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Principles and ProceduresFourth Edition

R A Y M O N D G . M I L T E N B E R G E RUniversity of South Florida

B E H AV I O R M O D I F I C AT I O N

Behavior Modification: Principles and Procedures, Fourth Edition

Raymond G. Miltenberger

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To my wife, Nasrin,

and my kids, Ryan, Roxanne, and Steven

iv

aymond G. Miltenberger received hisPh.D. in Clinical Psychology in 1985

from Western Michigan University. He is currentlya professor and director of the Applied BehaviorAnalysis Masters Program at the University ofSouth Florida. Dr. Miltenberger conducts ap-plied behavior analysis research with his studentsand publishes widely in the areas of habit disor-ders, functional assessment and treatment of be-havioral disorders, and self-protection skills train-ing. He utilizes behavior modification in clinicalwork with children and individuals with mentalretardation. In addition to spending time with hisfamily, he enjoys running, golf, baseball, andtravel.

R

A B O U T T H E A U T H O R

v

One / Introduction to Behavior Modification 1

P A R T MEASUREMENT OF BEHAVIOR AND BEHAVIOR CHANGETwo / Observing and Recording Behavior 21Three / Graphing Behavior and Measuring Change 47

P A R T BASIC PRINCIPLESFour / Reinforcement 73Five / Extinction 101Six / Punishment 119Seven / Stimulus Control: Discrimination and Generalization 143Eight / Respondent Conditioning 165

P A R T PROCEDURES TO ESTABLISH NEW BEHAVIORNine / Shaping 185Ten / Prompting and Transfer of Stimulus Control 205Eleven / Chaining 227Twelve / Behavioral Skills Training Procedures 251

P A R T PROCEDURES TO INCREASE DESIRABLE BEHAVIOR AND DECREASEUNDESIRABLE BEHAVIOR

Thirteen / Understanding Problem Behaviors through Functional Assessment 273Fourteen / Applying Extinction 303Fifteen / Differential Reinforcement 327Sixteen / Antecedent Control Procedures 359Seventeen / Using Punishment: Time-Out and Response Cost 389Eighteen / Positive Punishment Procedures and the Ethics of Punishment 411Nineteen / Promoting Generalization 433

P A R T OTHER BEHAVIOR CHANGE PROCEDURESTwenty / Self-Management 457Twenty-One / Habit Reversal Procedures 479Twenty-Two / The Token Economy 497Twenty-Three / Behavioral Contracts 521Twenty-Four / Fear and Anxiety Reduction Procedures 541Twenty-Five / Cognitive Behavior Modification 565

5

4

3

2

1

C O N T E N T SB R I E F

vi

C O N T E N T S

Child Management 13Prevention 13Sports Psychology 13Health-Related Behaviors 13Gerontology 14

THE STRUCTURE OF THIS TEXTBOOK 14Measurement of Behavior and Behavior

Change 14Basic Principles of Behavior 14Procedures to Establish New Behaviors 14Procedures to Increase Desirable Behaviors

and Decrease Undesirable Behaviors 15Other Behavior Change Procedures 15

CHAPTER SUMMARY 15

KEY TERMS 16

PRACTICE TEST 16

CHAPTER QUIZZES 17

Introduction to Behavior Modification 1

T W O Observing and Recording Behavior 21

P A R T MEASUREMENT OF BEHAVIOR AND BEHAVIOR CHANGE1

DIRECT AND INDIRECT ASSESSMENT 22DEFINING THE TARGET BEHAVIOR 23THE LOGISTICS OF RECORDING 24

The Observer 24When and Where to Record 25

DEFINING HUMAN BEHAVIOR 2EXAMPLES OF BEHAVIOR 4DEFINING BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION 5CHARACTERISTICS OF BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION 5HISTORICAL ROOTS OF BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION 7

Major Figures 7Early Behavior Modification Researchers 9Major Publications and Events 9

AREAS OF APPLICATION 10Developmental Disabilities 10Mental Illness 11Education and Special Education 11Rehabilitation 12Community Psychology 12Clinical Psychology 12Business, Industry, and Human Services 12Self-Management 13

O N E

Contents vii

CHOOSING A RECORDING METHOD 27Continuous Recording 27Percentage of Opportunities 30Product Recording 30Interval Recording 31Time Sample Recording 31

CHOOSING A RECORDING INSTRUMENT 32REACTIVITY 36

INTEROBSERVER RELIABILITY 37CHAPTER SUMMARY 38KEY TERMS 38PRACTICE TEST 39APPLICATIONS 39MISAPPLICATIONS 40CHAPTER QUIZZES 43

T H R E E Graphing Behavior and Measuring Change 47COMPONENTS OF A GRAPH 48

GRAPHING BEHAVIORAL DATA 51

GRAPHING DIFFERENT DIMENSIONSOF BEHAVIOR 52

RESEARCH DESIGNS 54A-B Design 55A-B-A-B Reversal Design 56Multiple-Baseline Design 57

Alternating-Treatments Design 59Changing-Criterion Design 62

CHAPTER SUMMARY 64KEY TERMS 65PRACTICE TEST 65APPLICATIONS 66MISAPPLICATIONS 67CHAPTER QUIZZES 69

F O U R Reinforcement 73

P A R T BASIC PRINCIPLES2

DEFINING REINFORCEMENT 75POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT 78

Social versus Automatic Reinforcement 80ESCAPE AND AVOIDANCE BEHAVIORS 80CONDITIONED AND UNCONDITIONED REINFORCERS 82FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE THE EFFECTIVENESS OFREINFORCEMENT 83

Immediacy 83Contingency 84

Establishing Operations 84Individual Differences 85Magnitude 86

SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT 86Fixed Ratio 88Variable Ratio 88Fixed Interval 89Variable Interval 90

REINFORCING DIFFERENT DIMENSIONS OF BEHAVIOR 91CONCURRENT SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT 91CHAPTER SUMMARY 92KEY TERMS 93

PRACTICE TEST 93APPENDIX A 94APPENDIX B 95CHAPTER QUIZZES 97

viii Contents

F I V E Extinction 101DEFINING EXTINCTION 102

EXTINCTION BURST 104

SPONTANEOUS RECOVERY 106

PROCEDURAL VARIATIONS OF EXTINCTION 107

A COMMON MISCONCEPTION ABOUTEXTINCTION 109

FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE EXTINCTION 110CHAPTER SUMMARY 112KEY TERMS 112PRACTICE TEST 112APPENDIX A 112CHAPTER QUIZZES 115

S I X Punishment 119DEFINING PUNISHMENT 119A COMMON MISCONCEPTION ABOUT PUNISHMENT 122POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE PUNISHMENT 122UNCONDITIONED AND CONDITIONED PUNISHERS 127CONTRASTING REINFORCEMENTAND PUNISHMENT 128FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE THE EFFECTIVENESS OFPUNISHMENT 130

Immediacy 131Contingency 131Establishing Operations 131Individual Differences and Magnitude

of the Punisher 132

PROBLEMS WITH PUNISHMENT 133Emotional Reactions to Punishment 133Escape and Avoidance 134Negative Reinforcement for the Use

of Punishment 134Punishment and Modeling 134Ethical Issues 135

CHAPTER SUMMARY 135

KEY TERMS 136

PRACTICE TEST 136

APPENDIX A 137

CHAPTER QUIZZES 139

S E V E N Stimulus Control: Discrimination and Generalization 143EXAMPLES OF STIMULUS CONTROL 144DEFINING STIMULUS CONTROL 144

DEVELOPING STIMULUS CONTROL: STIMULUSDISCRIMINATION TRAINING 146

Contents ix

Discrimination Training in the Laboratory 147

Developing Reading and Spelling withDiscrimination Training 148

Stimulus Discrimination Training andPunishment 149

THE THREE-TERM CONTINGENCY 149STIMULUS CONTROL RESEARCH 150

GENERALIZATION 151Examples of Generalization 152

CHAPTER SUMMARY 157

KEY TERMS 157

PRACTICE TEST 157

APPENDIX A 158

CHAPTER QUIZZES 161

E I G H T Respondent Conditioning 165EXAMPLES OF RESPONDENT CONDITIONING 165DEFINING RESPONDENT CONDITIONING 166TIMING OF THE NEUTRAL STIMULUS AND UNCONDITIONEDSTIMULUS 169HIGHER-ORDER CONDITIONING 170CONDITIONED EMOTIONAL RESPONSES 171EXTINCTION OF CONDITIONED RESPONSES 173

Spontaneous Recovery 173DISCRIMINATION AND GENERALIZATION OF RESPONDENTBEHAVIOR 174FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE RESPONDENTCONDITIONING 174

The Nature of the Unconditioned Stimulusand Conditioned Stimulus 175

The Temporal Relationship between theConditioned Stimulus and UnconditionedStimulus 175

Contingency between the ConditionedStimulus and Unconditioned Stimulus 175

The Number of Pairings 175Previous Exposure to the Conditioned

Stimulus 176DISTINGUISHING BETWEEN OPERANT AND RESPONDENTCONDITIONING 176RESPONDENT CONDITIONING AND BEHAVIORMODIFICATION 179CHAPTER SUMMARY 179KEY TERMS 180PRACTICE TEST 180CHAPTER QUIZZES 181

