoneinturn,mockingthatfamousslayerofhiskindwitheverygulp.Soon,hebecamesobelligerentthathethreatenedtoripAsgardapartandthrowitintotheocean,sparingonlyValhalla,Freya,andSif,whichhewouldcarryofftoJotunheimtokeepashispossessions.Hewouldkill allof theotherdeities, too–but first,hewoulddrinkalloftheirale.Anditseemedthathewasalreadymakinggoodonthislastthreat.

Thor had been gone on a raid in Jotunheim, but he arrived back inAsgard that evening.When he entered the feasting hall and sawwhatwasgoingonthere,he liftedhishammerandchargedatHrungnir.But thegiantprotested,pointingoutthathehadbeeninvitedinbyOdin,andwasthereforeentitledtoprotectionasthegods’guest.Thorswiveledsharplytohisfather,whosullenlynoddedhisheadtoconfirmthatthegianthadspokenthetruth.

TurningbacktoHrungnir,Thorglaredathimandbellowed,“Youdogofagiant,youwillsoonregretthatyoueveracceptedthatinvitation.”

But Hrungnir fired back in a taunting tone of voice, “Ah, great andmightyThor, itwouldbeawfullycowardlyforyoutokillanunarmedman,nowwouldn’tit?”Hrungnir’sensuinggigglewascaughtbyaburp,whichthegianttriedtopassoffassimplyclearinghisthroat.

Instead,thegiantproposedthatthetwofighteachotherinsinglecombat,when Hrungnir had had a chance to return home, get his weapons, andpreparehimself.Thoracceptedthechallenge.

BythetimeHrungnirhadmadehiswaybacktoJotunheim,wordofhisimpendingduelwithThorhadspread.Itseemedlikeeverylastgiantmadeapoint to seek out Hrungnir to wish him well or to offer him whateverassistance they could. The stakes, after all, were awfully high: either thegiants’strongestwarriorortheirstrongestadversarywouldbeslain.Inordertoprovidetheirherowiththebesthelpertheycould,thegiantsconstructedamanofhardclaywhowasninemilestallandthreemileswide,withtheheartofamarebeatinginsidehischest.TheycalledhimMokkurkalfi.Hrungnir’sownheartwas notorious: it had three corners,wasmadeof stone, andwascoveredinspikes.WhenHrungnirenteredthegroundwheretheduelwastobeheldwithahugeshieldmadeofthickstonelikehisheart,swinginginhisarmawhetstonethesizeofacow,andwithMokkurkalfibyhisside,hewasafearsomesighttobehold.

Thor’s assistant, Thjalfi, arrived at the site before the god himself.Heapproachedtheroaringgiant,appraisedhisposture,feignedasigh,andsaidtohim,“Justsoyouknow,ifIwereyou,Iwouldn’tbeholdingmyshieldoutinfront ofme like that.Thor’s going to arrive anyminute now, andwhen hedoes, he’ll be comingup from theground right belowyou.”Hrungnir took

Thjalfiathisword,placedhisshieldunderneathhisfeet,andstoodonit.The sky darkened. Lightning flashes appeared in the distance and

approached closer and closer. The crack of their thunder grew louder andlouder.Finally, thethundergrowledrightaboveHrungnir’shead.Thorleaptoutoftheclouds.Hrungnirwethimself.

The thunder god hurled his hammer at the head of the giant, whoresponded by throwing hiswhetstone at the hammer. The twoweapons hiteachotherinthemiddleoftheirflight.Atthehammer’stouch,thestoneburstintotwopieces.Oneofthemfelltothegroundandshattered,whichiswhereall the flint rocks on earth have come from. The other struck Thor in theforehead and lodged there, knocking thegodonhis back.But thehammer,afterbreakingthewhetstone,shotstraightintoitsoriginaltarget.Hrungnir’sskull exploded into tiny crumbs, and the headless corpse of the giant fellforwardontoThor.Oneof the legs fell acrosshis neck, pinninghim to theground.Thjalfi felledMokkurkalfiwithoutmuchdifficulty, thenranover tohismasterandattemptedtopullthelegoffofhim.But,thoughhetuggedandheavedashardashecould,hewasunable.

WhenthegodsheardofThor’spredicament,theyallrushedtohisside,andeveryoneofthemtriedtoliftthelegoffofhim.ButnonehadanymoresuccessthanThjalfiuntil,atlast,Thor’ssonMagni,“Strong,”arrived.Magnihad been born just three nights earlier, but when he put his chubby babyhandsonthegiant’sleg,itgavewayinstantly,andThorwasreleased.Magnicooedwithdelight,andthensaidtohisfather,“It’sapitythatIdidn’tcomesooner.IcouldhavesmoteHrungnirwithjustmyfist.”Thorpraisedhisboyprofusely, and as a reward, he gave him Gullfaxi, Hrungnir’s steed. ThisangeredOdin,whohadbadlydesiredforhimself thathorse thathadalmostoutrunhisownSleipnir.

ButtherewasstillthematterofthewhetstonelodgedinThor’sheadtoattend to. So Hrungnir’s slayer made his way to the home of the famoussorceressGroa,“Thriving.”Groachantedhersongsoverthewhetstone,andThorbegantofeelthestonelighteningandlooseninginhisforehead.

Jubilantat theprospectof thestonecomingout,ThorimmediatelytoldGroawhathewasgoingtodotorewardherforherwork.Herhusband,thefamouslybraveAurvandil,hadbeenpresumeddead.ButThortoldherthathehadfoundAurvandilaliveinJotunheimandcarriedhimbacktoMidgardinabasket.Asproofthathisstorywastrue,Thorpointedoutthatanewstarhadrecentlybeenobserved in thesky; this,hesaid,wasAurvandil’s toe,whichhadstuckoutfromthebasket,hadbecomefrozen,andhadneededtobecutoff.Thorhad thenslung the toe into theskywhere itbecame thisnewstar,whichhenamedAurvandil’sToe.Anditwouldnotbelong,Thorsaid,until

herhusbandwouldcomehometoher.ButThor,inhisexcitement,hadgonetoofar.Groawassooverjoyedthat

sheforgotthewordstohercharms.SothestoneremainedfastenedinThor’sforeheadfromthenon.Andtothisday,ifyouthrowawhetstoneacrossthefloor,theoneinThor’sforeheadstirs,andcauseshimagreatdealofpain.

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Chapter32:Gray-BeardtheFerrymanThistalecomesfromthepoemTheSongofGray-Beard (Hárbarðsljóð)

in thePoeticEdda. There’s no particular sign ofChristian influence on thepoem, and it probably comes from the Viking Age. The poem could havebeen composed by a learned devotee of Odin out of a desire to mock thesimple Thor and his low-class followers.1 It’s unknown towhat degree thepoem relates a “traditional” myth, and to what degree the storyline is theinvention of an individual poet. The poem references a number of mythsalong theway, someofwhichweknow fromother sources (andwhichareretold in other chapters of this book), and some ofwhich are now lost (orpossiblyinventedbythepoet).

GRAY-BEARDTHEFERRYMAN

While on his way back from one of his many journeys to Jotunheim,

Thorreachedadeepfjord.Hecouldseeamanstandingbyaboatonthefarshore,andhecalledouttohim,“Ferryman,whoareyou?”

Theferrymanmockinglyreturnedthequestion.“Whoareyou,peasant?”Thoughtakenaback,Thorchosetoignoretheslightandtooffertheman

with the boat a reward for bearing him to the other side of the water. Hepointedtothebaskethewaswearingonhisbackandsaid,“Thisthingisfulloffreshherringsandporridge.Ifyouhelpmeacross,I’llgiveyouasmuchofmyprovisionsasyoucaneat.”

But the stranger on the far shore ignored this offer, and continued toinsult his potential customer. “Look at you!” he scoffed. “You’re barefoot,andwhatclothesyouhavearejusttatteredrags.Youlooklikeabeggar.Themanwhobuiltme thisboatwasagreathero,andhe toldme–wisely– togive passage only to those who are worthy, and to people whom I myselfknow.You,asfarasIcantell,areneither.Ifyouwanttohaveanychanceofbeingferriedacrossthisfjord,you’dbettertellmeyourname.”

Thor rolled his eyes and sighed. “All right, I will tell you my name,thoughitmightputmeindanger.IamthesonofOdin,thebrotherofMeili,and thefatherofMagni.Themanwithwhomyounowspeak isnoneotherthanThor.Andnow,whydon’tyoutellmeyourname?”

“IamHarbard,”hesaid.Thename–unbeknownsttoThor–wasoneofOdin’s,anditmeant“Gray-Beard.”“ButIdidn’twanttorevealmynametoyou until I knew yours. You give every appearance of being quite a

disreputable fellow, and it’s alwayswell to be on one’s guard around suchfolkasyou.”

Bynow,ThorhadbecomesoangeredbyHarbard’stauntsthathecouldnolongerretainhiscomposure.GesturingviolentlyatHarbard,Thoryelled,“Ifthiswaterweren’tsodeep,andifIwouldn’tgetsowetinwadingacross,I’dcomeoverthererightnowandgiveyouthepaymentyoudeserveforyourslanderouswords!”

“I will stand right here and wait for you,” Harbard replied in asardonicallycasualtoneofvoice.“NotsinceHrungnirhaveyoumetamoreformidablefoe.”

“Well,Islewhim,didn’tI?”Thorretorted.“Andwhatwereyoudoingatthattime?”

Harbard answered the rhetorical question as if it had been asked inearnest. “IwaswithFjolvar on the islandofAlgron for five years. I felledcountless enemies and coupled with countless maidens – even the sevensisters,whogavemegreatpleasure.Andwhatwereyoudoingatthattime?”

“IdealtThjazi,thatmonstrousgiant,hisdeathblow.ThenIcasthiseyesintotheheavensandformedstarsfromthem,sothatproofofmydeedwouldliveforever.Andwhatwereyoudoingatthattime?”

“Why,seducingsorceressesawayfromtheirhusbandsandmakinglovetothem,naturally.Oh,andIconvincedHlebard,thatfamedwizardofagiant,togivemehisstaff.ThenIusedittostealhiswitslikeIstolethosewomen.Andwhatwereyoudoingatthattime?”

“Unlike your vile deeds,minewere virtuous and upright. Iwas off inJotunheim,slayingyetmoregiants.Ifitweren’tforme,theywouldhavelongagooverrunallofMidgardandallofAsgard,andtherewouldbenomenorgodsleft.Andwhatwereyoudoingatthattime?”

“Iwasstirringupstrifeamongmen.Ihavealwaysincitedtheprincestobattle, and never have I attempted tomake peace between them.After all,whennoblemenfallinbattle,theygotoOdin;butwhenslavesperish,theygotoThor.”

Thor’sangerreachedaboilingpoint.“YouargrHarbard, if Icouldbutreach across the sound with my arm, I would knock you straight into thegrave!”

Harbardchuckled.“Whybother?Youremptythreatconcealsthefactthatyouhaven’tofferedataleofsomeaccomplishmentofyourowntomatchthelastoneIgave.SowhileIwaspittingkingsandheroesagainstoneanother,whatmightyouhavebeendoing?”

Thor glared across the fjord and snorted while thinking of a suitablerejoinder. “Iwasguarding the river from the sonsofSvarang.Though they

slung boulders at me, I maintained my post, and in the end, I had thembeggingmeformercy.Andwhatwereyoudoingatthattime?”

“Inthelandofthegiants,Istealthilyplayedwiththatmaidenwhoseskinwaswhiteasnewlinen,andwhosearms,neck,andforeheadwerewrappedincountlessfinepiecesofjewelry.Andwhatwereyoudoingatthattime?”

“I was on the island of Hlesey, hacking down themalicious brides ofberserkers.”

“Areyoureallyboastingaboutkillingwomen?”jabbedHarbard.“Theyweremore like she-wolves thanwomen,”protestedThor. “They

shookmyship,andchasedawayThjalfiwhileswingingclubsmadeofiron.Inanycase,whatwereyoudoingatthattime?”

“Raisingmybanners against your people, andmaking ready to reddenmyspear.”

“Ihavenevermet anyonewith amouthas foul asyours! If I chose towadethewaterthatseparatesus,onestrikeofmyhammerwouldmakeyouhowllouderthanawolf!”

“Saveyourrageforthemanwho’ssleepingwithyourwifeaswespeak.”“Nowyou’rejustconjuringupwhateverlieswilloffendmemost!”“EverythingI’vesaidhasbeenperfectlytrue.Andspeakingoftruthsyou

don’t want to hear, you’ve put yourself well behind on your journey bystandingthereandquarrelingwithme,haven’tyou?”

“ArgrHarbard,youaretheonewhohasheldmeheresolong!”“IneverthoughtthegreatThorwouldbepreventedfromtravelingbya

mereferryman.”“Come on. Let’s drop this idle chatter. Row your boat over here and

carrythesonofOdinandthefatherofMagniacrossthefjord.”“You’rewastingyourtimestandingthereontheshore.Youwillnotgain

thepassageyoudesire.”“Thenat least tellmehow togoaround thebay, if youwon’t rowme

overit.”“To tell you theway is easy, but to go that route is long and arduous.

After scrambling over the roots and rocks for a good while, you’ll find ahardlymorecivilized road thatwill takeyou to the townat theheadof thefjord.There,you’llmeetyourmother,Fjorgyn,andshewillguideyoubacktoOdin’srealm.”

“CanIreachmydestinationbynightfall?”“Well,you’vesquanderedmuchof thedaystanding therearguingwith

me. But if you hurry and don’t hurt yourself along theway, I suppose it’spossible.”

“If Ievermeetyouagain, Iwillgiveyou thepaymentyoudeservefor

yourslander!”shoutedThor,whostillhadnotdiscernedthe true identityofthemanwithwhomhehadbeenconversing.

Odinreplied,“Begone,andmayeveryfoulcreatureintheworldfinditswaytoyou!”

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Chapter33:OdinandBilling’sDaughterOdin’samorousescapadesweren’talwaysassuccessfulashisboastsin

TheSongofGray-Beardmightsuggest.In this story, Odin attempts to woo an unnamed daughter of Billing,

“Twin.” Since other tales feature Odin courting the daughters of giants,Billing may be a giant. However, no giant with that name is featuredelsewhereintheOldNorsesources,butadwarfnamedBillingismentionedin one (and only one) of themanuscripts ofThe Prophecy of the Seeress.1Therefore,Billing(andconsequentlyhisdaughter)wasprobablyeitheragiantoradwarf,andeitherinterpretationismoreorlessasplausibleastheother.

This tale is told only in outline in theEddic poemThe Sayings of theHighOne. It’s recounted in the context of illustrating a lesson about howawful it is to not obtain the object of one’s desire, as well as theuntrustworthinessofwomen.Thestorycouldbepartofanow-lostmyth,butit’salsoentirelypossiblethatitwasinventedbythepoetofthissectionofTheSayingsoftheHighOneinordertoprovideanexampleofhispoint–almostlikeacynicalVikingmoralityplay.

ODINANDBILLING’SDAUGHTER

Inthecourseofhiscountlessquests,Odinoncefoundhimselfinthehall

of the rich and powerful Billing.When he walked by the bedroom of hishost’sdaughter,hehappenedtocatchaglimpseofherbeautifulformasshelayinherbed.Thoughasleep,shewasmoreradiantthanthesun.Aslavishandornateasthenobleman’sestatewas,allofitseemedlikeemptysqualorincomparisonwiththesplendorofthemaiden’sbody.

Odinmadeanexcusetoenterherchamber.Onceinside,hetriedtowinheroverwithallkindsofhoneyed flattery.Whenheattempted to liedownnext to her in her bed, she held her arms out to keep him at bay. “DearestOdin,”sheaddressedhiminherbeguilinglysweetvoice,“notnow.Ifwetrytomakeloveduringtheday,everyoneinmyfather’scourtwillknowaboutit,andbothofuswouldbeingravetrouble.Ifyouwantme,comebacktonightwhenallareasleep,andthenIshallbeyours.”

Odintookhercounsel.Afterkissinghersoftandsupplehand,heleftherroom,takingcarenottoletanyoneseehim.Fortherestoftheday,hecouldthink of nothing but her. He paced up and down the grounds of Billing’sestate,lostinadeliriumoflovesicknessandfeveredanticipation.

Though the sun seemed to take a millennium to set, darkness finallycovered the land.Odin tiptoed back up the hallway to the youngwoman’sbedchamber, fullof rapturousglee thatwashardlymitigatedbyhiscaution.Buttheguards,mostofwhomhadusuallygonetobedbythistime,wereallwide awake and at their posts. When they caught sight of Odin, theybrandishedtheirswordsandcurtlyinformedhimthatguestsofthemasterofthe house were not permitted in that part of the hall at that hour. Thoughenraged and in anguish,Odinwas forced to turn backwithoutwinning hisprize.

The next morning, Odin once again made his way to the room ofBilling’sdaughter.Thistime,theguardswerecuriouslyfew,anddidn’tseemtomindhispassing.Findingthedoortothegirl’sroomajar,helookedbothwaysand thenslowlyandquietlypressed itopen.At thedoor’s first creak,furiousbarkingandmetallicclankingeruptedfromwithintheroom.Peeringaroundthedoor,hefoundadogchainedtothebedofBilling’sdaughter,andthewomanherselfnowhereinsight.

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Chapter34:ThorandUtgarda-LokiThe tale of Thor and Loki’s journey to Utgard (another name for

Jotunheim,thehomelandofthegiants)comesalmostexclusivelyfromSnorriSturluson’sProseEdda.IntheforminwhichSnorrihashandeditdowntous,the story is essentially amedieval fairy tale that freely borrows from someauthenticmotifsfromVikingAgemythsalongtheway.Mostofthesewillbeeasily recognizable from other parts of this book: Thor journeying toJotunheim, Loki tagging along, Thor bringing life and prosperity byhallowingsomethingwithhishammer,etc.Otherelements–theflippanttonethat pervades the tale, characters that are straightforward allegories forabstractconcepts, thegiantsbeingdistinguishedbybeingofcomicallylargesize,andothers–areunlikeanythinginmorereliablygenuineNorsemyths,butarerightathomeinmedievalliterature.

Further evidence of the general confusion of Snorri’s narrative can befoundinthefactthatLokiappearsintwodifferentrolesinthestory.Inone,heisThor’stravelingcompanion.Intheother,heisthegiantUtgarda-Loki,“Loki ofUtgard.” Indeed, inSaxo’sHistory of theDanes, Thor encountersUtgarda-Lokiboundinchains,justlikeLokihimselfwasafterhebetrayedthegodsonetoomanytimes.SinceLokioftentakesthesideofthegiantsagainstthegodsthroughouttheNorsemyths, therecanbelittledoubtthatUtgarda-LokiisnoneotherthanthesonofNalandFarbauti.1

Thus, there seems to have once been a Viking Agemyth where Thorwent tovisit theboundLoki.But that’s almost the entire extent of theplotthat can be inferred from the available evidence. That story is thereforeirrecoverable.OtherpartsofSnorri’snarrativemaybederivedfromanothermyththatrecountedoneofThor’smanytravelstoJotunheim.2Butifso,thenthatmyth,too,hasbeenlostoverthecourseofthecenturies.

