This report provides an overview of volunteerism among older adults by sum-

marizing current research conducted in the United States (U.S.) and China.

The report reviews rates of volunteering in later life, what volunteering in later

life typically involves, why volunteering among older adults is important, how

organizations can promote older adults’ volunteerism, and how older adults

can find volunteer opportunities.

Research Report #1

August 2012

The Who, What, Why, and How of Volunteering in Later Life

by Emily A. Greenfield, PhD*

* Assistant Professor of Social Work at Rutgers, the State University of New Jersey. Contact: egreenf@ssw.rutgers.edu. The author thanks Mallory G. Russo for assistance with the literature re-view, as well as Dr. Chien-Chung Huang and Jackie Boyden at the Huamin Center.

1

Introduction

Population aging is one of the major

demographic shifts that the world will

experience in the coming decades. In

1950, 8% of the world’s population

was ages 60 and over. In 2011, about

11% of the world’s population be-

longed to that age group. In 2050, this

age group is expected to reach 22%.

This means that in several decades,

about one in five people in the world

will be ages 60 and older.1 Demogra-

phers predict that by 2030, China will

be among the most rapidly aging na-

tions in the world.

Historically, population aging has

been viewed as a social problem. Peo-

ple are asking:

Who will provide care for older

adults with health problems?

How can we finance national so-

cial insurance programs, such as

Social Security, for the growing

masses of older adults?

How will an aging population

affect major economic systems?

How can we prevent and cure the

burdensome diseases associated

with aging?

Since the late 1990s, there has been a

growing movement to move beyond

this strict “deficits” approach to aging

by focusing on the opportunities that

our aging population presents for indi-

viduals, families, and society as a

whole. Researchers, policymakers, ad-

vocates, and citizens alike are begin-

ning to ask:

How can a growing number of

older adults be utilized to address

the world’s most pressing social

issues?

This question has led to a greater em-

phasis on promoting civic engagement

in later life. Civic en-

gagement can be de-

fined broadly as activ-

ity that involves older

adults’ contributing to

their communities.

One of the most com-

mon forms of civic

engagement is volun-

teering. Volunteering

is giving one’s time

and energies to bene-

fit the well-being of

others as a result of

one’s own free will

and not for some oth-

er reason, such as fi-

nancial remuneration or mandated

service.2 Some people use the term

“volunteering” to refer to people help-

ing others informally through their

own private network of relationships.

Most, however, use this term to refer

to helping others through formal ser-

vice organizations, such as hospitals

and schools.

Until recently, efforts to understand

and promote volunteerism had fo-

cused on youth. It was not until the

late 1990s when the idea of promoting

volunteerism among older adults was

discussed widely. It was at this time

when Marc Freedman—the Founder

and CEO of Encore.org (a nonprofit

organization in San Francisco, CA, that

focuses on promoting meaningful

work in later life)—published a germi-

nal book titled “Prime Time: How Ba-

by Boomers Will Revolutionize and

Transform America.” This book calls

for mobilizing the skills, talents, and

experiences of older adults to help ad-

dress pressing social problems. Also at

this time, the Atlantic Philanthropies—

a private foundation in the U.S.—made

strategic grants to leading organiza-

tions in the field of aging around civic

engagement, including the Geronto-

logical Society of America (a premiere

professional organization for research

on aging) and the National Council on

Aging (a leading organization in the

U.S. focused on aging and social poli-

cy). The grants aimed to draw the

attention of researchers, policymakers,

service professionals, and citizens to

older adults’ civic engagement, such as

volunteering.

The purpose of this report is to sum-

marize the main ideas that have

emerged within the past 15 years re-

garding older adults’ volunteerism.

Specifically, this report presents the

“who, what, why, and how” of volun-

teering in later life with a special focus

on the U.S. and China.

WHO Volunteers Later in Life?

Many people maintain out-dated and

ageist stereotypes of what adults are

capable of or expected to do in later

life. In the U.S., there are stereotypes

that conjure up images of sickly elders

sitting quietly to themselves—

dependent on others for their care and

passively watching life passing them

by.3 Although cultural traditions in

China more readily emphasize older

adults’ contributions to families and

communities, widespread norms tend

to emphasize older adults’ contribu-

2

tions to their families and paid work

over their broader communities.4

Research on volunteering in the U.S.

suggests that many older adults do, in

fact, volunteer. Data from the U.S.