N I N E Shaping 185

P A R T PROCEDURES TO ESTABLISH NEW BEHAVIOR3

AN EXAMPLE OF SHAPING: TEACHING A CHILDTO TALK 185

DEFINING SHAPING 186APPLICATIONS OF SHAPING 188

Getting Mrs. F to Walk Again 188Getting Mrs. S to Increase the Time between

Bathroom Visits 189

RESEARCH ON SHAPING 189

HOW TO USE SHAPING 194

SHAPING OF PROBLEM BEHAVIORS 196

CHAPTER SUMMARY 198KEY TERMS 199PRACTICE TEST 199APPLICATIONS 199MISAPPLICATIONS 200CHAPTER QUIZZES 201

x Contents

T E N Prompting and Transfer of Stimulus Control 205AN EXAMPLE OF PROMPTING AND FADING: TEACHINGLITTLE LEAGUERS TO HIT THE BALL 205WHAT IS PROMPTING? 207WHAT IS FADING? 208TYPES OF PROMPTS 210

Response Prompts 210Stimulus Prompts 211

TRANSFER OF STIMULUS CONTROL 213Prompt Fading 213Prompt Delay 215Stimulus Fading 216

HOW TO USE PROMPTING AND TRANSFER OF STIMULUSCONTROL 218CHAPTER SUMMARY 220KEY TERMS 221PRACTICE TEST 221APPLICATIONS 222MISAPPLICATIONS 222CHAPTER QUIZZES 223

E L E V E N Chaining 227EXAMPLES OF BEHAVIORAL CHAINS 227ANALYZING STIMULUSRESPONSE CHAINS 228TASK ANALYSIS 229BACKWARD CHAINING 232FORWARD CHAINING 234TOTAL TASK PRESENTATION 236OTHER STRATEGIES FOR TEACHING BEHAVIORALCHAINS 238

Written Task Analysis 240Picture Prompts 240Self-Instructions 241

HOW TO USE CHAINING PROCEDURES 243CHAPTER SUMMARY 244KEY TERMS 244PRACTICE TEST 244APPLICATIONS 245MISAPPLICATIONS 245CHAPTER QUIZZES 247

Contents xi

EXAMPLES OF BEHAVIORAL SKILLS TRAININGPROCEDURES 251

Teaching Marcia to Say No to the Professors 251

Teaching Children to Protect Themselves fromAbduction 252

COMPONENTS OF THE BEHAVIORAL SKILLS TRAININGPROCEDURE 252

Modeling 252Instructions 255Rehearsal 256Feedback 256

ENHANCING GENERALIZATION AFTER BEHAVIORAL SKILLSTRAINING 257

IN SITU TRAINING 258BEHAVIORAL SKILLS TRAINING AND THE THREE-TERMCONTINGENCY 259BEHAVIORAL SKILLS TRAINING IN GROUPS 259APPLICATIONS OF BEHAVIORAL SKILLS TRAININGPROCEDURES 260HOW TO USE BEHAVIORAL SKILLS TRAININGPROCEDURES 264CHAPTER SUMMARY 265KEY TERMS 266PRACTICE TEST 266APPLICATIONS 267MISAPPLICATIONS 267CHAPTER QUIZZES 269

T W E L V E Behavioral Skills Training Procedures 251

T H I R T E E N Understanding Problem Behaviors through FunctionalAssessment 273

P A R T PROCEDURES TO INCREASE DESIRABLE BEHAVIOR AND DECREASEUNDESIRABLE BEHAVIOR

4

EXAMPLES OF FUNCTIONAL ASSESSMENT 273Jacob 273Anna 275

DEFINING FUNCTIONAL ASSESSMENT 276FUNCTIONS OF PROBLEM BEHAVIORS 277

Social Positive Reinforcement 277Social Negative Reinforcement 277Automatic Positive Reinforcement 278Automatic Negative Reinforcement 278

FUNCTIONAL ASSESSMENT METHODS 278Indirect Methods 278

Direct Observation Methods 280Experimental Methods (Functional

Analysis) 286FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS RESEARCH 289

CONDUCTING A FUNCTIONAL ASSESSMENT 292

CHAPTER SUMMARY 294

KEY TERMS 295

PRACTICE TEST 295

APPLICATIONS 295

MISAPPLICATIONS 298

CHAPTER QUIZZES 299

THE CASE OF WILLY 303

USING EXTINCTION TO DECREASE A PROBLEMBEHAVIOR 306

Collecting Data to Assess Treatment Effects 306

Identifying the Reinforcer for the ProblemBehavior through Functional Assessment 307

Eliminating the Reinforcer after Each Instance of the Problem Behavior 307

TAKING ACCOUNT OF THE SCHEDULE OF REINFORCEMENTBEFORE EXTINCTION 313REINFORCING ALTERNATIVE BEHAVIORS 315

PROMOTING GENERALIZATION ANDMAINTENANCE 315RESEARCH EVALUATING THE USE OFEXTINCTION 316CHAPTER SUMMARY 319KEY TERMS 320PRACTICE TEST 320APPLICATIONS 320MISAPPLICATIONS 321APPENDIX A 322APPENDIX B 322CHAPTER QUIZZES 323

xii Contents

F O U R T E E N Applying Extinction 303

Differential Reinforcement 327F I F T E E NDIFFERENTIAL REINFORCEMENT OF ALTERNATIVEBEHAVIOR 327

Getting Mrs. Williams to Be Positive 327When to Use DRA 329How to Use DRA 330Using Differential Negative Reinforcement

of Alternative Behaviors 332Variations of DRA 334Research on DRA 335

DIFFERENTIAL REINFORCEMENT OF OTHERBEHAVIOR 338

Defining DRO 339Research Evaluating DRO

Procedures 341

DIFFERENTIAL REINFORCEMENT OF LOW RATESOF RESPONDING 344

Defining DRL 345Variations of DRL 345Implementing DRL Procedures 346Research Evaluating DRL

Procedures 348

CHAPTER SUMMARY 350

KEY TERMS 351

PRACTICE TEST 351

APPLICATIONS 352

MISAPPLICATIONS 352

CHAPTER QUIZZES 355

Contents xiii

Antecedent Control Procedures 359S I X T E E NEXAMPLES OF ANTECEDENT CONTROL 359

Getting Marianne to Study More 359Getting Cal to Eat Right 360

DEFINING ANTECEDENT CONTROL PROCEDURES 361Presenting the Discriminative Stimulus (SD)

or Cues for the Desired Behavior 361Arranging Establishing Operations for the

Desirable Behavior 363Decreasing Response Effort for the Desirable

Behavior 364Removing the Discriminative Stimulus or

Cues for Undesirable Behaviors 366Removing Establishing Operations for

Undesirable Behaviors 367Increasing the Response Effort for Undesirable

Behaviors 368RESEARCH ON ANTECEDENT CONTROL STRATEGIES 369

Manipulating Discriminative Stimuli 370

Manipulating Response Effort 372Manipulating Establishing Operations 374

USING ANTECEDENT CONTROL STRATEGIES 377Analysis of the Three-Term Contingency for

the Desirable Behavior 378Analysis of the Three-Term Contingency for

the Undesirable Behavior 379Functional, Nonaversive Interventions

for Problem Behaviors 379

CHAPTER SUMMARY 380

KEY TERMS 380

PRACTICE TEST 380

APPLICATIONS 381

MISAPPLICATIONS 382

CHAPTER QUIZZES 385

Using Punishment: Time-out and Response Cost 389S E V E N T E E NTIME-OUT 390

Types of Time-out 392Using Reinforcement with Time-out 392Considerations in Using Time-out 393Research Evaluating Time-out Procedures 396

RESPONSE COST 399Defining Response Cost 399Using Differential Reinforcement with

Response Cost 400Comparing Response Cost, Time-out, and

Extinction 400

Considerations in Using Response Cost 401

Research Evaluating Response CostProcedures 402

CHAPTER SUMMARY 404

KEY TERMS 404

PRACTICE TEST 405

APPLICATIONS 405

MISAPPLICATIONS 406

CHAPTER QUIZZES 407

xiv Contents

Promoting Generalization 433N I N E T E E NEXAMPLES OF GENERALIZATION PROGRAMMING 433DEFINING GENERALIZATION 434STRATEGIES FOR PROMOTING GENERALIZATION OF BEHAVIORCHANGE 435

Reinforcing Occurrences of Generalization 435Training Skills That Contact Natural

Contingencies of Reinforcement 436Modifying Natural Contingencies of

Reinforcement and Punishment 437Incorporating a Variety of Relevant Stimulus

Situations in Training 439Incorporating Common Stimuli 442Teaching a Range of Functionally Equivalent

Responses 442

Incorporating Self-Generated Mediatorsof Generalization 443

IMPLEMENTING STRATEGIES TO PROMOTEGENERALIZATION 445

PROMOTING GENERALIZED REDUCTIONS IN PROBLEMBEHAVIORS 446

CHAPTER SUMMARY 448

KEY TERMS 448

PRACTICE TEST 448

APPLICATIONS 449

MISAPPLICATIONS 450

CHAPTER QUIZZES 453

Positive Punishment Procedures and the Ethicsof Punishment 411E I G H T E E N

APPLICATION OF AVERSIVE ACTIVITIES 411Overcorrection 413Contingent Exercise 414Guided Compliance 415Physical Restraint 417Cautions in the Application of Aversive