In lieuof thoseolder,authenticallypre-Christianmyths,here’sSnorri’sfairytale,whichisbuiltontopoftheirruins.

THORANDUTGARDA-LOKI

While Thor and Loki were traveling far from Asgard in Thor’s goat-

drawnchariot,nightovertookthemandtheywerewelcomedintothehouseofafarmerandhisfamily.

Torepayhishostsfortheirhospitality,Thorofferedhisgoatsforsupper,knowing thathecouldbring themback to lifeafterwardsandnotbeatany

loss.Justbefore themealbegan,Thor laid thegoats’hideson thefloorandinstructedhishosts toplace theboneson thehidesafter themeathadbeengleanedfromthem.

Thefarmerhadtwochildren:aboynamedThjalfiandadaughternamedRoskva.Despitethethundergod’sinstructions,Thjalfibrokeopenoneofthegoats’legbonestosuckoutthemarrowbeforeplacingitonthehidewiththeothers.

Thor awoke early the following morning, before anyone else in thehousehold. He hallowed the goat hides and bones with his hammer,whereuponthegoatssprangbacktolife.Oneofthem,however,hadalamehindleg.Thorimmediatelyintuitedthereasonforthis,andflewintoarage.ThefarmerandhisfamilyawokeabruptlytoThor’showlsandcrashes.Thethundergodwouldhaveslainthemallonthespothadthefarmernotofferedhimhischildren,ThjalfiandRoskva, tobehisservants.Thoraccepted,andhe,Loki,andthechildrenpressedonwardonfoot,sincethegoatswereinnoshapetopullachariot.

The party’s destination was Jotunheim. On the way, they crossed anocean and a thick, tangled forest. Just as nightwas falling, they came to ahugehall.Theyfoundnooneinside,anddecidedtospendthenightthere.

Inthemiddleofthenight,theywerejostledawakebyagreatearthquake.Runningoutside,theyfoundasleepinggiantwhosesnorescausedtheearthtorumbleandshake.Thorclutchedhishammerandresolvedtosmitethissurefoeofhis.Butthegiantawokeatthelastsecondandseemedtobecheered,orat least amused, by the sight of Thor and his companions. The giantintroducedhimselfasSkrymir, “Boaster,”but said thathealreadyknew theidentityofthosetowhomhewasspeaking.

Skrymir picked up his glove, the great hall in which Thor and hiscompanyhadsleptduringthenight,andproposedthatheaccompanythemontheirjourney.Despitetheirapprehension,theyagreedintheinterestofhavinganativeguide.Andofftheywentthroughdarkforestsandoversteephills.

Atnight, they took shelter beneath amighty, ancient oak.Skrymir hadbeencarryingalloftheirprovisionsinhisbag,andwhenthegiantfellasleep,thetaskofopeningthebagfelltoThor.Butthegodfoundhimselfunabletountiethegiant’sknots.ThissoangeredhimthathestruckthedozingSkrymirintheforehead,hopingtokillhim.Butthegiantawokecalmlyandaskedifaleafhadfallenonhishead.

Later in the night, the giant’s snores grew so loud that they echoedthroughthevalleyslikethunder.Thor,annoyedbyhisinabilitytosleep,andstilllookingforanyexcusetokillthegiant,triedasecondtimetosmitehimbystrikinghimonthehead.But,muchasbefore,Skrymirawokeandaskedif

anacornhadfallenonhishead.Just before dawn,Thor decided to try onemore time to endSkrymir’s

life.Butwhenthegiantwokeup,heaskedifsomebirdshadroostedabovehimandshakensomedirtfromthebranchesontohisface.

Skrymir departed from Thor and his companions, and the companypressedonwardtowardacastlecalledUtgard.

Around midday, the travelers reached their destination. The gate waslockedandnoonewas there toopen it, butThor and theothers found thattheycouldfitthroughtheverylargespacesbetweenthebarsofthegateeasilyenough.Once inside, they found a hallwheremen sat eating and drinking.Amongst them was the king of this castle, the giant Utgarda-Loki, whoimmediatelyrecognizedhisnewguestsandsetabouttauntingthemforhowsmalltheywereincomparisonwithhimselfandhispeople.

Wantingtosalvagehisdignityandthatofhiscompanions,Lokiproudlyasserted that no one else in this castle could eat food faster than he could.Utgarda-Loki challengedhim toprove thisboastbyenteringa contestwithoneofthementhere,whosenamewasLogi,“Fire.”Atroughofmeatwassetbeforethem,withLokiatoneendandLogiattheother,andtheyweretoseewhocouldreachthemiddlefirst.Theymetinthemiddleatthesametime,butwhileLokihadeatenallof themeatbetween theendand themiddle,Logihad eaten themeat, the bones, and even the trough itself!Loki had clearlylost.

Thjalfi,whowasafamouslyswiftrunner,thenofferedtoraceanyoneinthecastle.Utgarda-LokiledhimouttoaracetrackandappointedoneHugi,“Thought,”tocompetewithhim.BythetimeHugireachedthefinishline,hewassofaraheadofThjalfithathedoubledbacktomeethisopponent.Theyraced a second time, andonce againHugi beatThjalfi by a longbow-shot.Still,theyracedathirdtime,butThjalfifaredevenworse;hewasstillatthemidpointofthetrackbythetimeHugifinished.

Thor then challenged anyone in the castle to a drinking contest,something at which he had no little skill. Utgarda-Loki had one of hisservantsfetchthekindofdrinkinghornfromwhichUtgarda-Loki’smenweresaid todrink.When itwasplacedbeforeThor,Utgarda-Loki informedhimthat whoever could finish the horn in one drink was considered a greatdrinker,whoever could do it in twowas considered fair, but no one in hisretinuewassuchapoordrinkerastobeunabletofinishitinthree.

Thor drankmightily, but by the time he had to pause for a breath, thelevel of liquor in the horn had barely lowered. So he gave it a second try,strainingtogulpandgulpuntilhisbreathfailedhim.Thistime,thelevelhadgonedownappreciably,butthebetterpartofthehornstillremained.Histhird

drinkwasevenmoreformidablethantheprevioustwo,butintheend,muchwas still left.By that point, however,Thor coulddrink couldnomore, andgaveup.

Then Utgarda-Loki suggested that Thor attempt to simply lift his catfromthefloor,butThorprovedunabletodoeventhis.

In a rage, Thor challenged anyone in the castle to wrestle with him.Insultingly,Utgarda-Lokiappointedanoldwoman,Elli,“Age,”whowasoneofhisservants.Butthegreatgodlosteventhiscontest.

After this,Utgarda-Lokidecidedthat thereshouldbenomorecontests,andthecompanyspentthenightthereinthecastle.

Inthemorning,theyroseandpreparedtoleave.AfterUtgarda-Lokihadshown them out of the castle, he confided to them what had actuallytranspiredintheircontests,sayingtoThor,“Nowthatyouhaveleftmycastle,Ishallsee to it thatyouneverenter itagain.Theknotonmyprovisionbagthatyoualmostsucceededinuntyinghadbeenwroughtiniron.Iusedmagictodeflecttheblowsyouattemptedtoinflictonmewithyourhammer;insteadofmyface,youhitthemountainside,andcarvedthreegapingvalleysintoit.Hadyoustruckme,Iwouldhavebeenkilledthenandthere.”

Hecontinued,“Lokiheldhisownremarkablywellinhiseatingcontest,sincehisopponentwasnoneotherthanfireitself.SoitwaswithThjalfi,too–he raced against thought,whichnobodycould everhope tooutrun.The farendofthehornfromwhichyoudrankwasconnectedtothesea,andwewereactually greatly afraid that youwere going to drink it all.When you crossovertheseaagain,youwillseehowmuchyouhavelowereditslevel.MycatwasactuallytheMidgardserpent,whomyousucceededinraisingoutoftheoceanandintothesky.And,finally,youwrestledagainstoldage,andtookalong, long time to fall. Now, for your sake and for ours, leave, and nevercomeback.”

Thor was so angered by this humiliating trickery that he raised hishammer and prepared to slayUtgarda-Loki and smash his castle to pieces.Butwhenheturnedtodosohesawnogiantandnocastle–justavast,emptyplain.

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Chapter35:OdinandVafthrudnirThe story of Odin’s wisdom contest with the giant Vafthrudnir,

“Entangler,”comesfromthepoemTheSongofVafthrudnir(Váfþrúðnismál)inthePoeticEdda.AswithTheSongoftheHoodedOne,themainpurposeofthepoem is to convey lotsofbits andpiecesof lore, and thenarrative thatframesthepoemservesasavesselforthatloreratherthanastorytoldforitsownsake.AndaswithmanyoftheotherEddicpoems,it’sunknowntowhatdegreetheframingstoryofTheSongofVafthrudnirisatraditionalmyth,andto what degree it was invented by the poet as a clever way to keep hisaudienceentertainedwhileheeducatedthem.

Scholarlyestimatesof thedateof thepoem’scompositionvarywidely,ranging from the tenth century (the later part of the Viking Age) to thethirteenth(wellintothemedievalperiod).1

Theretellingbelowfocusesonthestoryitself,andmostlyleavesoutthescrapsoflorethatOdinandVafthrudnirrecitetoimpresseachother.Almostallof that lore is relatedelsewhere in thisbook,sogoingover itagainherewouldjustberedundant.Additionally,fromthestandpointofthestoryitself,the importantpoint is thatOdinandVafthrudnirarebothmastersof theoldcosmology and mythology; as with The Song of the Hooded One, thesignificanceofthelorefortheplotisitssheervolume,notitscontent.

ODINANDVAFTHRUDNIR

OdinapproachedFriggonedayinAsgardandtoldherthatheintended

to go to the hall of the giant Vafthrudnir, who was famed throughout thecosmos for hiswide-ranging and scrupulous knowledge. There, he said, hewanted tosee ifhisownlearnednesshadat lastovertaken thatofanyotherbeingintheuniverse.IfhecouldwinacontestoferuditionwithVafthrudnir,thenhecouldrestsatisfiedthathehadattainedthatposition.

Frigg’seyeshadalookofsadnessandworryinthem.ShepleadedwithOdinnottogotothehouseofsomeoneasdangerousasVafthrudnir.ButOdinwasresolute,andFriggknewherhusbandwellenoughtoknowthatwhenhismindwasmadeup,therewasnothingshecoulddotodissuadehim.So,aftergivinghimabig,longhug,shetoldhimtobesafeandtokeephiswitsabouthim.

TherulerofAsgarddisguisedhimself,lefthisfortress,andfaredfaroverland,water,andair.Aftermanyharddaysoftraveling,hecametothecold,

dreary terrain in which the great giant’s hall stood. The hall itself wasextraordinarilylong,wide,andtall,andonceinside,hefoundit tobewarmandbrightfromthemanyfiresthatlineditssides.

Theguardstookhimbeforetheirmaster.OdingreetedVafthrudnirwithaheartyhail,andthensaid,“Ihavecomeheretofindyou,greatgiant.Tellme,haveyouwonallthewisdomthereistowin?”

Vafthrudnir, suspectingahintofsarcasticmockery inhisguest’svoice,replied,“Andwhoareyoutocomeheretomyhighhallandaskmethat?Itell you now, unless you prove yourself to be wiser than I, you won’t beleavingthisplaceinonepiece.”

OdinansweredthathewascalledGagnrad,“Dissuader.”Inagentletoneofvoice,headded,“myjourney toyourhallhasbeen longandhard,andakindwelcomefromyouiswhatIseekmost.”

ThisputVafthrudnirinapleasantermood.“Well,whyareyoustandingthereonthefloor,then?Comesitwithmeatmytableandrelieveyourthirst.Then we will know who has more knowledge: the guest or the venerablesage.”

ButOdinstoodwherehewas,andsaid,asifquotingaproverb,“Whenapoorman is theguestof a richman,he should speakcapablyornot at all.Nothingisworsetoacultivatedmanthanchatter.”

Vafthrudnir’s eyesnarrowed, andhis smilevanished.After apause, hesaid,“Verywell,then.Standtherewhereyouarebeforemythroneifyousodesire.”Hethenlaunchedavolleyofquestionsabouttheobscureminutiaeofthecosmosanditsparts.Odinansweredeachonenotonlyperfectlycorrectly,buteloquentlyaswell.

Next, it was Odin’s turn. His questions wound their way through allkindsoftechnicalitiesandparadoxes,butVafthrudnirdidn’tmissabeat,andhadananswerforeachthatwasmorethansatisfying.

ButOdinhadatrickuphissleeve.ForhisfinalquestiontoVafthrudnir,heasked,“Andwhat,wisegiant,didOdinwhisperintheearofBalder,beforethatgreatsonofhiswasburnedonthefuneralpyre?”

Vafthrudnirbecamelividwithrage.“NowIseewhoyoureallyare,”hesaidgrimly,“foronlyOdinhimselfcouldknowtheanswertothatquestion.”He clenched his teeth and his fists, and closed his eyes.When he openedthem,however,hisfacehadanexpressionofmelancholyacceptance,andhesaid,“NowforthefirsttimeinmylifeIhavelostacontestoflore.ButmyconsolationwillbethatIlostittoOdin,themostknowledgeablebeingthereis.”

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Chapter36:ThortheBrideThestoryofThor’shavingtoputonthecostumeofabride toappease

thegiantscomesonlyfromThePoemofThrym(Þrymskviða).Thetaleseemstohavebeenunknowntotheskaldicpoets,Eddicpoets,Snorri,andeveryoneelsewhowroteonNorsemythologypriortothetwelfthorthirteenthcentury;they never reference it at all, even in passing.On that basis, aswell as itscontent,scholars typicallydate thepoem’s–andthetale’s–compositiontothetwelfthorthirteenthcentury.1

In thewordsof esteemedOldNorse scholarE.O.G.Turville-Petre, thetaleis“acaricatureofthenobleThor,”theworkofalatepoetwhosoughttomake funof theVikings’ religionbycasting thequintessentiallymanly andhonorableThor inahumiliatinglyargr role.2While thestory includessomeauthentic Viking Age motifs along the way – Thor’s hammer hallowing amarriage,Freya’snecklace,her feathercloak, etc.–wecanconfidently saythatthetaleitselfdidn’texistpriortothemedievalperiod.Notonlythat,butitisdeliberatelyantitheticaltothespiritofVikingAgereligion.

THORTHEBRIDE

Onemorning,Thorawoketofindthathishammerwasmissing.Thiswas

no small matter; without the thunder god’s best weapon, Asgard was leftvulnerabletotheattacksofthegiants.Inarage,hesearchedeverywhereforhismostprizedpossession,butitwasnowheretobefound.

Lokivolunteeredtogooffinsearchoftheprecioushammer.Freyalenthimhersetoffalconfeathersthatenabledtheirbearertoshifthisorhershapeinto thatofa falcon.Lokidonned the feathersandflewoff insearchof thetreasure.Hequicklysurmisedthatithadprobablybeenstolenbythegiants,soherodethewindstoJotunheim.

Upon his arrival in that chilling, gray land, he changed back into hisregular form and approached the chief of the giants, Thrym, “Noisy.” HequestionedThrymregardingthehammer,andthegiantansweredthathehadnotonlytakenit,buthadburiediteightmilesbelowtheground.And,addedthe lonely, ugly giant, he had no intention of returning it until Freya wascompelledtobehisbride.

Loki flew back to Asgard and told this news to his fellow gods, whowerealarmedandfurious–especiallyFreya.Astheysatincounsel,Heimdallputforththefollowingsolution:thatThorshouldgotoJotunheimdisguised

asFreya,andtherebywinbackhishammerandtakevengeanceonitsthieves.Thorprotested,sayingthatthiswasadishonorableandunmanlythingtodo,andthatalloftheinhabitantsofAsgardwouldmockhimforitfortherestofhisdays.Lokipointedout,however, that ifhedidn’t consent toHeimdall’splan, Asgard would be ruled by the giants. Seeing no other way, Thorsorrowfullyagreedtotheplan.

NodetailwassparedintheassemblageofThor’sbridaldress.Afterthehumiliatedgodhadputon the costume,Loki–whohad far fewer scrupleswhenitcametosexualhonor–offeredtogowithhimashismaid-servant.

ThepairclimbedintoThor’sgoat-drawnchariotandrodeacrosstheskytoJotunheim.Whentheyarrived,theyreceivedaheartywelcomebyThrym,whoboastedthatthegodshadatlastbroughthimtheprizehedeserved.

At dinner, Thor and Loki found themselves in trouble. Thorsinglehandedlyateanentireox,eightsalmon,andallofthedaintiesthathadbeenpreparedforthewomen–nottomentionthemanybarrelsofmeadhedrank.ThismadeThrymsuspicious,andhedeclaredthathehadneverinhiswholelifeseenawomanwithsuchanappetite.

Lokiquicklydevisedanexcuse:“Thefairgoddesshasbeensolovesickfor you,” he claimed, “that she hasn’t been able to eat for aweek.”Thrymacceptedthisanswer,andwasovercomebyadesiretokisshisbride.Whenhepeeledbacktheveil,Thor’seyesglaredathimsointentlythattheyseemedtoburnholesrightthroughhim.Heexclaimed,“NeverhaveIseenamaidenwithsuchfrightfullypiercingeyes!”Loki,themasterofdeceit,explainedtothegiantthatwhileFreyahadbeenunabletoeat,shehadalsobeenunabletosleep,sofiercewasherlongingforhim.

Theweddingceremonysoonfollowed.Aswascustomary,Thrymcalledfor thehammertobebroughtout tohallowtheirunion.WhenMjollnirwaslaidinThor’slap,hegrabbeditshandleandslewfirsthisgroom,thenalloftheassembledguests.

With Loki at his side, Thor returned triumphantly to Asgard, andwasrelievedtobeabletochangebackintohispreferredclothes.

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Chapter37:Thor’sContestwithAlvissThisstorycomesfromtheEddicpoemTheSongofAlviss (Alvíssmál).

Alviss(“All-Wise”)isadwarfwhohasevidentlybeenpromisedthehandofanunnameddaughter ofThor inmarriage.Thepoemwas composed in thetwelfth century by a poet who wanted to try his hand at imitating earlierdidacticOldNorsepoemssuchasTheSongofVafthrudnirandTheSongoftheHoodedOne.1

Giventhatitschiefconcerniswithapingagenreformthatwasbythendead – essentially a nostalgic aesthetic exercise – it should come as nosurprise that the “lore” it relates along the way, as well as its pseudo-mythological framing story, have no basis whatsoever in authentic VikingAgemythologyandreligion.2AswithThePoemofThrym,itsverypremiseisabsurd:ThoroccupiesOdin’sroleasmasterofwisdomand“wanderer,”andchallengesanotherbeingrenownedforhiswisdomtoacontest.Thepoetwasevidently ignorant of even the basics of the mythology and religion fromwhichhedrew.Thewholethingreadslikeahomeworkassignmentbysomemedieval schoolboy. But Snorri quotes it in hisProse Edda, which showsthat, for all its flaws, The Song of Alviss eventually became a somewhatimportant text for the medieval scholars who crafted their own version ofNorsemythology.