Bureau of Labor Statistics estimates

that in 2011, 24% of adults ages 65 and

older volunteered.5

Although rates of any volunteering

peak in midlife, older adults in the

U.S. are likely to contribute more

hours of volunteering than any other

age group.

In contrast, a study conducted in

Hong Kong in 2001-2002 found that

the participation in volunteer activi-

ties was lowest among older adults in

comparison to other age groups, with

only 3.6% of the population reporting

any volunteer work during the past 12

months.4

While many older adults do, in fact,

volunteer, research also indicates that

WHAT Does Volunteering

Later in Life Involve?

not all older adults are equally likely

to become a volunteer. Leaders in the

field have suggested two categories of

factors that influence older adults’ vol-

unteerism:6

Individual factors (such as health

and personal motivation)

Institutional factors (such as organi-

zational facilitation, social policies,

and incentives)

Regarding individual factors, a large

body of research demonstrates that ed-

ucation is among the most powerful

predictors of volunteering at any stage

of adulthood. For example, the U.S. Bu-

reau of Labor Statistics estimated that in

2011, 42.4% of the adult population

with a college degree or higher volun-

teer, in comparison to 18.2% of adults

with high school education only5. Stud-

ies in Hong Kong and Shanghai similar-

ly have found that volunteering is more

prevalent among older adults with

higher levels of education.7-8

Older adults who have limited mobility

have more difficulty finding volunteer

activities that are accessible to them.

Women are slightly more likely to vol-

U.S. AGE GROUP 2011 PERCENT WHO DID ANY

VOLUNTEER WORK

Total, 16 years and over 26.8%

16 to 24 years 22.5%

25 to 34 years 23.3%

35 to 44 years 31.8%

45 to 54 years 30.6%

55 to 64 years 28.1%

65 years and over 24.0%

unteer than men, as are people who

are more religious and have more so-

cial contacts. People who volunteer at

earlier stages in life are more likely to

continue doing so in later life than peo-

ple without earlier histories of volun-

teering.

Given social inequalities in access to

volunteer opportunities, researchers

have been trying to better understand

how organizations can create environ-

ments that facilitate volunteerism

among diverse subgroups of older

adults. This scholarship also considers

how public policies and programs can

support organizations in facilitating

older adults’ volunteerism. Research in

the U.S. suggests that older adults are

likely to benefit more from volunteer-

ing when they receive adequate train-

ing for their volunteer responsibilities,

ongoing support, stipends to offset the

costs of volunteering, and choice of

volunteer activities.9 Moreover, re-

search conducted in Hong Kong has

found that volunteering yields more

health benefits when social workers

and peers are more encouraging and

supportive of older adults’ volunteer

service.10

It is anticipated that the number of vol-

unteers in later life will increase with

the aging of the Baby Boom cohort—a

large group of adults who were born

between 1946 and 1964. This cohort’s

high levels of health and education are

likely to facilitate their interest and

ability in volunteering. Survey re-

search conducted in the U.S. in 2004

suggests that about half of Baby Boom-

ers expect to continue to contribute to

their communities through work and/

or service in later life.11 Census data in

Hong Kong in 2000 indicated that 38%

of adults ages 45 to 59 anticipated vol-

unteering after they retire or are 60

years old.7

Data from http://www.bls.gov/news.release/volun.nr0.htm.

3

Volunteering is a general term that

refers to a range of different types and

settings for activity. It involves indi-

viduals giving their time to benefit

others as a result of their own free

choice and not because of financial

remuneration, a mandate, or coercion.

Some people do not consider any work

that is compensated with a stipend or

reimbursement as volunteer work.

There is growing recognition, howev-

er, that volunteer stipends and reim-

bursement (such as for the cost of trav-

el to volunteer) are sound volunteer

management strategies, particularly

for encouraging lower income elders

to volunteer.4

Recognizing the wide range of activi-

ties that could be considered volunteer

work, it is useful to identify different

dimensions of volunteer activity. For

example, volunteer activities vary in

terms of the following characteristics.12

Type of action: Does the activity

involve helping (e.g., tutoring a

student) or giving (e.g., donating

money)?

Motivation of the actor: To what ex-

tent is the activity motivated by

altruism—a desire to promote the

welfare of others—or by some oth-

er reason (e.g., a sense of obliga-

tion)?

Degree of human interaction: How

much direct interaction with other

people does the activity involve?

Types of social institutions involved:

In what settings does the activity

take place, such as government,

health care, social services, family,

neighborhoods, education, or reli-

gious?