Activities 418

APPLICATION OF AVERSIVE STIMULATION 418POSITIVE PUNISHMENT: TREATMENT OFLAST RESORT 421CONSIDERATIONS IN USING POSITIVEPUNISHMENT 422THE ETHICS OF PUNISHMENT 423

Informed Consent 423Alternative Treatments 423

Recipient Safety 424Problem Severity 424Implementation Guidelines 424Training and Supervision 424Peer Review 424Accountability: Preventing Misuse

and Overuse 424CHAPTER SUMMARY 425

KEY TERMS 425

PRACTICE TEST 426

APPLICATIONS 426

MISAPPLICATIONS 427

CHAPTER QUIZZES 429

Contents xv

T W E N T Y Self-Management 457

P A R T OTHER BEHAVIOR CHANGE PROCEDURES5

EXAMPLES OF SELF-MANAGEMENT 457Getting Murray to Run Regularly 457Getting Annette to Clean up Her

Mess 459DEFINING SELF-MANAGEMENTPROBLEMS 459DEFINING SELF-MANAGEMENT 461TYPES OF SELF-MANAGEMENTSTRATEGIES 462

Goal-Setting and Self-Monitoring 462Antecedent Manipulations 463Behavioral Contracting 464

Arranging Reinforcers and Punishers 464

Social Support 465Self-Instructions and Self-Praise 466

STEPS IN A SELF-MANAGEMENT PLAN 467CHAPTER SUMMARY 470KEY TERMS 471PRACTICE TEST 471APPLICATIONS 472MISAPPLICATIONS 472CHAPTER QUIZZES 475

Habit Reversal Procedures 479T W E N T Y- O N EEXAMPLES OF HABIT BEHAVIORS 479DEFINING HABIT BEHAVIORS 480

Nervous Habits 480Motor and Vocal Tics 481Stuttering 482

HABIT REVERSAL PROCEDURES 482APPLICATIONS OF HABIT REVERSAL 483

Nervous Habits 483Motor and Vocal Tics 484Stuttering 486

WHY DO HABIT REVERSAL PROCEDURES WORK? 486

OTHER TREATMENT PROCEDURES FOR HABITDISORDERS 488

CHAPTER SUMMARY 490

KEY TERMS 491

PRACTICE TEST 491

APPLICATIONS 491

MISAPPLICATIONS 492

CHAPTER QUIZZES 493

EXAMPLES OF BEHAVIORAL CONTRACTING 521Getting Steve to Complete His

Dissertation 521Helping Dan and His Parents Get Along

Better 523

DEFINING THE BEHAVIORAL CONTRACT 523

COMPONENTS OF A BEHAVIORAL CONTRACT 524

TYPES OF BEHAVIORAL CONTRACTS 526One-Party Contracts 527Two-Party Contracts 527

NEGOTIATING A BEHAVIORAL CONTRACT 529WHY DO BEHAVIORAL CONTRACTS INFLUENCEBEHAVIOR? 529APPLICATIONS OF BEHAVIORAL CONTRACTS 531CHAPTER SUMMARY 534KEY TERMS 534PRACTICE TEST 534APPLICATIONS 535MISAPPLICATIONS 535CHAPTER QUIZZES 537

xvi Contents

Behavioral Contracts 521T W E N T Y- T H R E E

The Token Economy 497T W E N T Y- T W OREHABILITATING SAMMY 497

DEFINING A TOKEN ECONOMY 498

IMPLEMENTING A TOKEN ECONOMY 500Defining the Target Behaviors 500Identifying the Items to Use as Tokens 500Identifying Backup Reinforcers 501Deciding on the Appropriate Schedule of

Reinforcement 502Establishing the Token Exchange

Rate 503Establishing the Time and Place for

Exchanging Tokens 503

Deciding Whether to Use Response Cost 504Staff Training and Management 505

PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS 505APPLICATIONS OF A TOKEN ECONOMY 507ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF A TOKENECONOMY 510CHAPTER SUMMARY 513KEY TERMS 514PRACTICE TEST 514APPLICATIONS 514MISAPPLICATIONS 515CHAPTER QUIZZES 517

Contents xvii

Fear and Anxiety Reduction Procedures 541T W E N T Y- F O U REXAMPLES OF FEAR AND ANXIETY REDUCTION 541

Overcoming Trishas Fear of Public Speaking 541

Overcoming Allisions Fear of Spiders 542DEFINING FEAR AND ANXIETY PROBLEMS 543

PROCEDURES TO REDUCE FEAR ANDANXIETY 546

Relaxation Training 546Systematic Desensitization 551In Vivo Desensitization 554

Advantages and Disadvantages of Systematicand In Vivo Desensitization 555

Other Treatments for Fears 557CLINICAL PROBLEMS 558CHAPTER SUMMARY 558KEY TERMS 558PRACTICE TEST 559APPLICATIONS 559MISAPPLICATIONS 560CHAPTER QUIZZES 561

Cognitive Behavior Modification 565T W E N T Y- F I V EEXAMPLES OF COGNITIVE BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION 565

Helping Deon Control His Anger 565Helping Claire Pay Attention in Class 567

DEFINING COGNITIVE BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION 568Defining Cognitive Behavior 568Functions of Cognitive Behavior 569

COGNITIVE BEHAVIOR MODIFICATIONPROCEDURES 570

Cognitive Restructuring 570

Cognitive Coping Skills Training 574Acceptance-Based Therapies 577

CLINICAL PROBLEMS 578CHAPTER SUMMARY 578KEY TERMS 578PRACTICE TEST 578APPLICATIONS 579MISAPPLICATIONS 579CHAPTER QUIZZES 581

GLOSSARY 585REFERENCES 597NAME INDEX 623SUBJECT INDEX 629

xviii

P R E FA C Eam gratified that the first three editions

of Behavior Modification: Principles andProcedures received positive reviews from stu-dents and professors. The fourth edition has keptthe positive features of the first three editions,has been revised to address the suggestions ofreviewers, and has been updated to reflect the lat-est research in behavior modification.

The goal of this fourth edition (as with theearlier editions) is to describe basic principles ofbehavior so that the student learns how environ-mental events influence human behavior and to describe behavior modification procedures sothat the student learns the strategies by whichhuman behavior may be changed. The text isdivided into 25 relatively short chapters, each ofwhich covers a manageable amount of informa-tion (for example, one principle or procedure).

This text can be used in a standard one-semestercourse in behavior modification, applied behav-ior analysis, behavior management, or behaviorchange.

The material in the text is discussed at anintroductory level so that it may be understoodby students with no prior knowledge of the sub-ject. This text is intended for undergraduate stu-dents or beginning graduate students. It wouldalso be valuable for individuals working inhuman services, education, or rehabilitationwho must use behavior modification proceduresto manage the behavior of the individuals intheir care.

I have made a concerted effort in this text tobe gender neutral. When discussing case exam-ples, I include males and females about equallyas often.

I

F E A T U R E S O F T H E T E X T C O N T I N U E D F R O MT H E F I R S T T H R E E E D I T I O N S

The following features of the text are intended tohelp the reader learn easily.

Organization of the Text Following a generalintroduction to the field in Chapter 1, Chapters 2and 3 present information on behavior recording,graphing, and measuring change. This informa-tion will be utilized in each subsequent chapter.Next, Chapters 48 focus on the basic principlesof operant and respondent behavior. The applica-tion of these principles forms the subject of theremaining 17 chapters. Procedures to establishnew behaviors are described in Chapters 912,and procedures to increase desirable behaviorsand decrease undesirable behaviors are consid-

ered in Chapters 1319. Finally, Chapters 2025present a survey of other important behaviormodification procedures.

Principles and Procedures The various proce-dures for changing behavior are based on funda-mental principles of behavior established in ex-perimental research over the last 70 years. In thebelief that the student will better understand theprocedures after first learning the fundamentalprinciples, the principles underlying operantand respondent behavior are reviewed in Chap-ters 48; the application of the principles in thebehavior modification procedures is described inChapters 925.

Preface xix

Examples from Everyday Life Each chapteruses a variety of real-life examplessome relevantto college students, some chosen from the au-thors clinical experienceto bring the princi-ples and procedures to life.

Examples from Research In addition, both clas-sic studies and the most up-to-date research onbehavior modification principles and proceduresare integrated into the text.

Quizzes Accompany Each Chapter At the endof each chapter are three fill-in-the-blank quizzeswith 10 questions each. The quizzes provide stu-dents with further exercises for self-assessmentof their knowledge of the chapters content.The quizzes are on perforated pages, which canbe easily torn out so that the instructor canhave students hand the quizzes in as homeworkassignments or have students take the quizzesin class.

Practice Tests Practice tests at the end of eachchapter have short-answer essay questions, com-plete with page numbers where the answers canbe found.

Application Exercises At the end of each chap-ter where procedures are taught (Chapters 2, 3,and 925), several application exercises are pro-vided. In each exercise, a real-life case is de-scribed and then the student is asked to apply theprocedure described in the chapter. These exer-cises give students an opportunity to think abouthow the procedures are applied in real life.