THOR’SCONTESTWITHALVISS

Alviss the dwarf had been promised the hand of the daughter of noneotherthanThorhimself.AshetrekkedtoAsgardfromhisdark,dankhomeunderamountain,hisheartwasgiddyandfilledwithjoy.Hethoughtabouthow,whenhereturnedtohishome,hewouldhavethegorgeousdaughterofoneofthegreatestgodswithhim.Hetraveledbynight,fordwarvesturnedtostonewhendaylighttouchedthem.

WhenAlvissarrivedinAsgard,Thorsquintedhiseyesandsurveyedhisfigure and features in the firelight for a longminute.Then the thundergodshookhisheadandsaid,“Yourcomplexionispalebeyondbelief.Haveyoubeensleepinginapileofcorpses,orwhat?Inanycase,youdon’tlookfitformydaughter.”

ThemildlyoffendedAlvissreplied,“Well,Idolivebeneaththesoilandtherocks,youknow.Butthat’snotimportant.Theimportantthingisthatthegods and I made an agreement, and I would very much like to see that

agreementkept.”Thor snorted. “That deal concerns my daughter, and as her father, if

anyonehastherighttobreakthatdeal,it’sme.Iwasn’tconsultedwhenitwasoriginally made, but I’m the one who would be granting you her hand inmarriage.Andsofar,you’vedonenothingtodemonstratethatyou’reworthyofmy consent in thematter. As of now, you don’t havemy permission tomarrymydaughter.”

Alviss pleaded, “Is there anything I could do that would prove meworthyinyoureyes?Ilongforthehandofyourdazzlingdaughter.”

Thorkeptscowlingatthedwarfwhileponderinghisquest.Eventuallyhesaid,“Despiteyourgreatugliness,youarefamousforyourwisdom.Let’sseeifyourskillsmatchyourreputation.”

Thor then fired at him a volley of questions about what names thevariouskindsofbeingshadformanydifferentthings–theearth,thesky,themoon, thesun, theclouds, thewind,andseeminglycountlessothers.Alvissansweredeachquestioningreatdetail.

At last,whenAlvisswas clearly exhausted,Thor raised his hands andsmiled. “Imust confess that I have never seen somuch knowledge in onehead before.”A flutter of hope rose in the dwarf’s chest. “But,” continuedThor, “Imust also confess that this entire test has been a ruse.One glanceeastwardwilltellyouwhy.”

Alvissturnedhisheadtotheeastjustintimetoseethefirstglimmerofthe rising sun make its way over the mountains. In that same instant, ittouched the dwarf’s skin, and his shocked and terrified formwas turned tostone.

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Chapter38:Balder’sDreamsBalder’s Dreams (Baldrs Draumar), one of the poems in the Poetic

Edda, apparently serves as a prelude to the story of Balder’s death. It hascomedowntousonlyinasingle,fourteenth-centurymanuscriptofthePoeticEdda.1ThepoemhasonestanzaincommonwithTheProphecyoftheSeeressandonewithThePoemofThrym,so itmighthaveknownthosepoemsandincorporated those stanzas from them, but the three poems could also bedrawing on other, older sources that are now lost.2After all,we’ve alreadynotedatleastoneinstanceofTheProphecyoftheSeeressincorporatingoldermaterialword-for-word.ThesefactorsmakeitdifficulttodetermineadateforthecompositionofBalder’sDreams,andtoassessitsreliabilityasasourceofinformationabouttheVikingAge.

BALDER’SDREAMS

Balder,asonofOdinandoneofthemostbelovedofallthegods,began

tohaveominousdreamsthat tormentedhimnightafternight.Whenhe toldhis fellowdeitieswhat hewas going through, they assembled in council todeterminewhat to do about these dreams. They realized that they couldn’tdecide on a particular course of action until they knew what the dreamsmeant,sotheysentthewiseandwell-traveledOdintofindout.

OdinsaddledSleipnirandrodedownYggdrasil’sbranches to its trunk,andthendownits trunkto itsroots,wherehecameto the landof thedead.The hound at the door,whose face and neckwere covered in blood, bayedfuriouslyathim,butOdinhadtraveledthispathplentyoftimesbefore,andknewhowtoappeasethedog.Onceinsidethegate,OdinfoundthehighhallofHel,thedeath-goddess,deckedoutlavishlyandthemanylongtablesset,asifinpreparationforafeasttowelcomesomeoneofveryhighstaturetothedark,damprealm.

By the eastern door of the hall lay the grave of a powerful sorceress.Odinmadehiswaythereand,usingthespellsheknewsowell,gotherintosuchaconditionthatshewasabletosituprightandtalktohiminatrance.“Ihavebeendeadfor long–rainhasraineduponme,snowhassnoweduponme,anddewhassettleduponmemanytimes.Nowastrangerhasawakenedme.Whoareyou?”

Asusual,Odingaveoneofhislesser-knownnames:Vegtam,“Traveler.”Thenheimploredthereanimatedwomantotellhiminwhosehonorthehall

hadbeensograndlyprepared.“ForBalder,” sheanswered,“has themeadbeenbrewedand the tables

set.”YoucouldalmosthearOdin’sheartsinkinagony.ThisiswhatBalder’sdreamshadbeenwarninghimof.“Whilewearecelebratinghisarrival, thegodswillbeweepingoverhimathisfuneral.”Thenshebegantoslumpover,andsaid,“IhavealreadysaidmorethanIwouldhavelikedto,andnowIwillgobacktosleep.”

“No,please,”Odinpleaded.“Stayawakeforjustalittlelonger.WhowillsnatchawayBalder’slifefromhim?”

Thesorceressreplied,“ItshallbeHod,whobearsinhishandaslenderbranch that will soon become world-famous.” Slurring her words fromexhaustion,sheadded,“andnow,atlast,Iwillreturntomyslumber.”

“Sorceress,please, justamoment longer.Whowill seekvengeance forBalder’sdeath?”

“It shallbeVali,whomOdin shallbegetupon thegiantessRind.Fromthedayofhisbirth,hewillneverwashhishandsnorcombhishairuntilhehasslainhisbrother’skiller.Now,”shesaid inabarelyaudiblemurmur,“Iamtootiredtogoon.Letmeliedown…”

Odinleaneddowntopropherupwithhishands.“Wisewoman,beforeyoudo,justonemorequestion,please.”

Thesorceressglaredathimthroughherfatigue.“NowIseethatyouareno‘Vegtam,’”shesaidscornfully,“butratherOdin,thatoldnecromancer.Gohome.Iwillanswernomoreofyourquestions,andnoonewillgetanotherwordoutofmeuntilLokibreaksfreefromhisbonds,andthegiantsmeetthegodsatRagnarok.”

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Chapter39:Balder’sDeath(Version1)ThetaleofthetragiceventthatBalder’sdreamsforetoldisrecountedin

two startlingly different versions in the sources. The two are more or lessirreconcilable, sowe’ll lookat eachof themseparately.We’ll startwith thebetter-knownone:Snorri’sversionfromtheProseEdda.

ThreeofSnorri’ssourcesareknowntous:TheProphecyoftheSeeress,Balder’s Dreams, and Ulf Uggason’s House Poem (Húsdrápa). However,Snorri seems to have also reliedonother sources, perhaps several of them,whichhavebeenlost.1Thus,whilesomeofthedetailsofSnorri’saccountarecorroboratedbyothersources(manyofwhichhavetheirownproblemswhenitcomestoreliability), there’smuchinSnorri’sretellingthatisuniquetoit.Some of those elements probably come from those lost sources, but othersseemtohavecomefromSnorri’sownmind.

Snorri’s aim of presenting the Norse religion as a groping towardChristianitysurelycoloredhisretellingofthismyth,asitdidhisretellingofothers–and,forthatmatter,thewayheframedthewholeProseEdda.2Thisis perhaps most evident in his treatment of Balder as an innocent, passivesufferer that cannot help but remind a reader of Christ himself. Numerousother Old Norse sources – one of which we’ll examine in the followingchapter–portrayBalderasacapableandfiercewarrior,theveryoppositeofSnorri’s characterizationofhim.While thisversionof themythofBalder’sdeathcertainlywasn’tinventedoutofthinair,itcan’tbetakenatfacevalueas representinganauthenticproductof theVikingAge. It’s amixedbag inthatregard.

THEDEATHOFBALDER

Althoughthegodsknewwhatfatewas tobefall theircherishedBalder,

they couldn’t bring themselves to admit that they were helpless against it.Instead, they did everything within their power to forestall the inevitable.Frigg, Balder’s mother, went around to everything in the cosmos – allanimals,allplants,fire,water,iron,rocks,disease,andanythingelsethatcanbefoundinall theworlds–andobtainedsolemnoathsfromthemthat theywouldneverharmhersoninanyway.

Afterthishadbeencompleted,thegodsamusedthemselvesbythrowinganythingtheycouldgettheirhandsonatBalder,andwatchinginamazementand laughter as their arrows, axes, swords, and stones bounced off of him

withoutwoundinghimintheslightest.Balderwasasamazedandheartenedbythisasanyoneelse,andeveryonethoughtitwasafittingwaytohonorhisinvincibility.

But this invincibilitywas soon tobe exposedas a sham, forFrigghadmadeamistakethatwouldcostthegodsdearly.

The devious Loki went to Frigg disguised as an ordinary woman andaskedheriftherewasanythingfromwhichshehadfailedtosecureanoathtonot injure her son. “Well,” Frigg said casually, “I didn’t bother to ask themistletoe.After all, it’s such a small, slight, andweak thing;what damagecoulditpossiblydotoBalder?”ThiswasexactlythekindofinformationLokihad been hoping to hear. He went away at once, found some mistletoegrowingtothewestofValhalla,andsetaboutcraftingaspearoutofit.

LokitookthemistletoespeartowherethedeitiesweremerrilythrowingthingsattheimperviousBalder.HefoundHod,Balder’sbrother,standinginthe back of the assembled gods. Hod was blind, and couldn’t take aim atBalderonhisown,sohecontendedhimselfwithlisteningtowhatwasgoingonratherthanparticipating.

Lokiapproachedtheblindgodandsaidtohim,“Hod,mydearfriend,it’ssimply improper that you alone of all the gods are not honoringBalder bydemonstratinghisinvincibilitytoallpresent.Here,”andheputthemistletoespearintohishands.“Iwilldirectyouraim,andwhenItellyou,letitloose.”Loki positionedHod’s arms until themistletoewas pointing straight at hisbrother’schest.“Fire!”shriekedLokiwithdelight.

Hod threw themissile into the empty darkness ahead of him.Then heheard a loud thwack, a nightmarish screamof pain, and a thud that almostseemedtoechothroughtheuttersilencethatfollowed.

The stunned gods remained speechless for a longmoment. Balder laylifelessinapoolofredonthegroundinfrontofthem,felledbyamerepieceofmistletoe.

The first sounds to rupture the silence were muffled sobs, whichgraduallygavewaytoopenweepingbyeveryonepresent.Butnonefelttheirsorrowmoredeeply thanOdin,whounderstoodbetter thananyof themthefullramificationsofthedeathofhisson:itwasapresageofRagnarok,ofthedeathofallthegods,andofhisowndeathalongwiththem.

Everyone knewwhowas responsible for this murder, but Asgard wassuchaholysanctuarythatnonedaredtoshedbloodwithinitswalls,eveninpunishmentforsuchacruelanddestructiveact.

ThefirstonetospeakwasFrigg.“MysonisnowsurelyinHelwiththeothershadesofthedead.Ifanyofyouwillvolunteertotraveltothatgloomy,grimy realmandnegotiateBalder’s releasewith thegoddess forwhom that

placeisnamed,youwilltherebyearnmyeternalesteemandlove.”Onegodsteppedforward:Hermod,anothersonofOdin.Withalookofnobleresolveonhistear-stainedface,hevolunteeredforthemission.OdinlethimborrowSleipnir,themostcapablehorsetobearhimonsuchaperiloustask,andoffhespedforHel.

Thegodsthenturnedtheirattentiontoholdingafuneralfortheirfallencompanion.Hewastobegivenastatelysend-off,withhisownmagnificentshipservingashispyre.Butwhenitcametimetolaunchtheboatfromtheland, the puzzled gods found that it wouldn’t budge from the bank.Exasperated, the gods called on Hyrrokkin, “Withered by Fire,” anexceedinglymightygiantess.HyrrokkinrodeallthewayfromJotunheimonawolfandusingvipersforreins.Whenshearrived, it tookfourberserkerstosubdueandtieuphervicioussteed.HyrrokkinwasabletogetBalder’sshipintothewaterwithoneheavesotremendousthatitsettherollersonfireandcaused thewhole land toquake.Thor, that great haterofHyrrokkin’skind,suspected that she was trying to kill everyone present. He brandished hishammerandwouldhavesmoteherthenandtherehadtheothergodsnotheldhimback.

Balder’sbodywascarriedwiththeutmostceremonyontotheship.Hiswife,Nanna,stoodamongst themourners,andwhenshesawherhusband’sbodybeingcarrieduptobeburned,shecollapsedinanguishanddiedonthespot.Thegodsthoughtitfittingtoplaceherbodybesidethatofherhusbandonthepileofwoodontheship,andcommemoratebothofthemtogether.Afire was lit underneath them, and Thor hallowed it with his hammer as itbegantoslowlyconsumethewooduponwhichtheylay.AdwarfnamedLit,“Colorful,”raninfrontofThorasheheldhishammerovertheship,andthethunder god kicked the dwarf into the flames. Odin solemnly placed hislegendaryringDraupnir,fromwhicheightotherringsfalleveryninthnight,onto the fire.Balder’shorse, fittedwithallhis trappings,was ledalive intotheblaze.

Asallwhowereinattendance–allthegods,theelves,thedwarves,andeven some giants – looked on, the fire slowly devoured the entire boat,sendingathickplumeofblacksmokeandtherancidstenchofburningfleshintotheair.Thefirewasquenchedonlywhenthecharreddebrisoftheshipsankbeneath thewaves.Then, on the spotwhere this violent sensorial andemotionalordealhadjusttakenplace,thewaterandairbecameperfectlystillandcalm–almosteerilyso.

Meanwhile,HermodwasridingSleipnir toHel inhopesoffreeinghimfromtheclutchesofthedeathgoddess.Herodeforninenightsthrougheverdeeper and darker valleys. Eventually, the lack of daylight in those sunken

landsand thick, twisted forestsbecamesuch thathecouldn’t seeatall, andhadtorelyonSleipnir’ssubtlersenses.

Then, in themurkyblackness in front of him,he sawglitteringgold–first faint, then brilliant. This was the golden bridge over the furiouslychurningriverGjoll,“LoudNoise,”whichencircledtheunderworld.

When he came to the bridge, a fearsome giantess named Modgud,“FierceBattle,” stopped him. “Who are you, andwhat kind of being?” shedemanded. “Yesterday, five whole armies of dead men passed over thisbridge. But it shakes just the same when you cross it alone, and for thatmatter”–andsheeyedhimsuspiciously–“youhavemorecolorinyourfacethanadeadmandoes.”

Hermodansweredher,“IhavebeensenttoseekBalderinHel.Haveyouseenhim?”Sheansweredthathehadpassedthatwaysometimeago,andthatshewouldlethimproceedonhisjourney.

Onthefarsideofthebridge,thewearybutpersistenttravelerreachedthegate ofHel. Itwas closed, and he had nomeans of prying open the heavydoors.ButnowallwastoohighforSleipnir,whojumpedoverthefencewiththe god on his back. The two made their way to Hel’s hall. Hermoddismounted, leftSleipniroutside thedoor,andwent into thehall. Inside,hefoundBalder, pale, stone-faced, and unmoving, sitting in the seat of honornexttoHelherself.

After spending the night there as a polite guest, Hermod got down tobusiness. He implored Hel to let his brother go free, telling her howeverythingintheuniversewasweepingoverhisabsence.

Hel listened to his entreaties with a grim expression. When he hadfinished, she said, “You say that all the gods and their creation weep forBalder.Thatclaimcanbeputtothetest,andthatiswhatIproposetodo.IfyoucanmakeeverylastcreatureinthecosmoscryandmournoverthelossofBalder,thenIwillallowhimtoreturnwithyoutotheworldoftheliving.Butif even one stone, one flea, or one blade of grass withholds its tears, thenBaldershallremainwithme.”Hermodenthusiasticallyagreedtotheseterms,and thanked Hel profusely for her willingness to compromise. As Hermodwaspreparingtoleave,BalderhandedhimDraupnirsothatOdinwouldhavesomethingtorememberhimby,andNannagavehimfineclothesandjewelryforFrigg.

WhenHermodreturnedtoAsgardandtoldthegodswhatHelhadsaid,they wasted no time in going around to everything in the universe andensuring that theywereallweeping–everyelf, everydwarf,everyhuman,everyplant,everyanimal,everymountain,everyriver,everystar.Bythetimetheywerenearingtheendoftheirquest,everythingtheyhadcomeacrossso

farhadsobbedbitterlyoverBalder,andthegodswerebecominghopefulthattheywouldpassHel’stest.

ButthentheyfoundalonegiantessnamedThokk,“Thanks,”inacave.Her eyes were dry. When they asked her to find enough compassionatesadness in her heart to cry overBalder and allowhim to return to life, shescoffedandtoldthem,“Ineverlovedthatchurlofyours.LetHelholdwhatshehas.”SomesaythatThokkwasnoneotherthanLokiindisguise,andtheyare probably right. In any case, the gods failed that day, and Balder wasdoomedtoremainwithHeluntilRagnarok.

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Chapter40:Balder’sDeath(Version2)The second“full”versionof themythofBalder’sdeath thathas come

downtousisthatofthemedievalDanishhistorianSaxoGrammaticusinhisHistoryoftheDanes(GestaDanorum).

Saxo’sversionisradicallydifferentfromSnorri’s.BalderandHodaren’tbrothers.Hodisn’tblind.NannaisinlovewithHod,andBaldertriestostealher from him against herwishes.Balder is killed by a sword (albeit still aweapon with something “special” or “magical” about it) rather than amistletoe spear. Loki doesn’t feature in the tale at all. Perhaps mostsignificantly, Balder’s entire personality is almost the exact opposite of theway it’s portrayed in theProse Edda. Here, rather than an irreproachable,almost martyr-like figure, Balder is a belligerently ambitious warlord – acharacterandcareerfarmorefittingforaNorsegodthanwhatSnorrimakeshim out to be. As we’ve seen, this view of Balder is corroborated bynumerous references from Old Norse literature, as well as the most likelymeaning of his name, “Bold.”1 The same goes for Hod, too; Snorri’scharacterization of him as an unwitting pawn of Loki stands in remarkabletensionwithhisname–OldNorseHöðr,“Warrior.”2

ManyoftheotherelementsofSaxo’stalealsofindsupportelsewhereintheNorsesources, so it’sclear thatSaxo’saccount isbasedona traditionalversion of the myth, and didn’t come solely from his own imagination.(Nevertheless, Saxo weaves into his version threads of pseudo-historicalstoriesofDanishkings,whichareirrelevantandhavebeenfilteredoutofmyretelling below as much as possible.) Famed Old Norse scholar E.O.G.Turville-Petre has made a convincing case that Snorri’s version is basedpredominantly on Icelandic sources, whereas Saxo’s is mostly indebted toDanishones.3 In that case, some of the differences between them could beexplainedasregionalvariations.

Eitherway,thegapingdifferencesbetweenSnorri’sandSaxo’saccountsofwhatisclearlythesameunderlyingstoryprovideanexcellentexampleofthestartlingdiversityofthepre-ChristianNorsemyths.Theyreinforceapointthat has beenmade repeatedly throughout this book: that theVikingswerequitecontentwithwhattomodernsensibilitiesisadownrightshockinglackof rationalorderandsystematization in theirmythology,and,morebroadly,the religion ofwhich itwas a part. Therewas never one single “standard”versionofanyoftheirmyths,andmodernattemptstocreateanappearancetothecontraryareillusions.Whetherornotthisisagoodthingorabadthing

will naturally dependonyour ownaesthetic preferences, but it’s somethingthateveryhoneststudentofNorsemythologymustgrapplewithonewayoranother.

Finally,Turville-Petrehasmadeanotherintriguingsuggestionregardingthismyth. In his well-reasoned estimation, there very well may have beenanotherversion–oracommoninterpretationoftheotherversions–inwhichBalderwas killed by none other thanOdin, his father. In this view,Hod isnothing more than yet another one of Odin’s countless disguises. It’s notdifficult to see what Odin’s motivations for committing such an otherwisegrislyandtragicmurderwouldhavebeen;afterall,didhenotoftenarrangethedeathsofotherheroesinordertohavethemjoinhisarmyinValhallaandfightathissideduringRagnarok?4

THEDEATHOFBALDER

Hod was an extremely precocious boy who grew into an extremely

talented man. He spent his childhood as the foster-son of the rich andpowerfulgodGevar,thefatherofthebeautifulgoddessNanna.Gevarsoughtoutthebestexpertsinallfieldstoeducatethegodhehadadoptedashisson,andbythe timehehadgrownup,Hodwasamasterofswimming,archery,wrestling,all fieldsof scholarly learning,andmusic. In fact,hewasoneofthefinestplayersofvirtuallyeveryinstrumenttherewas.Whenheopenedhismouthtosing,orplacedhishandsonaharp,theemotionsofanyonewithinearshotbecamehisplaythings.Becauseofhismanyaccomplishments,Nannabecamequiteattractedtohim.

ButNanna soon found that she had another suitor.One day, Balder, abrashwarriorandoneofOdin’sfavoritesons,happenedtocatchsightofherwhileshewasbathinginariver.Hehidbehindatreeandwatchedforaslongashe could as she ranherwashcloth along theperfect curves of her nakedbody.HebecamesosmittenwithlustforherthatheresolvedtokillHodtoremovehiscompetitionforherembraces.

Meanwhile,Hodwashunting in anotherpart of the forest.A thick fogrolledin,andhelosthisway.Whilewanderingoverthehillsandtryingtogethis bearings, he stumbled upon a troopofValkyrieswho addressed himbyname.

“Whoareyou,andhowdoyouknowmyname?”heasked,mystified.“Wearethewomenwhodecidetheoutcomesofbattles,whoblessand

guidecertainheroes,andensurethedoomofothers,”theyreplied.ThentheytoldhimaboutwhatwashappeninginBalder’sheartandthoughtsandgavehimanimpenetrablecoatofmailtowearinhiscomingstrugglewithBalder.

However,theywarnedhimnottoimmediatelychallengeBaldertoafight,buttowaituntilthetimewasright.Then,asHodwasalreadyoverwhelmedandbewilderedbythisnews,thewomenvanished,andhefoundhimselfaloneintheforest.

When Hod returned to Gevar’s house, he told his patron what hadhappened andwhat he had been told. Then he promptly asked forNanna’shand in marriage. Gevar sighed resignedly and said, “Although I wouldgreatlypreferNannatobemarriedtoyouthantoBalder,IfearwhatBaldermightdotomewhenhefindsout.”

After a moment of melancholy silence, Gevar’s expression becamelighter,andhisbodymovedwithasuddenpulseof inspiration.“However,”headded,“Imaybeabletohelpyougetridofyourcompetitor.Eventhoughhe is so strong that his bodymight as well bemade of steel, there is oneweaponthatmightbeabletofellhim.Acquiringit,however,willsubjectyouto great peril. Deep in the mountains in the north, where the cold is sorelentlessthatnothingbutwretchedlichenscangrowontherocks,therelivesagiantnamedMiming.Mimingownsaswordthatneverfailstoslayanyonewhom it is turned against, and a golden bracelet that can make its weareralmostas richasNjord.There isno road that leads towhereMiming lives.Only an expert navigator can successfully traverse those frozenwastelands,andonly if he has a teamof reindeer to drive his chariot.Whenyou reachMiming’scave,setupyour tent inaspacenear theentranceexposed to thedaylight.Whenyouseethegiant’sshadowapproachyourtent,stabhimwithyour spear before he has a chance to kill you or to flee into the endlessblacknessofhiscave.Thenyoucantakehisswordandhisbracelet.”

HoddidasGevarinstructed,madeittothemouthofthegiant’scave,setuphistent,andwaited.Formanydays,hewentwithoutsleepincaseMimingarrivedduringthenight.Andonenight,asHodsatinanxiouscontemplationinthebittercold,fightinghardnottodozeoff,ashadowfelluponhismoonlittent.Atjusttherightmoment,Hodlungedatthedarkformwithhisspear.ApiercingshriekofpainechoedacrossthemountainsasHodranfromhistent,capturedMiming,andboundhim.Hethreatenedhimwithallkindsofgrislytortureifhedidn’tgiveuphisswordandring.Withlittlechoice,Mimingdidjustthat.Thegiantthendisappearedintohiscavetonursehiswound,andthetriumphantwarriorbrokecampandheadedhome.

BackatGevar’shouse,BalderwascourtingNanna.Sherefusedhimaspolitelyandcleverlyas shecould, saying thathis strengthandpowermadeherundeservingofhim,andthatshefearedwhathemightonedaydotoherbecauseoftheirdifferentstatures.

WhenHodreturnedandlearnedwhatBalderhadbeendoing,hebecame

furious.FiguringthatenoughtimehadelapsedsincetheValkyries’warninginthewoods,hedecided,aftermuchdeliberation,tofightBalderopenly.

Thetwosidesmetinafierceseabattle.OdinandThorledagreatarmyofgodswhofoughtonbehalfoftheirbelovedBalder,whileHodcommandedanotherformidablehost.Hod,cladinthecoatofmailhehadbeengivenbytheValkyries,ranwildlythroughtheranksofBalder’ssoldiers,cuttingdownanyonewho stood inhisway.ButThor tookuphishammerand rampagedthroughHod’sfighters.Noshield,nohelmet,andnoarmorcouldwithstandthe forceofMjollnirwhen swungby the thundergod.Hod’swarriorswereabout to give up and flee whenHod charged at Thor, struckMjollnir, andlopped off its handle, rendering it useless. Deprived of their best weapon,Thor,Odin,Balder,andallwhoremainedoftheirforcehadnochoicebuttoretreat.Thevictors,tocelebratetheirtriumph,hackedtopiecestheshipsthathadbeenleftbehind.Buttheywentoutoftheirwaytohonorthestrengthandbraveryoftheirfoesbygivingthemasplendidanddignifiedfuneral.

Hodreturned toGevar’shouseawarhero.WhenheaskedGevaroncemoreforhisdaughter’shandinmarriage,Gevardelightfullyconsented.HodandNannawere at last joined in that union forwhich both had yearned sopassionatelyandforsolong.Attheirwedding,jokeaftermockingjokewastoldattheexpenseofthevanquishedBalder.

Thoughdefeatedinbothwarandinlove,Balderrefusedtorelinquishtohis foewhathisheartdesired.HodandBaldermet inbattleagain,and thistimeBalderwon.However,hefailedtogainNannafromHod,andthislosstormentedhimsothoroughlythatbydayhecouldthinkofnothingelse,andbynighthecoulddreamofnothingelse.Hisobsessionchippedawayathishealthuntilhegrewsoweak thathe lost theability towalk, andhad tobecarriedonalitterordriveninachariottogetanywhere.

But this only strengthenedhis desperate resolve.He engagedhis hatedrivalinbattleyetagain.Justasbefore,hewonthebattle,butwithoutgainingtheprizeforwhichhehadfought.

YettheserepeatedlossesweighedheavilyonHod’sheart.Hishonorhadbeentarnished.Hecouldnolongerbeartolookanyoneelseintheeye,andhegrewtoloathethecompanyofothers.Oneday,hepulledhimselftogetherjustenoughtoannouncetohismosttrustedfriendsthathewasgoingawaytolivealoneinaremotewilderness,anddidn’tknowwhen,orif,he’dreturn.Thenhedeparted,andnooneheardanythingfromhimforalongtime.

Inhisvast,wildrefugeofsolitude,Hodspenthisdayshunting,fishing,gathering berries and herbs, and trying to forget about his earlier life.Oneday,whilewandering in thewoods, he found himself face to facewith thesame Valkyries who had given him his matchless armor those many years

before.“Whyareyouhere?”theyaskedhim.“Because Ihave lost toomanybattles tobeable toholdmyheadhigh

when I amamongothermen,” he replied despondently. “Youpromisedmevictory,”hechargedwithaflashofangerinhisvoice,“butthat’snotthewaythingshaveworkedout,isit?”Thenhesatdownonthedirtandbegantosobhelplessly.

Oneofthewomenwalkedovertohimandbegantostrokehishair.“Butyou’ve defeatedBalder at least as often and as severely as he has defeatedyou, have you not?” she reminded him. “Though youmay have lost morebattlesthanhe,youstillhavetheonethingthathedesiresaboveallelse,andwhichhehasbeenunabletowrestfromyou:theloveofyourwifeNanna.”ShesatdownnexttoHod.“Balderisrenownedforbeingsostrongastobealmostinvincible,buthehasaweaknessthatfewknowabout.WereitnotforararefoodthatanotherbandofValkyriesfeedhim,hewouldbenostrongerthananyotherspoiledking’sson.Ifyoucanobtainsomeofthisvivifyingfareforyourself,Balderwillbenomatchforyou,andyouwillhaveno troubledealinghimaresounding,finaldefeat.”

ThesewordsgaveHodthecourageandconfidenceheneeded.Hewastednotimeinleavinghissqualidhovelinthewildernessandwalkingthemanymiles back to his grand home. His wife, his companions, and his servantswerealloverjoyedbyhisreturn.Heimmediatelysetaboutdevisingplanstorenewhisfeudwithhisadversary.

Soonthereafter,HodandBaldermetinbattleonceagain.Bytheendofthe first dayof fighting, thewideplainwas litteredwith countless corpses.Hodwent tosleep thatnightwithhisheart troubledabout theprospects forthecomingday,andhisanxietiesawokehimlongbeforedawn.Unabletofallbackasleep,hegotupandcrepttowardhisenemy’scamptospyonthemandplan his moves for the coming day. His heart leapt when he saw threemysterious-looking women emerge from Balder’s tent with a tray of food.CouldthisbethemagicallyempoweringnourishmenttheValkyrieshadtoldhimaboutduringhistimeinthewilderness?

Hesurreptitiouslyfollowedthemaidensthroughtheforestuntilhecametotheirencampment.Whenhesteppedintotheirfirelight,theydemandedtoknow who he was. He replied that he was a simple minstrel who hadapproachedtheminsearchofhospitalityforthenight.Tobackuphisclaim,hepickedupa lyre theyhadwith themamongst theirpossessions, tuned it,andbegantoserenadethemwiththemostmovingmusictheyhadeverheard.Theirheartswerealternatelyroused,broken,andmended.

AsHodplayed,anenormous,sinisterviperdribbledvenomintoabowl,

whose contents the women periodically poured out and mixed with food.This, Hod understood, was how Balder’s special nourishment was made.Whentheminstrelhadfinishedhisset,theValkyriesdebatedwhetherornotitwaspropertorewardhimwithasampleofthispotentfood.Intheend,theydecidedtogivehimataste–afterall,hewasonlyaminstrelandcouldn’tusethisgiftagainstBalder,couldhe?Havingobtainedwhathewanted,Hodleftthemand,brimmingwithhappiness,begantomakehiswaybacktohiscampjustasthefirstrumorsofdawnbegantolightenthesky.

Alongtheway,hehadtopassnearthecampofhisenemy’sforces.Asitturnedout,Balderhad justemergedfromhis tent topreparehimself for theday’sfight.HodsnuckuponhimandplungedMiming’sswordintohisside,dealinghimhismortalwound.

But Balder didn’t die immediately. Instead, he spent the next dayswastingawaywhilebeingcarriedaroundonhislittersothathistroopscouldpretend that he was still relatively well. One night, Hel came to him in adream and told him that, in three nights’ time, he would join her in hersubterraneankingdom.And,on the thirdnightafter thatdream, itsmessagecametrue.Baldersuccumbedtohiswounds,andwasburiedinatallmound.

All of the gods who had remained on Balder’s side throughout thisconflictmournedhimlongandintensely.NonefeltthislossmoredeeplythanOdin,whonotonlyunderstood itsmagnitudemore than theothers,buthadlostoneofhisforemostsons.AstheseeressinHelhadpredicted,hevowedrevenge.

Odin mounted Sleipnir and rode to Jotunheim, where he located thegiantessRind,whomtheprophecieshadsaidwouldbethemotherofthechildwhowouldavengeBalder’sdeath.ButRindwouldhavenothingtodowiththe sorcerer god, and he succeeded in impregnating her only by disguisinghimselfasafemaledoctorwhohadcometohelpherwhenshewasill,andthen rapingher.Shegavebirth toa sonnamedBous,whowenton to fightHodinbattle.Eachdealttheotherhisdeathblow.

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Chapter41:Loki’sTauntsThisstory,inwhichthegods’dirtylaundryisairedspectacularly,comes

fromthepoemLoki’sTaunts(Lokasenna)inthePoeticEdda.Thedateofthepoem’s composition is disputed, with arguments ranging from the tenth totwelfthcenturies,butvirtuallyallscholarsagreethatitdatesfromtheperiodoftransitiontoChristianity(tenthcentury)attheearliest.1

The poem’s dialogue alludes to numerous othermyths, some ofwhichareknownfromother sources,andsomeofwhichareunattestedoutsideofthispoem.Fortheonesthatfallintothatlattercategory,it’suncleartowhatdegreethepoethadaccesstosourceswedon’tandbasedthecrypticpassagesinthedialogueonthese,andtowhatdegreehewasmakingstuffuptogiveLokiandtheothergodssomethingtosayastheyhurledinsultsbackandforthateachother.2

ThepoemsaysthatLokihadpreventedBalderfromcomingtothefeast,butit’sunclearwhetherhehadfirstkilledBalder,orwhetherBalderwasstillaliveandLokihadjustpreventedhimfromgoingtothatoneparticulareventbecausehecouldn’tfindanythinginsultingtosaytohim.3

NordoweknowwhetherornottheframingstoryisatraditionalVikingAgemyth.Itcouldhavebeen,butitcouldhavealsobeentheinventionofapoet sympathetic to Christianity, who wanted to cast the deities of hisforebearsinanunflatteringlightbydrawingattentiontotheirshortcomings.

LOKI’STAUNTS

The giant Aegir, “Sea Giant,” was usually on friendly terms with the

gods.Once,heinvitedthemtoafeastinhissplendidhall,whichwascoveredinsomuchshining,reflectivegoldthattherewashardlyneedforfiretoseeby.Allgladlyacceptedtheoffer,butwhenthenightofthefeastcame,Thorwaselsewhereslayingother,morehostilegiants,andwasunabletomakeit.ButscoresofothergodsandelvesarrivedatAegir’shallandwereshowninbytwoservants,Fimafeng,“Busy,”andEldir,“Fire-Lighter.”

Thealewasserved,andeveryonewasjovialandatpeace.MuchpraisewasheapedonAegir’sservants.ThismadeLokijealous,andwhenFimafengcameovertofillhishorn,hedrewhisswordandslewhim.TheothergodsscreamedatLoki,bangedon theirshields,andchasedhimoutof thebrighthall and into the forest. There he stewed in his anger for a while beforedeciding to force his way back in andmake known his feelings about the

gods.Atthedoorofthehall,LokimetEldir.Hegrabbedtheservantroughly

bythearmandsaid,“Tellme,Eldir,whatarethegueststalkingaboutnow?Answerme,orI’llmakesurethatyounevertakeanotherstep.”

Eldirrepliednervously,“They’retalkingabouttheiraccomplishmentsinwar,andhowmarveloustheirweaponsare.IfIwereyou,Loki,Iwouldn’tgoback in there, for you will find no one who will be well-disposed towardyou.”

Loki frowned. “I’m going in anyway. The gods deserve to have theirboastsruined,likepoisonintheirdrinks.”

Eldirtriedonemoretime.“Ifyougointhereandtrytosmearthegodswithslander,bepreparedforthemtoflingitbackatyou.”

A wormlike, hateful smile wriggled its way into Loki’s lips. “FoolishEldir,themoreyoutrytodissuademe,themorepracticeyou’regoingtogiveme.”HereleasedhisgriponAegir’sservantasheviolentlyshovedhimaside.Thenheopenedthedoorandenteredthehall.

When the guests saw him, all their merriment ceased, and they sat insilence and scowled at him.He barked, “I’m thirsty aftermy long journey.Someonepourmeadrink!”Whennoonebudgedandnoonesaidanything,hecontinued,“Comeon,youarrogantcowards!Eithermakeroomformeatyourtableormakemeleave.”

Finally,Bragi,thebardofValhalla,spokeup.“Thegodsknowverywellwhotheywantattheirfeastsandwhotheydon’t.They’vemadethemistakeof finding you a seat with them in the past, but they will surely do so nomore.”

LokiturnedtoOdinandspoketohiminasarcasticallypleadingtoneofvoice.“Don’tyouremember,Odin, thatweoncemixedourbloodtogether?On thatoccasion,youpromisedyou’dnever tastealcoholunlessbothofusdranktogether.”

Odin,knowingthathishonorwasatstake,grudginglygesturedforLokitobegivenaseatandadrink.“Goaheadandgivethewolf’sfatherwhathewants,lestheshouldspeakillofushere.”

BeforeLokitookasipofhisdrink,hemadeatoast.“Hailtoyou,gods!Hailtoyou,goddesses!Hailtoallofyou–well,exceptforBragioverthere.”

Bragi tried to bargain with the intruder to prevent the situation fromescalating.“I’llgiveyouahorse,asword,andaringifyoucanholdyourselftogetherandnotinciteanymoreangerintheheartsofthegods.”

Loki quipped, “You’ve never been rich enough in horses, swords, orringstomakesuchanoffer.Butperhapsyouwouldbeifyouhadevershowntheslightestbitofbraveryinbattle.”

Bragi snarled, “If itweren’t for the fact thatwe’re guests in another’shall, I’d pay you the price you deserve for your lies by chopping off yourheadhereandnow!”

Loki laughed. “Oh, Bragi, you ornament of benches, you’re so muchbolderwhilesittingthanwhilestanding!”

BeforeBragicould respond,hiswife Idungrabbedhisarmandsaid tohiminacalmingtoneofvoice,“Consider,husband,howcloseinkinshipheistotheothershere.Stopthisrashchatterbetweenthetwoofyou.”