Misapplication Exercises The application ex-ercises are followed by misapplication exercises.In each one, a case example is provided, and theprocedure from the chapter is applied to the casein an incorrect or inappropriate manner. Thestudent is asked to analyze the case example andto describe what is wrong with the application ofthe procedure in that case. These misapplicationexercises require the student to think criticallyabout the application of the procedure. Answersto Applications and Misapplications are in the

Instructors Manual, making them valuable toolsfor instructors as they assess their students abili-ties to apply the information provided in thechapter.

Step-by-Step Approach In each chapter inwhich a particular behavior modification proce-dure is taught, the implementation of the proce-dure is outlined in a step-by-step fashion, for easeof comprehension.

Summary Boxes Periodically throughout thetext, information from a chapter is summarizedin a box that has been set off from the text. Theseboxes are intended to help the student organizethe material in the chapter.

Chapter Summaries Chapter summaries pro-vide information that is consistent with the open-ing questions in each chapter.

Examples for Self-Assessment In the early chap-ters on basic principles (Chapters 47) there aretables with examples of the principle discussedwithin that chapter. Later in the chapter (or in asubsequent chapter), the student is directed toreturn to a specific table and, using the new infor-mation being presented in the chapter, to analyzespecific aspects of the examples provided in thattable.

Self-Assessment Questions At intervals through-out the text, students are presented with self-assessment questions. To answer these questions,students will need to utilize the informationalready presented in the chapter. These ques-tions will help students assess their understandingof the material. In most cases, answers are pre-sented in the text immediately following thequestion.

Figures Most of the chapters include figuresfrom the research literature to illustrate importantprinciples or procedures. Students must use infor-mation from earlier chapters on behavior record-ing, graphing, and measuring change to analyzethe graphs.

Glossary At the end of the text is a glossary ofthe important behavior modification terms usedin the text. Each term is followed by a succinctand precise definition.

Improved Test Bank The test bank includesmultiple-choice questions, fill-in-the-blank ques-tions, true-false questions, and short-answer essayquestions.

xx Preface

In addition to the features continued from thefirst three editions, three major features havebeen added to the fourth edition.

For Further Reading In each of the chapterson behavioral principles (Chapters 48) and pro-cedures (Chapters 925) a For Further Readingbox has been added. In this feature, interestingarticles that are relevant to the content of thechapter are identified and briefly described. Cita-tions for these articles have also been provided.These articles are from JABA (or JEAB), so theycan be easily accessed online by students. (TheJABA website is http://seab.envmed.rochester.edu/jaba/.) Instructors can assign these articlesfor extra credit or as reading assignments for whenmore advanced students use the textbook.

List of Key Terms After each Chapter Summarysection, there is now a list of the new terms thatwere used in the chapter. The list of key termsshows the page number on which each term wasintroduced. Although these terms are all found inthe Glossary at the end of the text, having the newterms, and their page numbers, listed at the end ofeach chapter will allow the student to have an easyreference to the terms when reading the chapteror when studying for a test or quiz.

Updated and Expanded References The fourthedition includes 125 additional referencesmany of which are from the most recent volumesof JABAto present students with the mostrecent scholarship in the field.

Other New Features Chapter 1 has a briefdiscussion of the relationship between appliedbehavior analysis and behavior modification.Chapter 2 has new information on structuredversus unstructured assessment and on recordingpercentage of opportunities. Chapter 4 has anadded discussion of social versus automaticreinforcement. Chapter 7 has a new figurefrom Lalli et al. (1998), showing another exam-ple of a generalization gradient relevant to anapplied problem. Chapter 12 has a new sectionon in situ training, a method used to increasegeneralization following the use of behavioralskills training. New chapter headings are pro-vided to help the reader better organize the re-search on antecedent control in Chapter 16. InChapter 19, one figure was eliminated (Figure19.2 from Ayllon, Kuhlman, & Warzak, 1982),and another figure and text were added (Durand,1999) to highlight a study on programminggeneralization.

N E W F E A T U R E S I N T H E F O U R T H E D I T I O N

I want to thank the anonymous reviewers for theirconstructive comments on this manuscript andthe first three editions: Robert W. Allan, LafayetteCollege; Viviette Allen, Fayetteville State Univer-sity; Cynthia Anderson, West Virginia University;

Jennifer Austin, Florida State University; CharlesBlose, MacMurry College; Kristine Brady,California School of Professional Psychology; JamesCarr, Western Michigan University; Carl Cheney,Utah State University; Darlene Crone-Todd,

A C K N O W L E D G M E N T S
http://seab.envmed.rochester.edu/jaba/http://seab.envmed.rochester.edu/jaba/

Preface xxi

Delta State University; Paula Davis, SouthernIllinois University; Richard N. Feil, MansfieldUniversity; Deirdre Beebe Fitzgerald, EasternConnecticut State University; Stephan Flanagan,The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill;Roger Harnish, Rochester Institute of Technol-ogy; Gerald Harris, The University of Houston;Robert Heffer, Texas A&M University; StephenW. Holborn, University of Manitoba; DorotheaLerman, Louisiana State University; Tom Lombardo, University of Mississippi; John Malouff, Nova Southern Eastern University;Guenn Martin, Cumberland University; KayMcIntyre, University of MissouriSt. Louis;Ronald Miller, Brigham Young UniversityHawaii; Robert W. Montgomery, Georgia StateUniversity; Charles S. Peyser, University ofthe South; Brady Phelps, South Dakota State

University; Joseph J. Plaud, University of NorthDakota; Robyn Rogers, Southwest Texas StateUniversity; Johannes Rojahn, George Mason Uni-versity; Paul Romanowich, Mesa College; AlisonThomas-Cottingham, Rider University; J. KevinThompson, University of Southern Florida; BruceThyer, University of Georgia; James T. Todd,Eastern Michigan University; Sharon Van Leer,Delaware State University; Timothy Vollmer,University of Florida; Robert W. Wildblood,Northern Virginia Community College; KennethN. Wildman, Ohio Northern University; DouglasWoods, University of WisconsinMilwaukee; andTodd Zakrajsek, Southern Oregon State College.I especially want to thank Marianne Taflinger,senior editor at Wadsworth, for her guidance andsupport throughout the development of the firstfour editions.

To get the most out of this text and out of your be-havior modification course, you are encouragedto consider the following recommendations.

1. Read the assigned chapters before the classmeeting at which the chapter is to be dis-cussed. You will benefit more from the classif you have first read the material.

2. Answer each of the self-assessment questionsin the chapter to see if you understand thematerial just covered.

3. Answer the practice test questions at the endof each chapter. If you can answer eachquestion, you know that you understand thematerial in the chapter.

4. Complete the end-of-chapter quizzes to as-sess your knowledge of the chapter content(unless your professor plans to use thequizzes in class).

5. Complete the application and misapplica-tion exercises at the end of the procedurechapters. In that way, you will understand the

material in the chapter well enough to applyit or to identify how it is applied incorrectly.

6. The best way to study for a test is to testyourself. After reading and rereading thechapter and your class notes, test yourself inthe following ways.

Look at key terms in the chapter and see ifyou can define them without looking atthe definitions in the text.

Look at each practice test question at theend of the chapter and see if you can givethe correct answer without looking up theanswer in the text or in your notes.

Come up with novel examples of eachprinciple or procedure in the chapter.

Make flash cards with a term or questionon one side and the definition of the termor the answer to the question on the otherside. While studying, look at the term (orquestion) on one side of the card and thenread the definition (or answer) on theother. As you study, you will find that you

F O R T H E B E H A V I O R M O D I F I C A T I O N S T U D E N T

The following websites provide a range of valuable information about different aspects of behaviormodification or applied behavior analysis.

http://seab.envmed.rochester.edu/jaba/ Journal of Applied Behavior Analysishttp://seab.envmed.rochester.edu/jeab/ Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behaviorhttp://www.abainternational.org The Association for Behavior Analysishttp://www.auburn.edu/~newlamc/apa_div25/ APA Division 25 (Behavior Analysis)http://www.abct.org Association for Behavioral and Cognitive Therapyhttp://fabaworld.org Florida Association for Behavior Analysishttp://www.calaba.org/ California Association for Behavior Analysishttp://www.unt.edu/behv/txaba/ Texas Association for Behavior Analysishttp://www.babat.org/ Berkshire Association for Behavior Analysis and Therapyhttp://www.behavior-analyst-online.org/index.html The Behavior Analyst Onlinehttp://www.behavior.org Cambridge Center for Behavioral Studieshttp://www.bfskinner.org/ B.F. Skinner Foundationhttp://www.bacb.com/ Behavior Analysis Certification Board

Raymond G. Miltenberger

xxii Preface

need to turn the cards over less and lessoften. Once you can supply the answer ordefinition on the back of the card withoutlooking, youll know that you understandthe material.

Always study in a location that is reason-ably free from distractions or interruptions.

Always begin studying for a test at least afew days in advance. Give yourself moredays to study as more chapters are in-cluded on the test.
http://www.abainternational.orghttp://www.auburn.edu/~newlamc/apa_div25/http://www.abct.orghttp://fabaworld.orghttp://www.calaba.org/http://www.unt.edu/behv/txaba/http://www.babat.org/http://www.behavior-analyst-online.org/index.htmlhttp://www.behavior.orghttp://www.bfskinner.org/http://www.bacb.com/http://seab.envmed.rochester.edu/jaba/http://seab.envmed.rochester.edu/jeab/

Introduction to Behavior Modification

n this textbook you will learn about behavior modification, the principles andprocedures used to understand and change human behavior. Behavior modifica-

tion procedures come in many forms. Consider the following examples.Ted and Jane were having some difficulties in their marriage because of frequent

arguments. Their marriage counselor arranged a behavioral contract with them inwhich they agreed to do several nice things for each other every day. As a result of thiscontract, their positive interactions increased and their negative interactions (argu-ments) decreased.

Karen pulled her hair incessantly; as a result, she created abald spot on the top of her head. Although she was embarrassedby the bald spot, which measured 1 inch in diameter, she contin-ued to pull her hair. Her psychologist implemented a treatmentin which Karen was to engage in a competing activity with herhands (e.g., needlepoint) each time she started to pull her hairor had the urge to pull. Over time, the hair-pulling stopped andher hair grew back in.

Francisco was gaining a lot of weight and decided to dosomething about it. He joined a weight loss group. At each groupmeeting, Francisco deposited a sum of money, set a goal for dailyexercise, and earned points for meeting his exercise goals each

week. If he earned a specified number of points, he got his deposit back. If he did notearn enough points, he lost part of his deposit money. Francisco began to exercise reg-ularly and lost weight as a result of his participation in the group.

The residents of Cincinnati were making thousands of unnecessary directory assis-tance calls per day. These calls were clogging up the phone lines and costing the phonecompany money. The company instituted a charge for each directory assistance call,and the number of calls decreased dramatically.

You will notice that each of these examples focuses on some aspect of human be-havior and describes ways to change the behavior. Because behavior modification fo-cuses on behavior and behavior change, it is appropriate to begin with a discussion ofbehavior.

1

O N E

How is human behavior defined? What are the defining features of

behavior modification? What are the historical roots of

behavior modification? In what ways has behavior modifica-

tion improved peoples lives?

I

D E F I N I N G H U M A N B E H A V I O R

Human behavior is the subject matter of behavior modification. The characteristicsthat define behavior are as follows.

Behavior is what people do and say. Because behavior involves a persons ac-tions, it is described with action verbs. Behavior is not a static characteristic of the per-son. If you say that a person is angry, you have not identified the persons behavior; youhave simply labeled the behavior. If you identify what the person says or does whenangry, then you have identified behavior. For example, Jennifer screamed at hermother, ran upstairs, and slammed the door to her room. This is a description of be-havior that might be labeled as anger.

Behaviors have one or more dimensions that can be measured. You can measurethe frequency of a behavior; that is, you can count the number of times a behavioroccurs (e.g., Shane bit his fingernails 12 times in the class period). You can measure theduration of a behavior, or the time from when an instance of the behavior starts untilit stops (e.g., Rita jogged for 25 minutes). You can measure the intensity of a behavior,or the physical force involved in the behavior (e.g., Garth bench-pressed 220 pounds).Frequency, duration, and intensity are all physical dimensions of a behavior.

Behaviors can be observed, described, and recorded by others or by the personengaging in the behavior. Because a behavior is an action, its occurrence can be observed.People can see the behavior (or detect it through one of the senses) when it occurs.Because it is observable, the person who sees the behavior can describe it and record itsoccurrence. (See Chapter 2 for a description of methods for recording behavior.)

Behaviors have an impact on the environment, including the physical or thesocial environment (other people and ourselves). Because a behavior is an action thatinvolves movement through space and time (Johnston & Pennypacker, 1981), the oc-currence of a behavior has some effect on the environment in which it occurs. Some-times the effect on the environment is obvious. You turn the light switch, and the lightgoes on (an effect on the physical environment). You raise your hand in class, and yourprofessor calls on you (an effect on other people). You recite a phone number from thephone book, and you are more likely to remember it and to dial the correct number (aneffect on yourself). Sometimes the effect of a behavior on the environment is not obvi-ous. Sometimes it has an effect only on the person who engages in the behavior. How-ever, all human behavior operates on the physical or social environment in some way,regardless of whether we are aware of its impact.

Behavior is lawful; that is, its occurrence is systematically influenced by environ-mental events. Basic behavioral principles describe the functional relationships be-tween our behavior and environmental events. These principles describe how ourbehavior is influenced by, or occurs as a function of, environmental events (seeChapters 48). These basic behavioral principles are the building blocks of behaviormodification procedures. Once you understand the environmental events that causebehaviors to occur, you can change the events in the environment to alter behavior.

Consider the graph in Figure 1-1, which shows the disruptive behavior of a childwith autism in the classroom. When the child receives high levels of attention from theteacher, his disruptive behavior rarely occurs. When the child receives low levels ofattention from the teacher, his disruptive behavior occurs more frequently. We

2 Chapter 1

conclude that the disruptive behavior is functionally related to the level of teacherattention.

Behaviors may be overt or covert. Most often, behavior modification proceduresare used to understand and change overt behaviors. An overt behavior is an action thatcan be observed and recorded by a person other than the one engaging in the behavior.However, some behaviors are covert. Covert behaviors, also called private events(Skinner, 1974), are not observable to others. For example, thinking is a covert behavior;it cannot be observed and recorded by another person. Thinking can be observed onlyby the person engaging in the behavior. The field of behavior modification focuses pri-marily on overt or observable behaviors, as does this textbook. However, Chapters 8, 24,and 25 discuss covert behaviors and behavior modification procedures applied to them.

CHARACTERISTICS OF BEHAVIOR

Behavior is what people do and say.

Behaviors have one or more dimensions.

Behaviors can be observed, described, and recorded.

Behaviors have an impact on the environment.

Behavior is lawful.

Behaviors may be overt and covert.


Text not available due to copyright restrictions

E X A M P L E S O F B E H A V I O R

Now lets illustrate the defining characteristics of behavior with some examples. Thefollowing examples include both common behaviors and problematic behaviors forwhich behavior modification procedures might be used.

Martha sits at her computer and types a letter to her parents.

This is behavior because pressing the keys on the keyboard while typing is an ac-tion, has physical dimensions (frequency of pressing keys, duration of typing), is observ-able and measurable, has an impact on the environment (produces letters on thescreen), and is lawful (occurs because of previous learning that pressing the keys pro-duces letters on the screen).

Mandy lies in her crib and cries loudly. Her mother then picks her up and feeds her.

This behavior has all five of the characteristics described in the previous example(an action that has physical dimensions, is observable by others, produces an effect onthe environment, and is lawful). One difference is that the effect of crying is on the so-cial environment; her mother responds to her crying by picking her up and feeding her.Each time it has occurred in the past, crying has resulted in her mother feeding her, sothe crying continues to occur when Mandy is hungry. There is a functional relation-ship between the crying and the mothers behavior of feeding her.

Jerrys paper for his behavior modification class is a week late. Jerry gives the paper tohis professor and lies, saying that it is late because he had to go home to see his sickgrandmother. The professor then accepts the paper without any penalty. Jerry alsomissed his history test. He tells his history professor he missed the test because of hissick grandmother. The professor lets him take the test a week late.

Jerrys behaviorlying about his visit to his sick grandmotherhas all five charac-teristics of a behavior. It is an action (something he said) that occurred twice(frequency), was observed by his professors, and resulted in an effect on his social envi-ronment (his professors let him take a test late and hand in a paper late with nopenalty); it is lawful because there is a functional relationship between the behavior(lying) and the outcome (getting away with late papers or tests).

Samantha is a 6-year-old with mental retardation who attends special educationclasses. When the teacher is helping other students and not paying attention toSamantha, Samantha cries and bangs her head on the table or floor. WheneverSamantha bangs her head, the teacher stops what she is doing and picks Samanthaup and comforts her. She tells Samantha to calm down, assures her that everything isall right, gives her a hug, and often lets Samantha sit on her lap.

Identify each of the five characteristics of Samanthas behavior.

Samanthas head banging is a behavior. It is an action that she repeats a number oftimes each day. The teacher could observe and record the number of occurrences eachday. The head banging produces an effect on the social environment: The teacher pro-vides attention each time the behavior occurs. Finally, the behavior is lawful; it contin-ues to occur because there is a functional relationship between the head-bangingbehavior and the outcome of teacher attention.

4 Chapter 1

D E F I N I N G B E H A V I O R M O D I F I C A T I O N

Behavior modification is the field of psychology concerned with analyzing and modi-fying human behavior.

Analyzing means identifying the functional relationship between environmen-tal events and a particular behavior to understand the reasons for behavior or to deter-mine why a person behaved as he or she did.

Modifying means developing and implementing procedures to help peoplechange their behavior. It involves altering environmental events so as to influencebehavior. Behavior modification procedures are developed by professionals and used tochange socially significant behaviors, with the goal of improving some aspect of apersons life. Following are some characteristics that define behavior modification(Gambrill, 1977; Kazdin, 1994).