ButthisonlymadeLokiturnhisiretowardherinstead.“Shutup,Idun!Ofallof thesluttygoddesseshere,youmaybetheworstofall!Rememberthat time you wrapped your arms around the man who killed your ownbrother?”

Idunremainedresolutelycalm.LookingstraightaheadandnotatLoki,shesaid,“I’mnotgoingtospeaktoLokihereinAegir’shall.”

Then Gefjun spoke up, addressing everyone present. “Why are webothering to match hate with hate? We already know that Loki is an idlemockerwhohatesusall.”

“Ah,Gefjun,” said Lokiwith a tone of amusement, “What has turnedyour heart so black? Was it the time you wrapped your legs around ahandsomeboywhogaveyouanecklace?”

Odinintervened.“Itdoesn’tstrikemeaswise,Loki,toincurthewrathofGefjun.ShehasthepowerofinsightandprophecyjustlikeIdo,youknow.”

“Shut up, Odin!” Loki shouted. “You meddle in the outcomes ofcountlessbattles,yetnotoncehaveyouawardedvictoryjustly.Tothelesserpartyyougrantaresoundingtriumph,andtothegreateracrushingdefeat.”

“Well,”Odinretorted,“atleastitwasn’tmewholivedundergroundforeight winters, milking the cows like a woman, and even bearing children.Thatwasratherargrofyou,nowwasn’tit?”

“Butitwasn’tmewhodonnedthedressofawomanandtraveledamongmenasawitch,chanting,beating thedrum,andcastingspells.Now that, itseemstome,iswhollyargr.”

Frigghada lookofshameonher faceand interjected,“Neitherofyoushouldspeakofthedeedsyoudidinoldentimes.”

Herattemptatpeacemakingfellflat.ThenextwordsspokenwereLoki’s.“Shutup,Frigg!Speakingofolden times,doyou recall thatyou sleptwithViliandVewhileyourhusbandwasaway?”

Frigg scolded, “IfBalder,myhawkish son,wereherebymyside,youwouldn’temergefromthishallalive.”

Lokisnorted.“Wouldyou like toknowwhyBalder isn’there,Frigg?Imyselfpreventedhimfromcoming.Somuchforyourson’sfabledstrength.”

Freya chimed in. “Loki, only an idiot would go out of his way to letothers knowwhat shameful crimes he has committed. And to tell them toFrigg, who knows the fate of all beings, even you, is that muchmore ill-advised.”

“Shutup,Freya!”sneeredLoki.“You’renotexactlyblamelessyourself.Infact,ofallofthegodsandelveswhoaregatheredherenow,thereisn’tasingleoneofthemwhohasn’tbeeninsideyou.”

Freyahadalookofmixedterrorandhateonherface,andsaidtohim,“If you don’t stop taunting the gods with your false tongue, it will be theweaponthatfinallykillsyou.”

“Shut up, Freya, you witch! Don’t you remember that time the godswalkedinonyouandyourbrother,asyoumoanedwithdelightinhisarms?”

Njordenteredthefrayonhisdaughter’sbehalf.“Itseemstomethatit’snobigdealifawomanhasanaffairhereandthere.Butit’samarvelthatsuchatauntwouldcomefromamansoargrthathe’sbornechildrenofhisown!”

“Shut up, Njord! You once let giantesses use your mouth as anouthouse!”jabbedLoki.

“ButmysonFreyistheforemostofallthegods,andishatedbynoone,”repliedNjord.“I’dsayI’vedonequitewellformyself.”

Lokiscoffed,“Youmeanthesonyouhadwithyourownsister?”Tyrspokeup.“WeallknowthatFreyisthebravestofalltheheroeswho

sitinthishall.Andunlikeyou,Loki,heharmsnoonewhodoesn’tdeserveit,butinsteadliberatesthemfromthosewoulddothemwrong.”

“Shutup,Tyr!You’veneverbeenabletobringmentopeace,butonlytowar.AndneedItellthestoryofhowyoulostyourhandtomyson,thewolf?”

“It’struethatIlostmyhandtoFenrir,”Tyrconceded,“butyoutherebylostyourson,wholiesinchainsforaeons.”

“Shutup,Tyr!YourwifedeemeditagreathonorwhenIletherhaveason byme.Andwhat vengeance have you gotten for that grave dishonor?Hah!”

ThenFrey reciprocatedTyr’s remarksonhisbehalf. “Fenrirhowlsandrattleshischains impotentlyformillenniaonend,andsoshallyou,Loki, ifyoudon’tmasteryourtongue.”

“Theonlywayyoucouldgetawifewasbybuyingherfromherfatherwithgold,”jeeredLokiatFrey.“Whenthefire-giantsridefromMuspelheimtotorchyourprettylittleworld,youwillfindyourselfhelplessagainstthem.”

Byggvir,Frey’sservant,cametohismaster’sdefense.“IfIwereashigh-bornasFrey, andhadwon somuchadmiration formydeeds, Iwouldbeatthisscoundreluntilhe’snothingbutaslushypuddleonthefloor.”

Lokisnapped,“Whatapathetic littlecreatureyouare,alwayscrawling

around at yourmaster’s heels. Never have you been seen anywhere else –excepttoilinghardinhisstead.”

Byggvirmade a point to sit up especially straight in his chair. “I haveearnedtherespectofallofthegodsformydutifulservice.”

“Butwhen it came time for battle, you hid in the straw on the floor!”cackledLoki.

Heimdalltriedtobethevoiceofreason.“Loki,listentoyourself.You’redrunk. Why don’t you leave before you embarrass yourself further?Intemperancewillleadanyonetosayill-consideredthings.”

Loki, of course,wouldhavenoneof that. “Heimdall, you’re just upsetbecausethegodslongagoappointedyoutoguardtheirfortress,andthat’sallyou do, day in and day out – stand there and stand therewhile your backgrowsstiff.”

ThenSkadi said toLoki, “Enjoyyour freedomwhile it lasts. Soon thegodswillbindyouinchainsmadefromthebowelsofyourownson,whosebodywillbeascoldasice.”

“Perhapsitisso,”repliedLoki,“butthelastsightyourfatherThjazieversawwasmeasIslewhim.”

Skadi’s face grew pale, and her eyes narrowed. “If that is true, then Ihave nothing for you but words and deeds as cold as the glaciers where Ilive.”

Loki burst into contemptuous laughter. “You certainly had somethingelseformethattimeyoubeckonedmetoyourbed!”

Sif, Thor’s graciouswife,walked over towhere Lokiwas sitting. Shefilledwithmeadaheartycupmadeoffinecrystal.“Takethisgiftfromme,”shesaid tohim,“becauseyouknowthat,ofall thosegatheredhere, Ialoneamblameless.”

Loki saw through the brazen attempt to bribe him. After downing theentireglassunceremoniously,hesmackedhislipsandsaidtoher,“Well,Sif,whatyousaywouldbetrueifyouhadremainedfaithfultoyourhusband.ButI’msurethateveryoneherewouldbeinterestedtoknowtowhomyouwentwhile Thor was away.” He looked at her with a knowing smile while hewaitedforherresponse.For,ofcourse,ithadbeennoneotherthanLoki.

Afaintrumblingwasheardinthedistance.Beyla, thewifeofByggvir,addressed theguests:“Surely that isThorreturningfromhis journey.Whenhegetshere,hewon’tputupwiththisslimydisparagerforlong.”

Asiftogetinonelastlickbeforethemightythundergod’sarrival,Lokigrowled,“Shutup,Beyla!Asifitweren’tshamefulenoughtobemarriedtosomeoneaslowlyasByggvir,you’vedoneplentyofothermisdeedsthatweallknowabout.”

Thorenteredthehallandheardwhatwasgoingon.HewalkedtoLoki’schair and loomed over him, holding his hammer up menacingly. “Argrwretch! Keep yourmouth closed or I’ll close it for youwithmy hammer.ThenI’llripyourneckfromyourshoulders,andthatwillbetheendofyou.”

Lokipretendedhewasn’tafraid.“SonofJord,whytreatmesocoarsely?SaveyourenergyforwhenyouhavetofightthegreatserpentatRagnarok.”

ThortightenedhisgriponMjollnir.“EndyourinsultsnoworI’llthrowyourhelplessbodytothegiantsandletthemdowithyouwhattheywill.”

Loki smiled up at Thormockingly. “It’s not as though you’ve exactlyfaredwellamongthegiants,either.Rememberthattimeyoucoweredinoneoftheirgloves?”

Thorbellowed,“ThehammerthatslewHrungnircancertainlyslayyou,argr lowlife,and ifyoudon’tceaseyour taunts, itwillcrusheverybone inyourbodytodust.”

Lokichuckled.“IthinkI’lllivealongtimeyet.Afterall,youwerequiteconfident in your ability to open the straps ofSkrymir’s bag, but youwenthungrythatnight,didn’tyou?”

Thorhissedthroughhisteeth,“OnemoretauntfromyouandI’llknockyouallthewaydowntothegatesofHel!”

Loki sighed and looked around the hall with an expression ofcontemplation.Afterafewmoments,hesaid,“EverythingIhavespokenheretonighthasbeentrue,andallofyouknowit.ButallofusalsoknowthatIamnomatch for thegreatThor, sohere Iwill cease to speakmymindandgoforthfromthissplendidhall.”Lookingaroundtheroomoncemore,headded,“Aegir, your feasts and your ale have lived up to their reputation. It isperfectlyplainwhyyouaresofamousahost.Butenjoyyourbanquetswhileyoucan,becauseinlesstimethanyoumaythink,theflamesofRagnarokwillleapanddancethroughyourhallandalloveryourbody.”

Withthat,thetricksterfled,withtheothergodsinhotpursuit.

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Chapter42:Loki’sPunishmentThetaleofthepunishmentthegodsmetedouttoLokiforhiscountless

misdeedscomes from theproseendingof theEddicpoemLoki’sTaunts,aswellasalongerversionfromSnorri’sProseEdda.OtherOldNorsesourcescontainpassingreferencestodetailsfromthenarrative.

InLoki’s Taunts, the fact that the binding of Loki directly follows hisalmostbottomlessslanderingofthedeitiesseemstoclearlyindicatethatthiswas the crime for which he was caught and bound. Snorri, by contrast,explicitly connects Loki’s punishment to his culpability for the death ofBalder. But we can assume that, whatever the proximate causes for Loki’simprisonmentwere–andsurely thesedifferedfromtelling to tellingduringtheVikingAge– the ultimate causewas simplywhoLokiwas: one of theforemostenemiesofthegods.Despitehishighlyambivalentcharacter,whichledhimtosometimesaidorevenrescuethegods(usuallyafterputtingsomeorallofthemingravedangerinthefirstplace),onbalanceLokiprovedtobeabringerofmisfortuneandruin.Therefore,thegodsdidwhattheycouldtogethimoutoftheway–atleastforaslongashewasfatedtoremainthere,whichwasnotforever.ButLoki’s liberationwillhave tobe left foranotherstory.

LOKI’SPUNISHMENT

ThegodspursuedLokiuntiltheylosthiminadeep,tracklesswilderness.

Hefled to the topofamountain,wherehebuiltahousewithfourdoorssothat he could see the land below from all directions. Not too far from hishouse,acoldstreamtumbledthroughtheiceandrocks.Salmonswaminthatstream, and some days, when the fear of the gods finding him struck himespeciallyhard,heturnedhimselfintoasalmonandhidunderawaterfallinthestream.

One day, the crisis Loki had feared arrived. As he sat in his houseweavinganetforfishing,hesawatroopoffiguresapproachingfrombelow.Herantooneofhisdoorsandpeeredoutfrombehindit.Asthepeoplebelowdrewclose enough for him tomakeout their forms, he saw that theywereindeedthegods.Inapanic,heflungthenetintothefiresoasnottoleaveanycluesabouthisactivities,thenvanishedfromhishouse.

WhenthegodsenteredLoki’semptyhouse,thewiseKvasirnoticedtheremnantsofthenetinthefire.Thegodsexaminedit,anddeterminedthatit

musthavebeenanet for fishing.Theysetaboutcraftinganothernet in thelikenessoftheoneLokihadabandoned.Uponfinishingit,theytookitdowntothestreamandcastitintothewaterfall.Loki,whohadtakenuptheformasalmon,dartedoutof itsway just in timeandhidbetween tworocks in thestreambed.Thegodspulled thenetoutandcast it ina second time,havingaddedweightstoitsothatitwouldscoopupanythingandeverythingatthebottomofthestream.Lokievadedthesnareoncemore.Seeingthattheopenoceanwas justashortdistanceaway,Loki leaptoutof thestreamandoverthenet inhopesofoutsmarting thegodsandswimming tosafety.ButThorcaughthimwithhishandinmid-flight.Lokitriedtosquirmoutofthemightyhand,butThorheldhimfastbythetail–andthefirmnessofThor’sgripleftthesalmonwithataperedback,whichitstillhastothisday.

ThegodscarriedtheterrifiedLokitoacave.Theretheybroughthistwobelovedsons,ValiandNari.ThegodsturnedValiintoawolfandmadeLokiwatchasoneofhissonstoreapartthehelplesslyscreamingandflailingbodyoftheother.ThegodsthendrewNari’sentrailsoutofhiscorpse,drilledholesinthreelargerockformationsinthecave,andtiedLokitotherockswithhisson’sbowels.AssoonasLokiwasboundwiththeintestines,theyturnedtosolid,thickiron,imprisoninghim.

Skadi approached the furious, despairing tricksterwith a huge viper inherhands.Withamalicioussmile,shesaidtohim,“Thisisyourpaymentforkillingmyfather,Thjazi.”Thensheplacedtheserpentonaledgejustabovehim. Venom dripped from its jaws and onto Loki’s forehead, stingingintolerablyeverytime.Lokiyelpedandwrithedinpain,shakingtheearth.

But Loki was shown mercy by his faithful, dutiful wife, Sigyn. Tomitigatehissufferingasbest shecould, she ran tohissideandheldabowloverhisheadtocatchthedropsofpoisonfromthesnake.Therebyhissideshehassateversince.Buteverynowand then, thebowlbecomes full,andshe has to leave the cave to empty it.During her absences, a fewdrops ofvenom reach Loki’s head, causing him to thrash about in uncontrollableagony.Whenthathappens,wewholiveonthesurfaceoftheearthexperienceearthquakes.

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Chapter43:Andvari’sCurseThe story of howOdin, Loki, and Hoenir got themselves into trouble

overthekillingofanottersurvivesinthreeversions:onefromTheSongofRegin (Reginsmál) in thePoeticEdda, a second from Snorri’sProse Edda,andathirdfromTheSagaoftheVolsungs.Inadditiontobeingastandalonestoryinitsownright,thistalealsosetsthestageforthelifeofSigurd–theexemplaryNorse hero of whomwe’ll read in the next chapter. Due to thenumber of versions of the story that have come down to us, we canconfidentlysaythatthismythoriginatedintheVikingAge,orquitepossiblyevenearlier.

ANDVARI’SCURSE

Odin, Loki, and Hoenir were traveling in Midgard, the world of

humankind,followingarivertomarktheircourse.Theycametoawaterfallintheriver,andonarockbythewaterfallsatanottermunchingonasalmonhehadjustcaught.Lokipickeduparockandthrewitskillfullyattheotter,strikinghisheadandknockinghimdeadon the spot.Themischievousgodgiggled with delight, and boasted that he had caught both an otter and asalmoninjustonethrow.

Theshadowsweregrowinglongerandtheairbeginningtochill,sothethree sought lodging for thenight inanearby farmer’shouse.Theyofferedthe farmer, Hreidmar, the otter and the salmon for dinner, in hopes ofrepayinghimforhishospitality.

ButwhenHreidmarsawtheotter,hiseyesgrewwidewithanger,andhenearlylosthisbalance.HecalledtohissonsFafnir,“Embracer,”andRegin,“Mighty,”whowerewithinthehouse.Whentheycametohisside,heshowedthemthedeadotterandsaidtothem,“Thesemenwhoseeklodgingwithustonight have killed your brother. What should we do with them?” Thequestion was practically rhetorical. The three men glared up at the threedisguisedgods,seizedthem,andboundthem.TheotterhadbeenHreidmar’sthirdson,Ot,“Otter,”whohadbeenaverysuccessfulfishermanonaccountofhisabilitytoturnhimselfintoanottertodothefishing.

AsHreidmarandhissonsweresharpeningtheiraxesinpreparationfortheir vengeance, Odin proposed a settlement: in exchange for sparing theirlives,thefarmerandhisfamilywouldreceiveasmuchwealthastheydesiredfromthegods.ThisseemedlikeagoodbargaintoHreidmar.Heskinnedthe

otter’sbodyanddemandedthathisprisonersgivehimenoughgoldtocovertheskin,insideandout.

Lokiwassenttotheundergroundhomelandofthedwarvestoacquirethegold. There he found the dwarf Andvari, “Careful,” swimming through astreamintheshapeofafish.HecaughtAndvarianddemandedallofhisgoldastheconditionforhisrelease.Theterrifieddwarfagreed,andtookLokitothe rock inwhich all of hiswealthwas stored – and itwas a great deal ofwealth indeed.Andvari dutifully scooped almost all of his gold intoLoki’sbag,but tried topocketonesmall ringwithouthiskidnappernoticing.Lokisaw the trick. “We agreed that I would receive all of your gold,” he said,pointing to the dwarf’s pocket. The exasperated Andvari handed Loki thering,butplacedacurseonit,sayingthat,fromthatdayforward, thetrinketwould be the death of whoever owned it. Loki laughed and kept the ringdespite the curse, gloating over the misfortune that he would be secretlybringingtoHreidmarthroughit.

Andvari’s gold hoard proved to be just the right amount to cover theotter’s skin, inside and out. Just before the gods presented it to the farmer,however,Odinnoticedthering.Itseemedtohimtobeanespeciallybeautifulring,andheputitinhispockettokeepforhimself.

ThenOdin,Loki,andHoenirhandedthegold-coveredhidetoHreidmar,and said to him, “Here is the restitution you are owed, according to ouragreement.Nowwillyouletusgoonourway?”

Thefarmerinspectedthehideingreatdetailandforalongtime.Atlast,he said disapprovingly, “There is still one whisker that remains exposed.Cover it, too,withgold,orelseyouwillnothave fulfilled the termsofourdeal.”

With a look of sadness, Odin took the ring out of his pocket, and thewhiskerdisappearedbeneath it.“There,”hesaid.“Wehavekeptourendofthebargain.Nowyoukeepyours.Letusgo.”

Hreidmar nodded and untied the gods. When they had gathered theirbelongingsandweaponsandwereon theirwayout thedoor,LokigleefullyinformedHreidmarofthecursethathadbeenplacedonthering.Thentheywentontheirway.

As soonas thegodshad left,ReginandFafnir approached their fatherandtoldhimsternlythattheywereowedaportionofthegold,sinceOthadbeennotonlyHreidmar’sson,buttheirbrotheraswell.Hreidmarscoffedattheirdemand,andsaidhehadnointentionofgivingeitherofthemsomuchasapennyofthetreasure.Theangrybrothersslewhim.

Fafnir picked up the gold and began to make off with it, but Regingrabbedhimandtoldhimthatthefairthingtodowouldbetosplitthehoard

inhalfbetweenthem.Fafnirrefused,saying,“ThistreasureisworthsomuchtomethatImurderedmyownfatherforit.There’snochancethatIwillshareitwithyou.Nowleavemealone,orelseyou’llenduplikeourfather.”

Inorder tokeep thegold fromRegin,Fafnir fledwith it to adesolate,uninhabitedmoor.Hehidthehoardinacave,turnedhimselfintoagigantic,snakelike dragon that crawled along the groundon its belly, and layonhistreasuredayandnight.

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Chapter44:TheSagaofSigurdSigurd(OldNorseSigurðr,probably“GuardianofVictory”or“Fatedto

Victory”),adescendentofOdin,amemberoftheillustriousVolsungfamily,aslayer of dragons, a liberator of bewitched and imprisoned maidens, apossessor of shamanic abilities, and a warrior whose valor andaccomplishments on the battlefield were without parallel, was by far thegreatest human hero for the Norse – and, indeed, for virtually every otherbranchoftheancientGermanicpeoples,too.ThestoryofhislifesurvivesintoomanydifferentversionsfromtoomanypartsoftheGermaniclandstolistthemallhere.Theretelling in thischapter isprimarilybasedon theversionfromTheSagaoftheVolsungs,thebest-known,best-loved,andmostdetailedOldNorseversion.

Parts of this mythmay have had some kind of historical basis,1 butwhetherornot that’s thecase is reallybeside thepoint. Ifelements thatwetodaywouldconsider“historical”arepresentinthetale,they’reburiedtothepointofbeingindecipherable.ThesignificanceofthetalefortheVikingslayinitsstatusasamyth–atimeless,sacrednarrative–andnotinanypotential“historicity.”TheancientGermanicpeoplesdidn’tshareourmodernconceptof“history,”soinordertounderstandandappreciatethestoryastheywouldhave, we have tomomentarily disregard our own concept of “history” andimmerseourselvesinthemuchlessprecisebutmuchmorecolorfulworldofmyth.

THESAGAOFSIGURD

KingSigmund,thesonofVolsung,thesonofRerir,thesonofSigi,theson of Odin, had obtained the hand of the stunningly beautiful princessHjordis in marriage. Sigmund had won countless battles and overcomecountlessobstaclesinhislife,andnow,inhisoldage,hehadwonyetanotherprizeforwhichhehadpassionatelyyearned.

But Sigmund hadn’t been the only suitor ofHjordis. The princess hadalsobeencourtedbyKingLyngvi,ayoungerbutlessaccomplishedman.Intheend,HjordishadchosenSigmundduetohisprovenvirtues.Lyngviturnedouttobeasoreloser,andledhisforcesagainstSigmundinhopesofwrestinghisbridebyforce.

Inthethickofbattle,KingSigmundfoundhimselffacetofacewithatallmanwhoseone-eyedfaceloomeddarklyfrombeneathabroad-brimmedhat.

ThestrangercameatSigmundwithagreat spear,whichSigmundmetwithhis sword. Sigmund’s swordwas no ordinaryweapon; it had beengiven tohim inhisyouthbyOdin, and it sliced through iron like cloth.Buton thatday,itprovednomatchforthespearofthegodwhohadgivenittoSigmundthosemanydecadesago.Odin’sspearstruckSigmund’sswordandbroketheblade in two, then dealt the defenseless king his death blow. Then theshadowy form vanished, and returned toValhalla to prepare for Sigmund’sarrival.

Hjordis foundherdyinghusbandon thebattlefield, anddid everythingwithinherpowertostaunchhiswound.Butitwasnouse.Sigmundturnedtoher,gentlytracedtheoutlineofherfacewithhishand,andsaidtoher,“Youarewithchild.Heshallgrowuptobecomeatrulymagnificentman,andheshallavengemydeath.Keepthepiecesofmybrokensword,for itwillonedaybeforgedanew.Thenitwillbestronger thanever,anditwillbecalledGram.Our boy shallwield it, andwith it hewill achievemany things thatmenthinkareimpossible.Aslongastherearemouthstosingsongs,thenameofoursonwillbeontheirlips.Butnow,dearwife,Imustgoandbewithmykinsmenwhohavecomebeforeme.”Withthat,KingSigmunddied.

Somemonthslater,Hjordis,whohadbeengrantedprotectionbyanotherking namedHjalprek, gave birth to a son. The kingmarveled at the boy’spiercing eyes, and predicted that he would become such a man that nonewouldbehisequal.HjordisnamedhimSigurd.

Regin, the sonofHreidmar,wasappointed tobeSigurd’s foster-father.

Regininstructedtheboyinallkindsofathleticandmartialactivities,foreignlanguages,andwritinginrunes–allfittingskillsforaking’sson.

WhenitcametimeforSigurdtochooseahorseforhimself,hehappenedtomeetaone-eyedmanwithalongbeardintheforest.Themanadvisedhimtoputthehorseshewasconsideringtoatest:drivethemintoamightyriverandseeifanyhadthestrengthandcouragetoswimtotheothersideratherthan turnback in fear.Sigurddidas theoldmanhadsuggested,andall thehorses fledexceptone: ayoung,handsome,gray stallion.Sigurdchose thisone.Theoldman toldhim thathehadchosenwisely, and that thishorse–whose namewasGrani –was a descendent of Sleipnir, the steed ofOdin.Thenthemandisappeared.

When Sigurd brought Grani back to Regin’s house, his foster-fatheradmiredthehorse.ThenhesaidtoSigurd,“Now,atlast,you’vefoundafine,fittinghorseforyourself.Butyoustillhavefartoolittlewealthforsomeoneof your parentage and stature. I knowwhere and how you could obtain anenormous hoard of treasure, andwin fame among allmen in the process.”

ThenRegintoldhimthestoryofhisfather,Hreidmar,andhisbrother,Fafnir–howFafnirhadkilledHreidmar,takenhisgold,andstoreditinalairinthemoorswhilechanginghimselfintoadragontoguardit.

When Regin had finished, Sigurd said solemnly, “I am truly sorry foryourloss.Yourkinsmenhavebehavedcruellyandunjustlytowardyou.”HeagreedtofightFafnirthedragonforthegold,and,insodoing,avengeRegin.But first,hesaid thatRegin,whowasagreat smith,must fulfillSigmund’sprophecy and forge the sword Gram from the pieces of Sigmund’s brokensword.

Sigurdobtained thepieces ofSigmund’s sword fromHjordis andgavethemtoRegin.WhenReginhadfinishedandpulledtheswordoutofthefire,Sigurdtesteditbystrikingitagainstananvil.Theanvilwassplitfromthetoptothebottom,butGramdidn’tevenhaveascratch.Thenhewentdowntoariver, threwa tuftofwool into thecurrent, andheld the sworddownstreamfrom the wool. Instead of getting caught on the blade, the wool was splitperfectly into two smaller tufts, which then floated on downstream. SigurdpraisedRegin’sworkhighly.“NowIhave fulfilledmyendof thebargain,”saidRegin,“and it isyour turn to fulfillyours.”Sigurdputhishandonhisfoster-father’s shoulder and said, “Iwill fulfillmy vow to you. But first, Imustavengemyownfather.”

King Hjalprek gave Sigurd everything he needed for his quest of

vengeance,andthesturdyyoungmansetoffwithalargefleetofshipstowardthelandsofKingLyngvi.Alongtheway,astormarosethatthreatenedtoripthesails.Theywerepassingbyacraggyheadland,andamancalledout tothemfromtherocks,askingwhowasinchargeofthefleet.WhentheytoldhimitwasSigurd,heaskedtojointheirexpedition.Theyaskedhimwhathisname was, and he replied with a list of many of Odin’s names. The menbroughthimonboardwiththem,andimmediatelythewindandrainabatedand the sun came out. They soon landed in Lyngvi’s kingdom, and thestrangerdisappeared.

Assoonastheyhadsteppedondryland,Sigurdandhismenwastednotime, and immediately set about burning andplundering everything in theirpath. Those few peasants who escaped with their lives fled to warn KingLyngviabouttheinvasionofhisrealm.WhenthekingheardthattheirleaderwasSigurd,thesonofSigmund–heiroftheVolsungline,whichLyngvihadthoughthehadended–hisfacegrewgray.Butherefusedtofleeorsurrender.Hesummonedeveryable-bodiedmanunderhisrulershiptofight,andsetouttofaceSigurd.

A brutal fight ensued.Arrows fell like hail, axes split shields asunder,

armorgaveway,swordsstoppedhearts,clubssmashedskulls,andcountlessmenfellinwhatallwhosurvivedagreedwasoneofthemostsavagebattleseverwaged. Sigurd advanced through the enemy ranks, hewing downmenandhorseswithGramuntilhisarmsweredrenchedinbloodallthewaytohisshoulders. Iron helmets and armor crumpled and broke like pieces ofparchmentunderhissword.

Atlast,thegreatwarriormetKingLyngvifacetoface.Theircombatwasshort,andendedwithSigurdslicingthroughtheking’shelmet,skull,armor,andtorsowithonefuriousstrokeofhissword.ThenLyngvi’sbrothercameatSigurd, and was cut in half. Sigurd rounded up all of Lyngvi’s sons andslaughteredthem,thenturnedtohewdowntheremnantsoftheking’sforces.HeconfiscatedallofLyngvi’sgoldandotherportablewealth,drankhisale,andthenreturnedtotheshipsandheadedhomewithhismenandhisspoils.

WhenSigurdarrivedatKingHjalprek’scourt,alavishfeastwasheldinhishonor.Atitsend,ReginremindedSigurdofhispromisetoslayFafnir.“Ihave not forgotten it,” said Sigurd, “and now that I have avengedmy ownfather,Iwillavengeyours–andyou.”

Somedayslater,ReginandSigurdrodetotheheathwhereFafnirlayon

hisgold.Itwasn’thardtofindevidenceof themonster’spresence:abarrentrackwiderthanseveralmenranfromthedragon’scavetothepondtowhichheslunkdailytohaveadrinkofwater.SigurdturnedtoReginandsaid,“YouhadtoldmethatFafnirwasnobiggerthananordinaryserpent,butthistrailseemstosuggestotherwise.”

Reginlookednervous,andevadedthequestion.HeinsteadbegangivingSigurd instructions: “The bestway to kill the dragonwill be to dig a ditchacrosshispathway,crouchdowninit,andthenstabhimintheheartwhenhecrawls to his watering hole. If you do that, you will win great fame foryourself.”

Sigurdasked sensibly, “Butwhat should I do if theditch fillswith thedragon’sblood?MightInotdrown?”

Regin replied,with obvious agitation in his voice, “Do I have to spelleverything out for you? It sounds like you’re afraid, and that you lack thecourageofyourfamouskinsmen.”

Sigurdset toworkdiggingaditch.Butas forRegin, the fearofFafnirovercame him, and he rode away.After a shortwhile, a one-eyed oldmanapproachedSigurdandaskedhimwhathewasdoing.WhenSigurdanswered,the strangergaveadisapproving look, and said, “Itwillgomuchbetter foryouifyoudiganetworkofditchessothattherunningbloodhassomewheretogo.Thenyoucansafelysitinoneofthemandstrikeatthebeast’sheart.”

Sigurd thought that thiswasamarvelous idea,butwhenhe turned to thanktheoldmanforhisadvice,hewasgone.Sigurddugtheditches,satdowninoneofthem,andwaited.

Thegroundbegan to rumble and shake.Thedragon spewedpoison allover the moor as he slithered down to the pond. When the heart of thedreadfulbeastwasdirectlyabovehim,Sigurdthrusthisswordintoitthroughthesoftfleshofhisunderbelly,rightuptothehilt.Asbloodbegantoflowintorrentsfromthewound,Sigurdpulledouthisswordandleaptfromtheditch.The groundwas now quaking evenmore violently as Fafnir thrashed fromsidetosideandinallkindsofcontortions,fillingtheairwithbloodcurdlinghowlsasthicklyastheditcheswerebeingfilledwithhisblood.Anythinginhisway–trees,rocks,hillocks–wasutterlydestroyed.

WhenFafnirsawSigurd,heregainedhiscomposureenoughtoaskhim:“Whoareyou,andofwhatfamilydoyoucome?”

Thewarrior replied, “I amSigurd, the sonofSigmund,of theVolsungfamily.”

“Ah,”thedragongargledthroughhisthroatfullofblood.“Yourpedigreewillbenomatchformytreasure,which,youmightliketoknow,iscursedtobecomethedeathofanyonewhoownsit.”

Sigurdreplied,“Thatistrueofallwealth.Everyonewantsitforhimself,untilthedaywhenotherskillhimtotakeitforthemselves.Asforyou,yourhoardalreadybelongs toanother,andyoualreadybelong toHel.”Then thedragonbreathedhislastandslumpedtothegroundwithaboomingthud.

WhenRegin saw that thebeastwasdead, he finally emerged from the

standofbusheswherehehadbeenhiding, andcongratulatedSigurdonhisvictory–“eventhough,”hesaiddarkly,“youhavekilledmybrother.”Reginthen askedSigurd to do him a favor – “nothingmore than a trifle for you,really,”hesaid–androastthedragon’sheartforhimtoeat.

SigurdcompliedwithRegin’srequest.Whenhethoughttheorganmightbedonecooking,hetoucheditwithhisfingertogetatasteandsee.Assoonas he had put his finger to hismouth, he found, to his amazement, that hecouldunderstandwhatthebirdsaroundhimweresaying.

Inanearbytree,threenuthatcheswerechirpingandchatteringwitheachother. One of them said, “If only Sigurd knew that by eating this heart hewouldbecomewiserthananymanalive,hewouldsurelydoso.”Thesecondadded, “Yes, and if he knew thatReginwas about to kill him, I have littledoubt that he’dkillRegin, too.After all, does he really think thatRegin isgoing to just let him go after he killed his brother?” The third chimed in:“Yes,andifSigurdiswise,hewillthentakeallthegoldforhimselfandride

toHindarfell,themountainwheretheValkyrieBrynhild,‘ArmorofBattle,’isimprisoned.Shecanteachhimevenmorewisdom.”

Sigurd contemplated their words for a fewmoments before declaring,“Hreidmar’ssecondsonshouldgothewayofthefirst.”ThenhedrewGramandslicedoffRegin’shead.HeatepartofFafnir’sheart,storedtherestawayforlater,androdeuptoFafnir’slair.Hefoundthetwohuge,ornateirondoorsatitsentranceopen.Inside,therewasenoughgoldandotherpreciousthingstofilltwolargechests.SigurdmountedthemonGrani’sback,andthehorsedidn’tseemtobetroubledbytheloadintheslightest,evenwhenSigurdgotonhisback,too.Soastofollowtherestofthebirds’advice,manandhorsesetoffforHindarfell.

Aftermanydaysofridingthroughdenseforests,overwindyplains,and

across frothing rivers, Sigurd caught his first glimpse of Hindarfell in thedistance.Themountainseemedtobeglowingwithalightthatreachedallthewayuptothesky.

At the mountain’s cold, rocky peak, Sigurd found a rampart made ofshieldswithabannerflyingoverit.Insideofthewallofshieldslayasleepingwarriorinfullarmor.WhenSigurdremovedtheman’shelmet,hefoundthatthemanwas actually a woman – and a breathtakingly beautiful woman atthat.The lady’sarmorclung toherbodyso tightly that it almost seemed tohavegrownintoit.SigurdunsheathedGramandcutherbodyfreeofthetightmetalclothing.Thenhesaidoverher,“Awaken,foryouhaveslepttoolong.”

Thewomanbegantotwitchandyawn,thenrubbedhereyesandopenedthem. She stared up at Sigurd for a longmoment, then asked him sleepily,“Whoareyou,whohavecutmefreeandrousedmefrommysleep?CouldyoubeSigurd,thesonofSigmund,ashasbeenforetold?”

“Iam,”repliedSigurd.Thenshetoldhimhowshehadgottenintothepredicamentfromwhich

theherohadrescuedher.“Iwasoneofthechoosersoftheslain,thedecidersof battle, in Odin’s service. Two kings were fighting, and Odin haddeterminedthatoneofthemwasduethevictory.ButIgrantedthetriumphtotheotherone.Inrevenge,OdindraggedmehereandcastaspellovermesothatIfellintoalong,deepsleep.”

“NowthatIhaveawokenyou,”saidSigurd,“Iwouldverymuchlikeitifyou would tell me some of the wisdom for which you are renowned.”Brynhild got up and poured him a goblet of beer. Then the two sat inconversationforalongtime,sharingtheirtremendouslorewitheachother.

When they had finished their conversation, Sigurd gazed deep intoBrynhild’seyesandannounced,“Ihavenevermetanyonewiserthanyou,nor

anyonemorebeautiful.IsweartoyouhereandnowthatIwillmarryyou.”Asmile like a sunrise came over Bynhild’s face, and she replied, “Even if Icouldchooseanymanintheworldformyhusband,Iwouldchooseyou.”Astheysavoredeachother’scompany,neitherofthemhadanyideawhatterriblemisfortunesfatehadinstoreforthem.

Sigurd tookBrynhild to the hall of her sisterBekkhild andBekkhild’s

husband, the chieftain Heimir. Word of Sigurd’s victory over Fafnir hadspreadthroughoutalllands.ForthisandforfreeingBrynhild,hewasgivenahero’s welcome, complete with a splendid feast. Everyone marveled thatBrynhild had found a man she was willing to marry and pour drink for,becauseshehadalwaysspurnedmeninthepast.

One day,Gudrun, the daughter of the powerfulKingGjuki, arrived atHeimir’shall.Shewasdespondent,andnoonecouldcheerherup,nomatterhow hard they tried. When Brynhild asked her what was troubling her,Gudrun told the Valkyrie that she had had strange, upsetting dreams. SheknewthatBrynhildwasveryskilledatinterpretingdreams,soshehadcometo get her advice. Brynhild sat downwith her and asked herwhat she haddreamt.

“Idreamt,”saidGudrun,“thatyouandIwentintotheforestonedayandcameuponamightystag.Hewas farbigger thananyother stag Ihadeverseen,walkedwitharegalposture,andhadhairmadeofgoldthatglistenedinthesunlightthatfiltereddownthroughtheleaves.Bothofusdesiredthisstagmorethananythingelse,andwechasedafterit,butonlyIwasabletocatchit.Then you shot an arrow through his chest, and he fell down dead. I wasdistraughtbeyondmeasure.”

Brynhildsatinsilenceforalongtime,herfacestonyandgrim.“Hereiswhatyourdreammeans,”shesaidatlast.“YouwillobtainSigurd,themantowhom I have pledged myself in marriage, as your own husband. But youwon’thavehimforlongbeforeIbringabouthisdeath.”

Gudrun gasped and said, “Because I know this, I am overwhelmed bygrief.”Thensheleftandwentbacktoherfather’scourt.

Sigurd’s adventures soon found him approaching the hall of the same

KingGjuki.Oneoftheking’ssentinelssawSigurdapproachingandrantohismaster,tellinghim,“Mylord,amanwhomightbeagodisapproaching.Heis dressed fromhead to toe in gold, hisweapons are the finest I have everseen,hishorseisfarlargerthanotherhorses,andhehimselfisfarlargerthanothermen.”