C H A R A C T E R I S T I C S O F B E H A V I O R M O D I F I C A T I O N

Focus on behavior. Behavior modification procedures are designed to changebehavior, not a personal characteristic or trait. Therefore, behavior modification de-emphasizes labeling. For example, behavior modification is not used to change autism(a label); rather, behavior modification is used to change problem behaviors exhibitedby children with autism.

Behavioral excesses and deficits are targets for change with behavior modificationprocedures. In behavior modification, the behavior to be modified is called the targetbehavior. A behavioral excess is an undesirable target behavior the person wants todecrease in frequency, duration, or intensity. Smoking is an example of a behavioralexcess. A behavioral deficit is a desirable target behavior the person wants to increasein frequency, duration, or intensity. Exercise and studying are possible examples ofbehavioral deficits.

Procedures based on behavioral principles. Behavior modification is the applica-tion of basic principles originally derived from experimental research with laboratoryanimals (Skinner, 1938). The scientific study of behavior is called the experimentalanalysis of behavior, or behavior analysis (Skinner, 1953b, 1966). The scientific studyof human behavior is called the experimental analysis of human behavior, or appliedbehavior analysis (Baer, Wolf, & Risley, 1968, 1987). Behavior modification proce-dures are based on research in applied behavior analysis that has been conducted formore than 40 years (Ullmann & Krasner, 1965; Ulrich, Stachnik, & Mabry, 1966).

Emphasis on current environmental events. Behavior modification involves as-sessing and modifying the current environmental events that are functionally related tothe behavior. Human behavior is controlled by events in the immediate environment,and the goal of behavior modification is to identify those events. Once these control-ling variables have been identified, they are altered to modify the behavior. Successfulbehavior modification procedures alter the functional relationships between the behav-ior and the controlling variables in the environment to produce a desired change in thebehavior. Sometimes labels are mistakenly identified as the causes of behavior. Forexample, a person might say that a child with autism engages in problem behaviors


(such as screaming, hitting himself, refusal to follow instructions) because the child isautistic. In other words, the person is suggesting that autism causes the child to engagein the behavior. However, autism is simply a label that describes the pattern of behav-iors the child engages in. The label cannot be the cause of the behavior because thelabel does not exist as a physical entity or event. The causes of the behavior must befound in the environment (including the biology of the child).

Precise description of behavior modification procedures (Baer et al., 1968). Behav-ior modification procedures involve specific changes in environmental events that arefunctionally related to the behavior. For the procedures to be effective each time theyare used, the specific changes in environmental events must occur each time. Bydescribing procedures precisely, researchers and other professionals make it morelikely that the procedures will be used correctly each time.

Treatment implemented by people in everyday life (Kazdin, 1994). Behaviormodification procedures are developed by professionals or paraprofessionals trained inbehavior modification. However, behavior modification procedures often are imple-mented by people such as teachers, parents, job supervisors, or others to help peoplechange their behavior. People who implement behavior modification proceduresshould do so only after sufficient training. Precise descriptions of procedures and pro-fessional supervision make it more likely that parents, teachers, and others will imple-ment procedures correctly.

Measurement of behavior change. One of the hallmarks of behavior modificationis its emphasis on measuring the behavior before and after intervention to documentthe behavior change resulting from the behavior modification procedures. In addition,ongoing assessment of the behavior is done well beyond the point of intervention to de-termine whether the behavior change is maintained in the long run. If a supervisor isusing behavior modification procedures to increase work productivity (to increase thenumber of units assembled each day), he or she would record the workers behaviors fora period before implementing the procedures. The supervisor would then implementthe behavior modification procedures and continue to record the behaviors. Thisrecording would establish whether the number of units assembled increased. If theworkers behaviors changed after the supervisors intervention, he or she would

6 Chapter 1

BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION AND APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSISBehavior modification (as described in this textbook) and applied behavior analysis are two terms used toidentify virtually identical fields. Although research on the application of behavioral principles to help peo-ple change their behavior (behavior modification) had been published since the late 1950s, the term appliedbehavior analysis was introduced in 1968 in the first issue of Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis with thepublication of Baer, Wolf, and Risleys article defining applied behavior analysis. In their article, Baer et al.(1968) identified a number of characteristics of applied behavior analysis including: (a) a focus on sociallyimportant behavior; (b) demonstration of functional relationships between environmental events and behav-ior; (c) clear description of procedures; (d) connection to basic behavioral principles; and (e) production ofmeaningful, generalizable, and long-lasting changes in behavior. These defining features of applied behav-ior analysis also characterize the contemporary field of behavior modification as described in this textbook.

continue to record the behavior for a further period. Such long-term observation woulddemonstrate whether the workers continued to assemble units at the increased rate orwhether further intervention was necessary.

De-emphasis on past events as causes of behavior. As stated earlier, behavior mod-ification places emphasis on recent environmental events as the causes of behavior.However, knowledge of the past also provides useful information about environmentalevents related to the current behavior. For example, previous learning experiences havebeen shown to influence current behavior. Therefore, understanding these learningexperiences can be valuable in analyzing current behavior and choosing behaviormodification procedures. Although information on past events is useful, knowledge ofcurrent controlling variables is most relevant to developing effective behavior modifica-tion interventions because those variables, unlike past events, can still be changed.

Rejection of hypothetical underlying causes of behavior. Although some fields ofpsychology, such as Freudian psychoanalytic approaches, might be interested in hy-pothesized underlying causes of behavior, such as an unresolved Oedipus complex, be-havior modification rejects such hypothetical explanations of behavior. Skinner (1974)has called such explanations explanatory fictions because they can never be provedor disproved, and thus are unscientific. These supposed underlying causes can never bemeasured or manipulated to demonstrate a functional relationship to the behavior theyare intended to explain.

CHARACTERISTICS OF BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION

Focus on behavior

Based on behavioral principles

Emphasis on current environmental events

Precise description of procedures

Implemented by people in everyday life

Measurement of behavior change

De-emphasis on past events as causes of behavior

Rejection of hypothetical underlying causes of behavior

H I S T O R I C A L R O O T S O F B E H A V I O R M O D I F I C A T I O N

A number of historical events contributed to the development of behavior modifica-tion. Lets briefly consider some important figures, publications, and organizations inthe field.

Major FiguresFollowing are some of the major figures who were instrumental in developing the sci-entific principles on which behavior modification is based (Figure 1-2) (Michael,1993a).


Ivan P. Pavlov (18491936) Pavlov conducted experiments that uncovered thebasic processes of respondent conditioning (see Chapter 8). He demonstrated that areflex (salivation in response to food) could be conditioned to a neutral stimulus. Inhis experiments, Pavlov presented the neutral stimulus (the sound of a metronome)at the same time that he presented food to a dog. Later, the dog salivated in responseto the sound of the metronome alone. Pavlov called this a conditioned reflex (Pavlov,1927).

8 Chapter 1

Four major figures who were instrumental in developing the scientific principles on whichbehavior modification is based. Clockwise from top left: Ivan P. Pavlov, Edward L. Thorndike, B. F.Skinner, John B. Watson. (Photo credits: SOV; Archives of the History of American Psychology;courtesy of Julie Vargas and the B. F. Skinner Foundation; Archives of the History of AmericanPsychology, The University of Akron.)

F I G U R E 1 - 2

Edward L. Thorndike (18741949) Thorndikes major contribution was the descrip-tion of the law of effect. The law of effect states that a behavior that produces a favor-able effect on the environment is more likely to be repeated in the future. InThorndikes famous experiment, he put a cat in a cage and set food outside the cagewhere the cat could see it. To open the cage door, the cat had to hit a lever with its paw.Thorndike showed that the cat learned to hit the lever and open the cage door. Eachtime it was put into the cage, the cat hit the lever more quickly because that behaviorhitting the leverproduced a favorable effect on the environment: It allowed the cat toreach the food (Thorndike, 1911).

John B. Watson (18781958) In the article Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It,published in 1913, Watson asserted that observable behavior was the proper subjectmatter of psychology, and that all behavior was controlled by environmental events. Inparticular, Watson described a stimulusresponse psychology in which environmentalevents (stimuli) elicited responses. Watson started the movement in psychology calledbehaviorism (Watson, 1913, 1924).

B. F. Skinner (19041990) Skinner expanded the field of behaviorism originally de-scribed by Watson. Skinner explained the distinction between respondent conditioning(the conditioned reflexes described by Pavlov and Watson) and operant conditioning,in which the consequence of behavior controls the future occurrence of the behavior(as in Thorndikes law of effect). Skinners research elaborated the basic principles ofoperant behavior (see Chapters 47). In addition to his laboratory research demonstrat-ing basic behavioral principles, Skinner wrote a number of books in which he appliedthe principles of behavior analysis to human behavior (see later). Skinners work is thefoundation of behavior modification (Skinner, 1938, 1953a).

Early Behavior Modification ResearchersAfter Skinner laid out the principles of operant conditioning, researchers continued tostudy operant behavior in the laboratory (Catania, 1968; Honig, 1966). In addition, inthe 1950s, researchers began demonstrating behavioral principles and evaluating be-havior modification procedures with people. These early researchers studied the behav-ior of children (Azrin & Lindsley, 1956; Baer, 1960; Bijou, 1957), adults (Goldiamond,1965; Verplanck, 1955; Wolpe, 1958), patients with mental illness (Ayllon & Azrin,1964; Ayllon & Michael, 1959), and individuals with mental retardation (Ferster, 1961;Fuller, 1949; Wolf, Risley, & Mees, 1964). Since the beginning of behavior modifica-tion research with humans in the 1950s, thousands of studies have established theeffectiveness of behavior modification principles and procedures.

Major Publications and EventsA number of books heavily influenced the development of the behavior modificationfield. In addition, scientific journals were developed to publish research in behavioranalysis and behavior modification, and professional organizations were started to sup-port research and professional activity in behavior analysis and behavior modification.


These books, journals, and organizations are listed in the timeline in Figure 1-3. (For amore complete description of these publications and organizations, see Cooper,Heron, and Heward [1987; 2007] and Michael [1993a].)

A R E A S O F A P P L I C A T I O N

Behavior modification procedures have been used in many areas to help peoplechange a vast array of problematic behaviors (Carr & Austin, 2001; Gambrill, 1977;Lutzker & Martin, 1981; Vollmer, Borrero, Wright, Van Camp, & Lalli, 2001). Thissection briefly reviews these areas of application.

Developmental DisabilitiesMore behavior modification research has been conducted in the field of developmen-tal disabilities than perhaps any other area (Iwata et al., 1997). People with develop-mental disabilities often have serious behavioral deficits, and behavior modification hasbeen used to teach a variety of functional skills to overcome these deficits (Repp, 1983).In addition, people with developmental disabilities may exhibit serious problem behav-iors such as self-injurious behaviors, aggressive behaviors, and destructive behaviors.

10 Chapter 1

Skinner'sbasic researchon principlesof behavior

Skinner,Walden Two

Skinner,Science andHuman Behavior

SEAB

JEAB

BehaviorResearch andTherapy

Keller andSchoenfeld,Principles ofPsychology

Holland andSkinner, TheAnalysis ofBehavior

Ferster andSkinner,Schedules ofReinforcement

Skinner,Verbal Behavior

1958195319481930s 1963

1961195719501938 1966

AABTSkinner,The Behaviorof Organisms

This timeline shows the major events in the development of behavior modification. Starting in the1930s with Skinners basic research on the principles of behavior, the timeline includes majorbooks, journals, and professional organizations. SEAB, Society for the Experimental Analysis ofBehavior; JEAB, Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior; AABT, Association forAdvancement of Behavior Therapy; JABA, Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis.

F I G U R E 1 - 3

A wealth of research in behavior modification demonstrates that these behaviors oftencan be controlled or eliminated with behavioral interventions (Barrett, 1986; VanHouten & Axelrod, 1993; Whitman, Scibak, & Reid, 1983). Behavior modification pro-cedures also are used widely in staff training and staff management in the field ofdevelopmental disabilities (Reid, Parsons, & Green, 1989).

Mental IllnessSome of the earliest research in behavior modification demonstrated its effectiveness inhelping people with mental illness in institutional settings (Ayllon, 1963; Ayllon &Michael, 1959). Behavior modification has been used with patients with chronic men-tal illness to modify such behaviors as daily living skills, social behavior, aggressive be-havior, treatment compliance, psychotic behaviors, and work skills (Scotti, McMorrow,& Trawitzki, 1993). One particularly important contribution of behavior modificationwas the development of a motivational procedure for institutional patients called atoken economy (Ayllon & Azrin, 1968). Token economies are still widely used in a vari-ety of treatment settings (Kazdin, 1982).

Education and Special EducationGreat strides have been made in the field of education because of behavior modifica-tion research (Bijou & Ruiz, 1981). Researchers have analyzed studentteacher inter-actions in the classroom, improved teaching methods, and developed procedures for


Skinner,AboutBehaviorism

Skinner,Technologyof Teaching

Ayllon andAzrin, TheToken Economy Continued

research and publicationsin behaviormodification

Skinner,Contingenciesof Reinforcement:A TheoreticalAnalysis

Skinner,Beyond Freedomand Dignity

The BehaviorAnalyst

Association forBehavior Analysis

Progress in BehaviorModification

JABABehaviorModification

BehaviorTherapy

Journal ofOrganizationalBehaviorManagement

Journal ofBehavior Therapyand ExperimentalPsychiatry

1974 197719681980s2000s

1978197519711969

1970

Emphasis onFunctionalAnalysis

NationalCertificationin Behavior Analysis

reducing problem behaviors in the classroom (Becker & Carnine, 1981; Madsen,Becker, & Thomas, 1968; Thomas, Becker, & Armstrong, 1968). Behavior modifica-tion procedures have also been used in higher education to improve instructional tech-niques, and thus improve student learning (Michael, 1991).

In special education, that is, the education of people with developmental disabil-ities, behavior modification has played a major role (Rusch et al., 1988) in developingteaching methods, controlling problem behaviors in the classroom, improving socialbehaviors and functional skills, promoting self-management, and training teachers.

RehabilitationRehabilitation is the process of helping people regain normal function after an injuryor trauma, such as a head injury from an accident or brain damage from a stroke. Be-havior modification is used in rehabilitation to promote compliance with rehabilita-tion routines such as physical therapy, to teach new skills that can replace skills lostthrough the injury or trauma, to decrease problem behaviors, to help manage chronicpain, and to improve memory performance (Bakke et al., 1994; Davis & Chittum,1994; ONeill & Gardner, 1983).

Community PsychologyWithin community psychology, behavioral interventions are designed to influence thebehavior of large numbers of people in ways that benefit everybody. Some targets ofbehavioral community interventions include reducing littering, increasing recycling,reducing energy consumption, reducing unsafe driving, reducing illegal drug use, in-creasing the use of seat belts, decreasing illegal parking in spaces for the disabled, andreducing speeding (Cope & Allred, 1991; Geller & Hahn, 1984; Ludwig & Geller,1991; Van Houten & Nau, 1981).

Clinical PsychologyIn clinical psychology, psychological principles and procedures are applied to helppeople with personal problems. Typically, clinical psychology involves individual orgroup therapy conducted by a psychologist. Behavior modification in clinical psychol-ogy, often called behavior therapy, has been applied to the treatment of a wide rangeof human problems (Hersen & Bellack, 1985; Hersen & Van Hasselt, 1987; Turner,Calhoun, & Adams, 1981). Behavior modification procedures have also been used totrain clinical psychologists (Veltum & Miltenberger, 1989).

Business, Industry, and Human ServicesThe use of behavior modification in the field of business, industry, and human services iscalled organizational behavior modification or organizational behavior management(Frederickson, 1982; Luthans & Kreitner, 1985; Reid et al., 1989; Stajkovic & Luthans,1997). Behavior modification procedures have been used to improve work performanceand job safety and to decrease tardiness, absenteeism, and accidents on the job. In addition,behavior modification procedures have been used to improve supervisors performances.

12 Chapter 1

The use of behavior modification in business and industry has resulted in increased pro-ductivity and profits for organizations and increased job satisfaction for workers.

Self-ManagementPeople use behavior modification procedures to manage their own behaviors. They useself-management procedures to control personal habits, health-related behaviors,professional behaviors, and personal problems (Brigham, 1989; Epstein, 1996; Stuart,1977; Watson & Tharp, 1993; Yates, 1986). Chapter 20 discusses the application ofbehavior modification procedures for self-management.

Child ManagementNumerous applications of behavior modification to the management of child behaviorexist (Miller, 1975; Patterson, 1975; Schaeffer & Millman, 1981). Parents and teacherscan learn to use behavior modification procedures to help children overcome bed-wetting, nail-biting, temper tantrums, noncompliance, aggressive behaviors, bad man-ners, stuttering, and other common problems (Watson & Gresham, 1998).

PreventionBehavior modification procedures have been applied to preventing problems in child-hood (Roberts & Peterson, 1984). Other applications of behavior modification in thearea of prevention include preventing child sexual abuse, child abduction, accidentsin the home, child abuse and neglect, and sexually transmitted diseases (Carroll,Miltenberger, & ONeill, 1992; Montesinos, Frisch, Greene, & Hamilton, 1990; Poche,Yoder, & Miltenberger, 1988). Preventing problems in the community with behaviormodification is one aspect of community psychology.

Sports PsychologyBehavior modification is used widely in the field of sports psychology (Martin & Hrycaiko,1983). Behavior modification procedures have been used to improve athletic perfor-mance in a wide variety of sports during practice and in competition (Brobst & Ward,2002; Hume & Crossman, 1992; Kendall, Hrycaiko, Martin, & Kendall, 1990; Wolko,Hrycaiko, & Martin, 1993; Zeigler, 1994). Behavior modification procedures have beenshown to result in better athletic performance than do traditional coaching procedures.

Health-Related BehaviorsBehavior modification procedures are used to promote health-related behaviors byincreasing healthy lifestyle behaviors (such as exercise and proper nutrition) and de-creasing unhealthy behaviors (such as smoking, drinking, and overeating). Behaviormodification procedures are also used to promote behaviors that have a positive influ-ence on physical or medical problemssuch as decreasing frequency and intensity ofheadaches, lowering blood pressure, and reducing gastrointestinal disturbances(Blumenthal & McKee, 1987; Gentry, 1984)and to increase compliance with medi-cal regimens (Levy, 1987). Applying behavior modification to health-related behaviorsis called behavioral medicine or health psychology.