KingGjukirodeoutwithhisattendantstomeetthestranger.Whenthey

met, the king stopped Sigurd and asked him, “Who are you? No onemayentermy fortresswithout thepermissionofmy sons,who are all heroesofmanybattles.”

Sigurdhailedthekingandreplied,“IamSigurd,thesonofSigmund.”A look of great surprise and joy came overGjuki’s face. “Then by all

means,”hesaid,“comeinandfeelwelcometoanythingyoudesire.”Sigurdwastreatedverywellbyeveryone,andstayedwithGjukiandhis

familyforsometime.Hewouldoftenridehorsesandengageinothersportswiththeking’ssons,GunnarandHogni,andthoughallcompetedwithgreatskillandstrength,Sigurdhandilywoneverycompetition.

Grimhild, KingGjuki’s wife, noted howmuch Sigurd loved Brynhild,whomhespokeofoftenandfondly.ButthedeviousGrimhildalsonotedhowmuch of an asset Sigurd would be to her family if he could be enticed tomarryherdaughterGudrun.Hewas themost capable,mosthandsome,andmostaccomplishedmanalive.Hewasaking’sson,andhewastheownerofimmensewealth.Sosheconcoctedaplottomanipulatethehero’saffections.

Grimhildwasnotonlydevious–shewasalsoapowerfulsorceress.Oneevening,atdinner,shehandedSigurdahornofalethatshehadbewitchedtocausehimtoforgethis loveforBrynhildand thevowshehadmade toher.Sigurddrankit,andwhenthepotionhadtakeneffect,Grimhildsaidtohim,“Yourpresenceherehasbroughtusincalculablejoy,andyoucertainlyseemto have been enjoying yourself, too.Why not letKingGjuki become yourfather,andGunnarandHogniyourbrothers,andGudrunyourwife?”Gudrunwent over to where Sigurd was sitting, and honored him by pouring himanother drink. He couldn’t help but notice her beauty, her grace, and theimpeccablecourtlinessofhermanner.Heacceptedthequeen’soffer.

Sigurd and the sons of Gjuki made a solemn pact that they wouldhenceforth treat each other as brothers. A magnificent feast of celebrationlasting severaldayswasheld.The food,drink, andentertainmentgotbetterand better each day. At the height of the feast, Sigurd and Gudrun weremarried.

For a long time thereafter, Sigurd, Gunnar, and Hogni traveled tocountless lands, slew countless sons of kings, and obtainedmore fame andrichesthananyonebeforeorsince.

One day, Grimhild approached Gunnar and said to him, “My belovedson,youhavedone superblywell foryourself in all realmsof lifebutone:youarestillunmarried.Whydon’tyouaskforthehandofBrynhild?Itseemstomethatthereisnomorefittingmatchforyouinalltheworld.Sigurdcouldgowithyouandendorsetheproposal.”

Gunnar thought that this was a phenomenal idea. When he told his

brother-in-lawofit,Sigurdreadilyagreedtoaccompanyhimandspeakonhisbehalf.

Gunnar,Hogni,andSigurdsetoutforthehallofKingBudli,Brynhild’s

father.Theywerealldressedinextraordinarilyfineclothesandweapons,andwerequiteasighttobehold.WhentheyarrivedatBudli’shallandrequestedthehandofhisdaughterinmarriage,Brynhildwasdevastated.Howcouldtheonlymanshehadeverloved,whohadswornsolemnoathstomarryher,nowbeinherhouseadvocatingthatshemarryanother?Sheadamantlyrefusedthemen’s request.Gunnar did not take her rejectionwell, and declared that hewouldburnthehalltothegroundandslayeveryoneunderBudli’scommandifhiswishwerenotgranted.

BudlitriedtopersuadeBrynhildtotakeGunnar’shand,pointingouthowhigh-born,wealthy,andsuccessfulhewas.ButBrynhildremainedobstinate,andinsteadofferedtoleadtheking’sforcesinbattleagainstthesonsofKingGjuki.Budliscornedthissuggestion,andtoldherthatifsheweretotakeuparms against her suitor, she would forfeit her inheritance and his goodwillfromthatmomenton.And,hewarnedher,hisfriendshipwouldserveherfarbetterthanhiswrath.

Brynhild thought the matter over, and her ruminations became everdarkerandmoredespairing.Howcouldshehopetofightnotonlytheforcesof King Gjuki, but her father as well? But then an idea came to her. Shewould arrange a test, and whoever passed it would receive her hand inmarriage–butshewouldmakesurethatthechallengewasoneatwhichonlySigurdcouldsucceed.Sherodetoherowngolden-roofedhallandkindledallarounditacircleoffire,whoseinsatiableflamesleaptashighasthewallsofthe fortress itself.Sheannounced thatwhoeverwouldcross thewallof firewouldobtainherhandinmarriage.

Gunnar,Hogni,andSigurdarrivedatBrynhild’sfortress,eagertoprovethat Gunnar was worthy of Brynhild. But try as he might, Gunnar foundhimself unable to summon the courage to ride through the thick, roaringblaze.HerecalledthatGrimhildhadtaughthimandSigurdhowtoexchangeshapes,sothateachwouldtakeontheappearanceoftheother,andheaskedSigurdifhewouldbewillingtotakeonhisformandrideintotheflamesonhisbehalf.Sigurdagreed,andtheswapwasmade.

With his body perfectly disguised as that of Gunnar, Sigurd mountedGrani, let out a great yell, and charged into the wall of fire. The earthtrembled,andtheflamesshotuptowardtheheavens,as ifagodhadblownhisbreathintothem.Then,justasquicklyastheyhadswelled,theysubsided,andGunnar andHogni sawSigurd andGrani safe on the other side of the

embers. Neither had suffered the slightest singe. Sigurd, still in Gunnar’sform,dismountedandwalkedproudlyintoBrynhild’shall.

TheValkyriewasshockedwhenshesawthat,byallindications,Gunnar,andnotSigurd,hadmadeitthroughthetrial.Sigurdwalkeduptohergildedseatandsaidtoher,“Yourfatherhasgivenmehispermissiontomarryyou.Now I have passed the test that you set before anymanwho desired yourhand,andIhavecometogainyourpermission,too,sothatImayfinallyhavewhatmyhearthasyearnedforsoardentlyandforsolong.”

It took Brynhild some time to regain her composure. She held up hersword, and its reflection gleamed on her helmet and coat ofmail. “I am awomanofwar,” she saidgravely, “and Idonotwish tobe tornaway frombattletotakeupadomesticlife.”

“Nevertheless,” replied Sigurd, “did you not give your word that youwouldwedthemanwhowoulddaretocrossyourwalloffire?”

Though these words filled Brynhild with more sorrow than she couldexpress, she could not deny their truth, nor their justice. She rose fromherseatandacceptedthemarriageproposal.

Forthreenights,SigurdstayedwithBrynhildandsleptinherbedbesideher.Buteachnight,heunsheathedGramandplaceditbetweenthem.WhenBrynhildaskedhimwhyhedidthis,hesaidthatasorceresshadprophesiedthatifhedidnotthuspostponetheconsummationofhismarriage,hewoulddie.Brynhilddidn’tquestionthis,becauseitsuitedher justfine.ButSigurddid give her a ring. When the two had exchanged vows to marry on themountainHindarfell, he had given her the ring thatAndvari the dwarf hadtried towithhold fromLoki.Now, he took this ring fromher and gave heranotherfineringfromthehoardofFafnirthedragon.

KingGjukiandQueenGrimhildpreparedasumptuousfeastattheirhallto celebrate the marriage. Sigurd and Gunnar rode there separately fromBrynhild,andalongthewaytheychangedbackintotheirpropershapes.Thefeastlastedmanydays,andeveryguestwasfullofjoy–exceptforBrynhild,who sat quietly and snuck glances at Sigurd with hopeless longing, andSigurd,whohadbegun tocomeoutofGrimhild’s spell and to realizewhathadbeendonetohim.

Onedaynot long thereafter,BrynhildandGudrunwent tobathe in the

river. In the course of their conversation, they got into a heated argumentaboutwhose husbandwas greater.Brynhild tauntedGudrun, “OnlyGunnarhadthecouragetoridethroughthewalloffiretoclaimmeashisbride.YourSigurdevidentlyjustdidn’thaveastoutenoughheart.”

Gudrunshotback,“DoyoureallythinkthatamanaspatheticasGunnar

did what you say he did? It was Sigurd who rode through the flames inGunnar’sshape,laywithyou,andgaveyouaring.Ifyoudon’tbelieveme,here, look at this!” She tossed Brynhild Andvari’s ring. Brynhild’s facebecameaspaleasacorpse.

Afterthis,Brynhildtooktoherroomandrefusedtoleave.WhenGunnarentered with the hope of consoling her, she tried to kill him. Gunnarrestrainedher,andHognitiedherup.ThenGunnarlookedatherpleadinglyandsaid,“Idon’twantyoutoremaininchainsforever.”

Brynhildglaredbackathimandsnarled,“Itdoesn’tmatter.Eitherway,youwillneveragainseemehappyinyourhouse.”Foralongtimeafterthat,she filled the wide hall with hideous screams of sorrow and rage day andnight.

AtGudrun’sinsistence,Sigurdwentintotalktoher.Hetriedtojustifyhisactions,andtoconvincehertobecontentwithGunnar.“Ifyouthinkthatanything I have done has been done out of malice,” he said, “you aremistaken.Myforgetfulnessofmypledgetoyouwasnotmydoing,butit isthegreatestsorrowofmylifenonetheless.IloveyounowasmuchasIeverhave.”

Shehissedathimthroughclenchedteeth,“Ofallofthescoundrelswhohavetrickedmeandbetrayedme,nonearemoreloathsomethanyou,Sigurd.AndnowIwishtolivenolonger.”Sigurd’sheartheavedsohardinhischestthathiscoatofmailburstasunder.

ThenexttimeGunnarcameintoseeher,shesaidtohim,“Youhavetwochoices: either Iwill leaveyou, return tomy father’shall, and live there inmiseryfortherestofmydays,oryouwillkillSigurd.”

This distressed Gunnar deeply. Either way, he would bring gravedishonoruponhimself.Itwasashamefulthingforhiswifetoleavehim,butitwasalsoshamefulforhimtobreaktheoathofbrotherhoodhehadsworntoSigurd.HeconsultedwithHogni,andthetwodecidedthatthebestcourseofactionwouldbetohavetheiryoungerbrother,Guttorm,whohadneverswornanoathtoSigurd,carryoutthemurder.TheycookedthemeatofasnakeandawolfandfedthistoGuttorm.Thentheyproposedtheirplan.Theboywasthensofullofstrengthandwraththatheagreed.

Thatnight,GuttormsnuckintoSigurd’sroomwithhissword.Hesawhis

brother-in-lawsleepingsoundly,withGudruninhisarms.Evenwhileasleep,Sigurdwasafearsomesighttobehold.Guttormturnedbackandtiptoedoutof the roomwithoutperforming thedeed.Outside,hegatheredhiscourage,andthencreptbackin.Butonceagain,hecouldn’tbringhimselftostrikeatsuchacolossalopponent.

On the third try, however, hemustered all of his strength and stabbedSigurd straight through the chest, so that the blade went into the bedunderneathhim.Hetriedtorunoutoftheroom,butSigurdhurledGramafterhim.Itstruckhiminthebackandseveredhisbodyatthewaist.Hislegsandabdomen fell forward, and his head and arms fell backward. Then Sigurddied.Gudrunawokedrenchedinherhusband’sblood,andletoutapiercingscream.Brynhildlaughedfromherroom.

Soon,however,Brynhild’scacklesturnedtosobsandwails.Gunnarputhis arms around her and begged her to agree to live and accept anycompensationshedesiredforthelossofSigurd’slife.ButBrynhildrefused.Instead, shehadher servantsbringallofhermanyheapsofgoldandothertreasuresinfrontofher.ShescreamedtoeveryoneinGjuki’shall,“Ifanyofyouwantanyof this, take it! Icareabout it less thanabirdcaresabouthisexcrement.” Then she picked up a dagger that lay beside her and stabbedherselfunderthearm.

Aseveryonerantoherside–whethertoseeiftheycouldsaveherortotakesomeofhergold–shetoldthem,insuchacalm,lucidtoneofvoicethateveryonewasastonished,whatwouldhappentotheminthefuture.Eachonewastosuffergreatly,andtheirfamilylinewoulddiewiththem.Attheend,she added, “I have one final request. When you burn Sigurd’s body on amagnificentfuneralpyre,asIknowyouwill,burnmybodybesidehis.Then,atlast,wewillbetogether,ifnotinthewaythatIhadhoped.”Withthat,shedied.

AllthatBrynhildprophesied,aswellasherlastrequest,cametopass.

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Chapter45:RagnarokRagnarok(OldNorseRagnarök,“FinalFateoftheGods”1)isawordthe

Vikings used to refer to the cataclysmic event that will bring about thedestructionofthecosmos.RagnarokisthefinalchapterinNorsemythology.

Thestoryis toldinthemostdetail inTheProphecyof theSeeress,TheSongofVafthrudnir,andtheProseEdda.Whilethesesources,aswe’veseen,areallratherlateandsuspect,thebasicthemeofthefinalbattlebetweenthegods and the giants that ushers in the end of the world is referencedrepeatedlyinolderandmorereliablesources.2Thus,whilesomeofthedetailsin the following tale may belong to a Christianized, medieval version ofNorse mythology, the underlying idea and plot is undoubtedly ancient andpre-Christian.

AswesawinChapterFour,wecanbereasonablycertainthattheideaofarebirthafterRagnarokonlycameaboutintheconversionperiod,whentheViking religionwas being replaced by Christianity. The following retellingtakesthatintoaccount.

RAGNAROK

Oneday,perhapstomorrow,orperhapsthousandsofyearsinthefuture,

thatdreadedtimeofwhichtheprophecieshavelongspokeninhushed,furtivewhisperswillfinallycometopass.ThearmyofcountlesselitewarriorsthatOdinhasbeenamassinginValhallawillpouroutoftheirlord’sgoldenhalltofulfilltheirlong-awaitedpurpose.Thesimmeringstrifebetweenthegodsandthegiantswillat lastcome toahead,and thewholeworldwillhang in thebalance.

The first sign of the coming of Ragnarok will be the Fimbulwinter,“GreatWinter,”threewintersthatfolloweachotherinarowwithnosummerinbetween.Darkness, ice,andwindwillgrip theearthandrefuse to letgo,and the sun will be pitifully distant and weak. All virtue shall leavehumankind;eventhebondsoffamilywillfailtorestrainbrothers,fathers,andsonsfromkillingeachother.Itwillbeanageofswordsandofaxes,andnoshieldwillremaininalltheworldthatisnotbrokenintopieces.

The wolves who have pursued the sun and the moon throughout themillenniawillatlastcatchtheirprey.Underthedarksky,thelandwillheaveandquake.Treeswillbetornupfromtheirroots,mountainswillcrumble,andvalleyswillbefilledin.Yggdrasilitselfwilltrembleandtotter.Heimdallwill

blow theGjallarhorn towarn thegodsof the impendingdisaster.OdinwilldesperatelyconsultwithMimir’shead,whichwasseveredfromhisbodysolongagointhewarbetweenthegods,toseeifthereisanythinghecandotoaverttheinevitable.Hewillnotliketheanswerhereceives.

Then thosemonsters the gods have taken such pains to get rid ofwillfindthemselvesfree.Jormungand,thegreatserpentwhohaslainintheoceanencircling the world, will rise up from the waves and slither onto land,displacingsomuchwaterthatnoonewillbeabletotellanylongerwherethelandendsand theseabegins.Fenrir, thedreadfulwolf,willbreak thechainwithwhichhewasbound.Hewill run furiouslyoverall theearth,withhislower jaw on the ground and his upper jaw against the roof of the sky,devouringeverythingunfortunateenough tobecaught inbetween.Firewillroar fromhiseyesandnostrils.Naglfar,“NailShip,”a longshipmade fromthefingernailsofalldeadmenandwomen,willbecomeunmooredfromitsformer resting place at the bottom of the ocean. When it floats up to thesurface, the gods will recoil in terror at the sight of its countless oars allmannedbygiants,anditshelmcaptainedbynoneotherthanLoki.

Thenthefire-giantswillarrivefromMuspelheim,thelandofelementalfire.Surt,“Black,”willleadthem,allthewhileswinginghisflamingswordthatshinesbrighterthanthesun.TheywillmarchacrossBifrost,therainbowbridgethatleadstothedoorofAsgard,andthebridgewillsnapandcollapseunder their weight. They will ransack the gods’ sanctuary, forcing itsinhabitantstoflee.

AllwillconvergeatVigrid,the“PlaceofSurgingBattle,”aplainnolessthan ahundred leagueswide and long.Therewill standonone side all thegiants,alongwithFenrir,Jormungand,andLoki.Ontheothersidewillstandall thegods,backedbyOdin’sarmyofdeadchampions.Odinwill ride intobattle first,andwillcomeupagainstFenrir.ThewolfwillswallowOdin inhisgapingmaw.ButthenVidar,Odin’ssonandavenger,willstrideforthandripthewolf’sjawsfromhisface,andthatwillbetheendofFenrir.

Thorwilllongtocometotheaidofhisfather,buthewillbepowerlessto do so, for he will have his hands full with his own arch-enemy:Jormungand.Vigridwillbecomeamorassof lightning, thunder,andvenomasthetwoancientfoesfinallyfaceeachother.Thorwillslaythesnakewithhishammer,butbythattimehisbodywillbesofullofthemonster’spoisonthathewillonlybeabletotakeninestepsbeforefallingdowndead.

Thegods’ablestdefender,Heimdall,will finallyget thechance to takeonthegods’betrayer,Loki.Bothwillslayeachother,aswillTyrandthewolfGarm,andFreyandSurt.Alltheothergodsandgiantswillperishinthesamemanner.

By that time,Surt’s firewillhavecoveredall theworld.Withnogodsleft toupholdit, itscharredmasswillsinkintotheseafromwhichitarose.Then the unbroken silence, stillness and emptiness of Ginnungagap, the“YawningAbyss,”willreignforever,unchallengedanduninterrupted.

Therearethosewhosaythatthedownfallofthecosmoswillnotbefinal,

and thatafter the landsinks into thesea, itwill somehowariseagain, freshandgreen.Itwillyieldvastcropswithoutanyworkhavingtobedonetosow,tend,orharvestthem.ThegodsVidarandValiwillsurvivetoseethatday,aswill Thor’s sonsMagni andModi.Balder andHodwill return, too, to jointheseothergods.Twohumans,LifandLifthrasir,“Life”and“TheOneWhoStrivesafterLife,”willhavewaitedoutthedestructionoftheworldbyhidingin a tree-trunk, and they will then emerge to repopulate the earth. Thedaughter of the sun will rise into the sky and follow her mother’s course,bringingalightevenfairerthanthatoftheoldsuntothelandsbelow.