GerontologyBehavior modification procedures are applied in nursing homes and other care facili-ties to help manage the behavior of older adults (Hussian, 1981; Hussian & Davis,1985). Behavior modification procedures are used to help older adults deal with theirdeclining physical abilities, to help them adjust to nursing home environments, to pro-mote health-related behaviors and appropriate social interactions, and to decreaseproblem behaviors that may arise from Alzheimers disease, other types of dementia, orinstitutional demands (Carstensen & Erickson, 1986; Stock & Milan, 1993).

T H E S T R U C T U R E O F T H I S T E X T B O O K

This textbook is divided into five major sections. These sections discuss the followingtopics:

Measurement of behavior and behavior change Basic principles of behavior Procedures to establish new behaviors Procedures to decrease undesirable behaviors and increase desirable behaviors Other behavior change procedures

The book is designed so that the information presented in earlier sections isapplied in later sections.

Measurement of Behavior and Behavior ChangeThere are two chapters in Part 1 of this textbook. Chapter 2 teaches you how to observeand record behaviors that are to be modified in a behavior modification program.Chapter 3 teaches you how to construct graphs and evaluate graphed data to analyzebehavior change resulting from a behavior modification program.

Basic Principles of BehaviorThe five chapters in Part 2 of this textbook discuss the basic principles of behaviormodification derived from scientific research in behavior analysis. The behavior modi-fication procedures discussed in the remainder of the book are based on the basic be-havioral principles reviewed in this section, which include reinforcement, extinction,punishment, stimulus control, and respondent conditioning. Once you understandthese basic principles, it will be easier to understand and apply the behavior modifica-tion procedures described in later sections.

Procedures to Establish New BehaviorsOne goal of behavior modification is to establish desirable new behaviors or skills. Thefour chapters in Part 3 of this textbook discuss behavior modification procedures usedto establish new behaviors: shaping, prompting and transfer of stimulus control, chain-ing, and behavioral skills training procedures.

14 Chapter 1

Procedures to Increase Desirable Behaviors and Decrease Undesirable BehaviorsAnother goal of behavior modification procedures is to decrease the occurrence of un-desirable behaviors and increase the occurrence of desirable behaviors that are notoccurring frequently enough. The occurrence of undesirable behaviors is a behavioralexcess. Desirable behaviors that occur too infrequently are behavioral deficits. Theseven chapters in Part 4 describe how to analyze behaviors and how to apply reinforce-ment, extinction, stimulus control, and punishment to decrease excess behaviors whileincreasing more desirable behaviors.

Other Behavior Change ProceduresThe six chapters in Part 5 of this textbook describe more complex behavior modifica-tion procedures. Chapter 20 discusses self-management procedures. Chapter 21 dis-cusses habit disorders and procedures for decreasing these excess behaviors. Chapter 22on token economies and Chapter 23 on behavioral contracting discuss procedures thatextend the reinforcement and punishment procedures described earlier. Chapter 24applies procedures based on respondent conditioning to decrease fear and anxiety.Chapter 25 discusses behavior modification procedures to change cognitive behaviors,a type of covert behavior.


C H A P T E R S U M M A R Y

1. Human behavior is defined as an individualsactions that have one or more physical di-mensions and can be observed and recorded.Behaviors have an impact on the physical orsocial environment. Behavior is lawful; its oc-currence is influenced by environmentalevents. A behavior may be overt or covert.

2. Behavior modification procedures involveanalyzing and manipulating current environ-mental events to change behavior. A behav-ioral excess or behavioral deficit may betargeted for change with behavior modifica-tion procedures. Behavior modification pro-cedures are based on behavioral principlesderived from scientific research. B. F. Skin-ner conducted the early scientific researchthat laid the foundation for behavior modifi-cation. He also published a number of booksdemonstrating the application of behavioralprinciples to everyday life. Behavior modifi-cation procedures often are implemented bypeople in everyday life. Behavior is measured

before and after the behavior modificationprocedures are applied to document theeffectiveness of the procedures. Behaviormodification de-emphasizes past events andrejects hypothetical underlying causes ofbehavior.

3. The historical roots of behavior modificationcan be found in the work of Pavlov,Thorndike, Watson, and especially B. F.Skinner, who identified a number of basicprinciples of behavior and wrote about apply-ing the principles of behavior analysis tohuman behavior.

4. Behavior modification procedures have beenapplied successfully to all aspects of humanbehavior, including developmental disabili-ties; mental illness; education and specialeducation; rehabilitation; community psycho-logy; clinical psychology; business, industry,and human services; self-management; childmanagement; prevention; sports psychology;health-related behaviors; and gerontology.

16 Chapter 1

P R A C T I C E T E S T

1. What is the basic definition of human behav-ior? (p. 2)

2. Provide an example of a description of be-havior and the label applied to that behavior.(p. 2)

3. Describe the three physical dimensions ofbehavior that can be observed and recorded.(p. 2)

4. Provide an example of how a behavior has animpact on the physical environment and onthe social environment. (p. 2)

5. What does it mean to say that behavior islawful? What is a functional relationship?(p. 2)

6. Describe the distinction between overt be-havior and covert behavior. Provide an exam-ple of each. Which type of behavior is thefocus of this book? (p. 3)

7. Identify the six characteristics of human be-havior. (p. 3)

8. What does it mean to say that behavior mod-ification procedures are based on behavioralprinciples? (p. 5)

9. What causes human behavior? Describe howa label might be mistakenly identified as acause of a behavior. (pp. 56)

10. Why is it important to describe behaviormodification procedures precisely? (p. 6)

11. Who implements behavior modificationprocedures? (p. 6)

12. Why is it important to measure behavior be-fore and after behavior modification proce-dures are used? (pp. 67)

13. Why doesnt behavior modification focuson the past as the cause of the behavior?(p. 7)

14. Identify eight defining characteristics of be-havior modification. (p. 7)

15. Briefly describe the contributions of Pavlov,Thorndike, Watson, and Skinner to thedevelopment of behavior modification. (pp. 89)

16. Identify at least one way in which behaviormodification has been applied in each ofthe following areas: developmental disabili-ties; education; community psychology;business, industry, and human services; self-management; prevention; health-related be-haviors; mental illness; rehabilitation; clini-cal psychology; child management; sportspsychology; and gerontology. (pp. 1014)

K E Y T E R M S

applied behavior analysis, 5behavior, 2behavior modification, 5 behavioral deficit, 5behavioral excess, 5

controlling variable, 5covert behavior, 3dimension of behavior, 2 experimental analysis of

behavior, 5

law of effect, 9overt behavior, 3target behavior, 5


1. Behavior is defined as what people and .

2. Behavior has an impact on the and/or environment.

3. Behavior modification is the field of psychology concerned with the and

of human behavior.

4. Too much of a particular behavior is called a behavioral .

5. Too little of a particular behavior is called a behavioral .

6. Frequency, duration, and intensity are called of behavior.

7. Match the following individuals with their contribution to behavior modification.

a. Skinner b. Watson c. Pavlov d. Thorndike

First to describe the conditioned reflex

Demonstrated the law of effect

Conducted research on basic principles of operant behavior and laid thefoundation for behavior modification

8. started the movement in psychology called behaviorism.

9. A(n) behavior is a behavior that can be observed and recorded by anotherperson.

10. A(n) behavior is not observable by others.

C H A P T E R 1 Q u i z 1 N a m e :

18 Chapter 1

1. is what people say and do.

2. Three dimensions of behavior that can be measured include

, , and .

3. is the field of psychology concerned with analyzing and modifying humanbehavior.

4. Charlie drinks too many cups of coffee each day. This behavior would be considered a

behavioral (deficit/excess).

5. Claire does not eat enough fruits and vegetables each day. This behavior would be considered a

behavioral (deficit/excess).

6. John Watson started the movement in psychology called .

7. Edward Thorndikes major contribution to psychology was the description of the

.

8. conducted laboratory research demonstrating basic behavioral principles.

9. An overt behavior is defined as

.

10. A covert behavior is defined as

.



1. Behavior is defined as .

2. Ron eats too much candy each day. Is this an example of a behavioral deficit or behavioral

excess?

3. Ron does not exercise enough. Is this an example of a behavioral excess or behavioral deficit?

Match the term to the definition.

a. Frequency b. Duration c. Intensity

4. How long a behavior lasts

5. How many times a behavior occurs

6. How much physical force is involved in the behavior

7. An example of an overt behavior is .

8. An example of a covert behavior is .

9. discovered the law of effect.

10. conducted research on respondent conditioning.


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Observing and Recording Behavior

ne fundamental aspect of behavior modification is measuring the behavior thatis targeted for change. Measurement of the target behavior (or behaviors) in be-

havior modification is called behavioral assessment. Behavioral assessment is impor-tant for a number of reasons.

Measuring the behavior before treatment provides information that can help youdetermine whether treatment is necessary.

Behavioral assessment can provide information that helps you choose the besttreatment.

Measuring the target behavior before and after treatment allows you to deter-mine whether the behavior changed after the treatment was implemented.

Consider the following example.A supervisor in a manufacturing plant believed the com-

pany had a problem with workers showing

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