Thegodswill find in thegrassgoldengamepieces that their forebearshadonceenjoyed.Allwillspendtheirdaysinmerrypleasure,withnogiantsto disturb their contentment. A new, all-powerful god will appear in theheavens,andhewillruleoverallwithperfectjusticeandvirtue.

But those who say these things lack understanding, and have notattentivelyconsideredthelorethathascomedowntothem.

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EpilogueOceanofPDF.com

Chapter46:Conclusion“MYTHISETERNAL,BUTITNEVERSTOPSCHANGING.”

ThepictureoftheVikings’mythologyandreligionthathascomedown

tousisquiteavibrantandnuancedoneindeed.Thesourcesforthatpictureare many and varied, and they’ve supplied us with reams of informationconcerningwhat theVikingsbelievedabout theirworldand theotherworld,anddozensofsacredstoriesthattheytoldtooneanother.

Nevertheless,therearesignificantpiecesmissingfromtheavailabledata.Asvividas thepicturewehaveis, it’sfarfromcomplete.This is inevitablegiventhehistoricaldistancethatstretchesbetweenusandtheVikingAge,aswellastheproblematicandincompletenatureofthesourcesthatenableustopartiallybridgethatgap.

Understandably, many people – especially those for whom Norsemythologyandreligionareimportantforcreativeorspiritualreasons–wanttofillinthosemissingpieces.Therearetwowaystoattempttodothat.Thefirstwayiswithmorescholarlyresearchandanalysis.There’salwaysmorework to bedone in this field, but scholarlywork,which tries to stickquitecloselytothesources,isnecessarilylimitedbythelimitationsofthesourcesthemselves.

The second way involves using your imagination to overcome thoselimitations, tofill in thegapsandtoreinterpretwhat’salreadythere.Unlessyou’re a scholar writing for an audience that expects a certain level ofscholarlyrigor,orinsomeotherkindofsituationwherehistoricalandfactualclaims matter, there’s nothing methodologically wrong with that. After all,that’s what the Vikings themselves did. Why do you think that so manydifferentversionsoftheNorsemythshavecomedowntousfromtheVikingAge, for example? It’s because the people who told those stories to oneanotherwereconstantlyaddingnewmaterialtothem,subtractingoldmaterialfromthem,andrecastingtheminwaysthatspoketotheneedsandchallengesof theirparticular timeandplace.That’showlivingtraditionswork; they’renotstaticfossilsthatcanonlybemindlesslyturnedoveragainandagain,butare constantly changing as thepeoplewhoenact themchange.No traditioncantrulylivewithoutinnovation.

TheformsinwhichtheNorsemyths,andthereligionofwhichtheywereapart,havecomedowntousareproductsofthatveryprocess.Considerjustfour examplesof this thatwe’ve alreadynoted:1) the rebirthnarrative that

wasaddedtotheendofthetaleofRagnarokduringtheperiodoftransitiontoChristianity,2)thedemotionofTyrfromthestatusofhighestgodtoamuchmoreminor role over the course of the centuries that preceded the VikingAge,3)thesplittingofFreya-FriggintotwogoddessesoverthecourseoftheVikingAge,and4)thesplittingofthegodsintotwotribes,theAesirandtheVanir,overthecourseoftheVikingAge.

This process of development continued even after Christianitysupplanted the Vikings’ religion throughout northern Europe. The changeswroughtbySnorri,Saxo,andthelikeshouldn’tbeseenasperversionsofthe“original” myths – and an “original” version of a myth exists only as ahypothetical abstraction rather than a fact, anyway – but instead as furtherdevelopmentsinanongoinglineoftransformation.InthewordsofOldNorsescholarChristopherAbram,

[R]ather than seeing theNorsemyths asdiminishingover timeas

elements from genuine traditions were lost, we might look on thecreationofthismythologyasanadditiveprocess.TheNorsemythsgetfuller, more sophisticated andmore interesting over time, as elementsfromthesedifferenttraditionsarecombinedinnewandinnovativeways.Even as the myths moved further away from their putative origins inpagan culture, they continued to grow and develop and capture theimaginationsofnewpoets,scholarsandpresumablytheiraudiences.1ThisprocessofceaselessdevelopmentisnotuniquetoNorsemythology

andreligion,butisintrinsictomythandreligionassuch.Considerthewaysin which the stories people tell about Jesus or Oedipus, to cite but twoexamples, have evolved over time. Freud’s version of the Oedipus mythwould have been hardly recognizable to the ancientGreeks, but it’s clearlystill the same story in many ways. To quote Abram once again, “Myth iseternal,butitneverstopschanging.”2

Paradoxically, then, the best way to be “true” to theNorsemyths andreligionistocontinuetoreinventthemforone’sowntimeandplace.

THEVIKINGSPIRIT

Now that we’ve reached the end of this book, we’ve peered into the

Vikings’worldandworldviewlonganddeeplyenoughtobeabletotellwhat“theVikingspirit”wasandis.

It was highly fatalistic, but its fatalism was not one of resignation orcomplacency.Itsawlifeasbeingultimatelydoomedtotragedy,butwiththe

opportunityforgrandandnobleheroismalongtheway.TheVikingssoughtto seize that opportunity, to accomplish as much as they could – and beremembered for it–despite thecertaintyof thegraveand“thewolf.”Howonemet one’s fate,whatever that fate happened to be,waswhat separatedhonorableandworthypeoplefromthedishonorableandtheunworthy.

Norse religion andmythologywere thoroughly infusedwith this view.Thegods,the“pillars”whoheldthecosmostogether,foughtforthemselvesandtheirworldtirelesslyandunflinchingly,eventhoughtheyknewthatintheendthestrugglewashopeless,andthattheforcesofchaosandentropywouldprevail.Theywentoutnotwithawhimper,butwithabang.ThisattitudeiswhatmadetheVikingstheVikings.

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Notes

ChapterOne

1.Winroth2014.2.Davidson1988:5-8.3.Otto1923:6.4.Otto1923:25-30.5.Otto1923:9.6.Otto1923:12-40.7.PriceandMortimer2014;Turville-Petre1964:190-195.8.Abram2011:2-11.9.Abram2011:11-16.10.Abram2011:16-20,222-223;Turville-Petre1964:8.11.Turville-Petre1964:22-25.12.Abram2011:208-213.13.Turville-Petre1964:18-21.14.Abram2011:28-30.15.Abram2011:2-11.

ChapterTwo

1.Orel2003:20-21.2.Price2002:55.3.Simek2010.4.Simek2004;Simek2010.5.Price2002:91.6.AdamofBremen2002:207.7.Turville-Petre1964:54.8.Price2002;Kershaw2000.9.Nietzsche1954:159.10.Hárbarðsljóð,stanza24;translationafterPrice2002:96.11.Turville-Petre1964:51.12.Eiríksmál,stanza6,mytranslation.13.Hávamál.14.Hákonarmál.15.Turville-Petre1964:56,70.16.PriceandMortimer2014.

17.Price2002:56.18.YnglingaSaga,chapter6.19.Tacitus2010.20.YnglingaSaga,chapter7.21.McKinnell2008:5.22.Orel2003:429.23.Turville-Petre1964:81.24.Turville-Petre1964:75.25.Simek1993:37.26.Price2002:56.27.Hárbarðsljóð,stanza24.Mytranslation.28.Turville-Petre1964:75-86.29.Davidson1990:83-84.30.AdamofBremen2002:207.31.Turville-Petre1964:177-178.32.Lokasenna,stanzas30,32.33.Turville-Petre1964:159.34.Lokasenna,stanza36.35.Völuspá,stanza22.36.YnglingaSaga,chapter4.37.Price2002:56.38.Turville-Petre1964:175-176.39.Simek1993:280;Gylfaginning,chapter23.40.Grímnismál,stanza14.41.EgilsSaga,chapter78.42.Orel2003:114.43.Turville-Petre1964:189.44.Lokasenna,stanza26.45.SaxoGrammaticus1996:26.46.SaxoGrammaticus1996:26.47.Lokasenna,stanza29.48.Lokasenna,stanza36.49.YnglingaSaga,chapters4-13.50.Turville-Petre1964:170.51.Turville-Petre1964:175.52.Price2002:221.53.AdamofBremen2002:207-208.54.Simek1993:298.55.Price2002:56.56.Turville-Petre1964:175.

57.Flateyjarbók;Gylfaginning,chapter48;Turville-Petre1964:173.58.Simek1993:289.59.Turville-Petre1964:173.60.Grímnismál,stanza5.61.Turville-Petre1964:133.62.Turville-Petre1964:127.63.Heide2009:363.64.Simek1993:284.65.Simek1993:228.66.Turville-Petre1964:129.67.Turville-Petre1964:129.68.Heide2012:82.69.Turville-Petre1964:126.70.Heide2009:363;Heide2012:90-91.71.Gylfaginning,chapter22.72.Turville-Petre1964:106.73.Grímnismál,stanza12.74.Turville-Petre1964:106.75.Simek1993:155.76.Simek1993:28.77.Turville-Petre1964:115.78.Turville-Petre1964:115;Simek1993:28.79.Simek1993:227.80.Turville-Petre1964:116-117.81.Turville-Petre1964:153.82.Gylfaginning,chapter27.83.Völuspá,stanza27.84.Gylfaginning,chapter27.85.Price2002:56.86.Simek1993:135-136.87.Turville-Petre1964:162-163.88.MalloryandAdams2006:408-409.89.Turville-Petre1964:181.90.Lindow2004:21;Turville-Petre1964:185-186.91.Simek1993:171.92.Turville-Petre1964:186.93.Lokasenna,stanza17.94.Turville-Petre1964:186.95.Turville-Petre1964:186.96.Turville-Petre1964:165.

97.McKinnell2005:63.98.Turville-Petre1964:310.99.Ellis1968:75;Völsaþáttr;Gylfaginning,chapter35.100.Lokasenna,stanza20.

ChapterThree

1.Simek1993:335.2.Steinsland1987.3.Orel2003:86.4.Orel2003:429-430.5.(“Giant”intheOnlineEtymologyDictionary.http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?

term=giant&allowed_in_frame=0)6.Davidson1988:92.7.Davidson1988:93.8.VölsungaSaga,chapter9.9.NjálsSaga,chapter156.10.Davidson1988:96-97;Price2002:338-340.11.Hall2007:36.12.Gylfaginning,chapter17.13.Turville-Petre1964:230.14.ÞiðreksSaga;HrólfsSagaKraka.15.ÓláfsSagaHelga.16.Turville-Petre1964:231.17.Turville-Petre1964:233-234.18.Price2002:57.19.Gylfaginning,chapter8.20.Price2002:57.21.Davidson1988:104-105.22.Turville-Petre1964:234.23.Davidson1993:120.24.Ellis1968:117-118.25.Davidson1993:113.26.Davidson1988:104.27.Turville-Petre1964:232.

ChapterFour

1.Heide2014:119-120.

2.Heide2014:126.3.Heide2014:120-121.4.Davidson1988:23.5.Davidson1988:170.6.Heide2014:121-122.7.Hastrup1985:143.8.Hastrup1985:136-139.9.Price2002:109.10.Simek1993:261.11.Grímnismál,stanzas32-35.12.Simek1993:167;Bauschatz1982.13.Simek1993:36.14.Simek1993:232-233.15.Völuspá,stanza2.16.Vafþrúðnismál,stanza43.17.Davidson1993:69.18.Davidson1988:169-170.19.Simek1993:222-224.20.Simek1993:345;Abram2011:222-226.21.Völuspá,stanza8.22.Völuspá,stanzas38-39.23.Völuspá,stanza65.Mytranslation.24.Turville-Petre1964:282.25.Abram2011:157-168.26.Davidson1988:188-191.27.Abram2011:157.

ChapterFive

1.Eiríksmál,stanzas1-7.2.Bek-Pedersen2011:165-171.3.Fáfnismál,stanza11.4.Simek1993:342.5.Price2002:56.6.Price2002:56.7.Davidson1988:164.8.Fáfnismál,forexample.9.Völuspá;Gylfaginning.10.Davidson1988:164.11.Davidson1988:166.

12.Price2002:53.13.Sonatorrek23-25,EgilsSaga,chapter78.Mytranslation.

ChapterSix

1.Nietzsche2000.2.Price2002:382-383.3.Bauman1986:140.4.Raudvere2004:295.5.Bauman1986:142.6.GíslaSagaSúrssonar,chapter2.7.Bauman1986:140.8.Zoëga2004:94.9.Heide2004:168.10.Price2002:211.11.Price2002:212.12.Price2002:211-212.13.Turville-Petre1964:131.14.Price2002:213.15.Byock2000:196-206.

ChapterSeven

1.Price2002:59.2.Heide2006a.3.Raudvere2002:102.4.Price2002:59.5.Raudvere2002:102.6.Price2002:59.7.Price2002:60.8.Price2002:60.9.Raudvere2002:102.10.Raudvere2002:102.11.Heide2006a.12.Zoëga2004:153.13.Turville-Petre1964:28.14.Ellis1968:128.15.Turville-Petre1964:228-229.16.Davidson1993:119.17.Ellis1968:128.

18.Price2002:229.19.Ellis1968:128-129.20.Sommer2007:275.21.Ellis1968:132.22.Víga-GlumsSaga,chapter9.23.Ellis1968:134.24.Ellis1968:132-133.25.Ellis1968:131-132.

ChapterEight

1.IbnFadlan2012.2.Price2010:131-137.3.Price2010.4.Davidson1993:70.5.Ellis1968:97.6.Heide2014:128.7.Simek1993:138.8.Abram2011:165.9.Ellis1968:84.10.Ellis1968:85-86.11.EyrbyggjaSaga,chapter11.12.Simek1993:137.13.Grímnismál,stanza14.14.DuBois1999:80.15.Hárbarðsljóð,stanza24.16.Grímnismál,stanzas8-10.17.Simek1993:71.18.Vafþrúðnismál,stanza41.19.Simek1993:347.20.Ellis1968:74.21.Ellis1968:84.22.Grímnismál,stanza14.23.Eiríksmál,stanza6.24.Turville-Petre1964:53.25.Ellis1968:80-81.26.Turville-Petre1964:55.27.Ellis1968:100.28.Ellis1968:105-111.29.Völuspá,BaldrsDraumar,andHávamál157,forexample.

30.Ellis1968:138-147.31.ÓláfsSagaHelga.32.LaxdælaSaga.33.GrettisSaga.34.Hávamál76.Mytranslation.

ChapterNine

1.Davidson1988:13.2.Turville-Petre1964:239.3.DuBois1999:50.4.Price2002:61-62.5.Davidson1988:19.6.Davidson1988:25-26.7.DuBois1999:51.8.Davidson1988:13-14.9.Davidson1988:16.10.Davidson1988:21.11.Davidson1988:14-16.12.Turville-Petre1964:238.13.Davidson1988:14.14.Turville-Petre1964:238.15.DuBois1999:43.16.Turville-Petre1964:246-248.17.Davidson1988:18.18.Price2002:61.19.Davidson1988:31.20.Davidson1988:32.21.Davidson1993:88;Davidson1988:39.22.Davidson1993:92-93.23.Davidson1993:90-91.24.Davidson1988:45-56.25.Davidson1988:58.26.Davidson1993:89-90.27.Turville-Petre1964:251.28.Turville-Petre1964:251.29.Turville-Petre1964:259-260.30.Davidson1993:92-93.31.Price2002:62.32.Turville-Petre1964:260.

33.Davidson1988:58-68.34.Davidson1988:59.35.Davidson1988:59.36.Davidson1988:67.37.YnglingaSaga,chapter19.38.Turville-Petre1964:254-255.39.Turville-Petre1964:46.40.DuBois1999:186.41.Davidson1988:135-136.42.DuBois1999:197.43.DuBois1999:186.44.DuBois1999:188.45.Davidson1988:104.46.JómsvíkingaSaga,chapters73-74.

ChapterTen

1.EiríksSagaRauða,chapter4.2.Price2002:65-66.3.Raudvere2002:88.4.Price2002:66.5.Heide2004.6.Price2002:175.7.Heide2004.8.Davidson1988:70.9.Price2002:162.10.Price2002:207.11.Price2002:205-206.12.Raudvere2002:91.13.Davidson1993:99.14.Raudvere2002:91;Price2002:65.15.Price2002:66.16.Price2002:64.17.Raudvere2002:96.18.Price2002:354.19.Price2002:64.20.Lokasenna,stanza24.21.YnglingaSaga,chapter7.22.Heide2004:167.23.Heide2004:167-168.

24.Heide2004:167.25.Price2002:178.26.Price2002:209.27.Heide2006a:355.28.Heide2006a:355-356;Heide2004:168.29.Price2002:123.30.Price2002:112-114.31.Price2002:112-114.32.Raudvere2002:97.33.Price2002:359-360.34.Price2002:330.35.Price2002:359-360.36.Price2002:119-122.37.Price2002:286.38.Price2002:288.39.YnglingaSaga,chapter6.40.Price2002:369.41.Price2002:336.

ChapterEleven

1.Pagels2003:28.2.Davidson1993:71.

ChapterTwelve

1.Simek1993:52-53.

ChapterThirteen1.Simek1993:21.

ChapterFourteen

1.Turville-Petre1964:150-151.

ChapterSixteen

1.Turville-Petre1964:35-39.2.Simek1993:208.

ChapterNineteen

1.Turville-Petre1964:48.2.Turville-Petre1964:42-43.3.Turville-Petre1964:50.

ChapterTwenty

1.PriceandMortimer2014.

ChapterTwenty-One

1.Lokasenna,stanza38.

ChapterTwenty-Two

1.Turville-Petre1964:75.2.Simek1993:324.

ChapterTwenty-Three

1.Simek1993:315.2.Turville-Petre1964:186.

ChapterTwenty-Five

1.Turville-Petre1964:78-80.

ChapterTwenty-Six

1.Simek1993:45.2.Simek1993:45.

ChapterTwenty-Eight

1.Simek1993:290-291.2.Turville-Petre1964:175.

ChapterTwenty-Nine

1.Simek1993:119.

ChapterThirty

1.Turville-Petre1964:187.

ChapterThirty-Two

1.Simek1993:130.

ChapterThirty-Three

1.Simek1993:37.

ChapterThirty-Four

1.Turville-Petre1964:138.2.Simek1993:343.

ChapterThirty-Five

1.Simek1993:345.

ChapterThirty-Six

1.Simek1993:331.2.Turville-Petre1964:81.

ChapterThirty-Seven

1.Simek1993:12-13.2.Simek1993:12-13.

ChapterThirty-Eight

1.Turville-Petre1964:109.2.Simek1993:30-31.

ChapterThirty-Nine

1.Turville-Petre1964:108-111.2.Abram2011:214-221.

ChapterForty

1.Turville-Petre1964:115.2.Simek1993:155.3.Turville-Petre1964:114-115.4.Turville-Petre1964:115.

ChapterForty-One

1.Simek1993:192-193.2.Simek1993:192-193.3.Simek1993:192-193.

ChapterForty-Four

1.Turville-Petre1964:196-205.

ChapterForty-Five

1.Simek1993:259.2.Abram2011:157;Davidson1988:188-191.

ChapterForty-Six

1.Abram2011:229.2.Abram2011:viii.

OceanofPDF.com

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