Intensity of the activity: How regu-

larly and for how long does the

actor engage in the activity? For

example, is it a one-time volunteer

engagement, or does it occur

weekly?

Impact of the activity: To what ex-

tent does the activity bring about

beneficial outcomes? For example,

does a volunteer at a hospital actu-

ally improve the morale of the pa-

tients there?

Most research studies on volunteering

in later life have used relatively simple

measures of volunteer behavior that

do not distinguish among these differ-

ent characteristics of volunteering. Re-

searchers generally know whether or

not individuals volunteered, for how

many hours, and through what type of

organization.13 Studies in the U.S. sug-

gest that adults of any age are most

likely to do so through religious organ-

izations, such as churches and temples.

Furthermore, it has been estimated

that volunteers age 65 and older in the

U.S. donate an average of nearly four

full-time weeks of work per volunteer

to religious causes and nearly five full-

time weeks per volunteer to non-

religious organizations. Older adults

are more likely to volunteer by provid-

ing managerial assistance, such as

serving on a board or committee, than

younger volunteers, who are more

likely to tutor, teach, or supervise

sports teams.14

Leaders in the field are orienting atten-

tion to new settings for volunteering

among older adults. For example, in

the U.S., there are a growing number

of organizations within the travel in-

dustry that promote “voluntourism.”

Voluntourism involves traveling

throughout the world to improve the

lives of others by interacting directly

with them.15 Another emerging type of

volunteerism in later life is eco-

volunteerism, which involves older

adults volunteering to conserve natu-

ral resources and foster environmental

sustainability for future generations.16

Eco-volunteering among older adults

might be especially likely to yield

health benefits because it oftentimes

involves rigorous physical activity,

which can improve older adults’

health.

WHY Does Volunteering Lat-

er in Life Matter?

Both in the U.S. and in China, enthusi-

asm for older adults’ volunteerism is

based on two ideas.17-18

Volunteering promotes the well-

being of the people and organiza-

tions that volunteers serve

Volunteering promotes the well-

being of individual volunteers

themselves.

Much of the research on the benefits of

volunteering has focused on its effects

on older individuals themselves.19 The-

orizing on volunteering in later life has

focused on volunteering as a positive

social role that can promote health

through a variety of processes, such as

by protecting against losses and nega-

tive events in other social roles, con-

tributing to an individual’s identity

and positive sense of self, connecting

individuals with others, enhancing

feelings of control, increasing one’s

sense of mattering to others, promot-

ing physical activity, and enhancing an

individuals’ overall power, prestige,

and resources.

Because opportunities for positive,

meaningful, and productive social

roles typically become more limited in

later life, volunteering has been dis-

cussed as an especially important ac-

tivity among older adults. Volunteer-

ing also has been discussed as a prima-

ryvehicle for adults’ achieving genera-

tivity—a term coined by Erik Erikson,

a famous lifespan development psy-

chologist, which emphasizes the im-

portance of opportunities to develop

and display concern for the welfare of

others, particularly for younger gener-

ations.

4

Research studies using population da-

ta in the U.S. have found that volun-

teering in middle and later life is asso-

ciated with a variety of better physical

health outcomes, including reduced

risk of mortality, better functional

health, and better self-rated health, as

well as improved psychological well-

being, such as fewer depressive symp-

toms, greater life satisfaction, and hap-

piness.13 Research also has focused on

whether some subgroups of adults

benefit more from volunteering than

others. These studies, overall, have

found greater benefits among older

volunteers who:

Have fewer personal and econom-

ic resources (e.g., are in poorer

health, have lower levels of educa-

tion, lack other major social roles)

Receive volunteer training, ongo-

ing support for their volunteer

activities, and have greater choice

of volunteer activity

Dedicate more time to the volun-

teer role (although some studies

have found that extraordinarily

high levels of volunteering might

be stressful and undermine peo-

ple’s well-being)

There has been less research to exam-

ine the outcomes of volunteers’ service

for the individuals and organizations

that they serve. A report by the Center

on Aging and Work at Boston College

estimated that volunteering among

adults ages 50 and older is worth ap-

proximately $59 billion.14 Furthermore,

based on a study of 40 nonprofit or-

ganizations in the U.S., the National

Council on Aging estimated that or-

ganizations achieved a nearly 800%

return when investing in recruiting

and managing adults ages 55 and over

as volunteers.20

HOW Can Older Adults Find

Opportunities to Volunteer?

In general, organizations that utilize

volunteers largely have overlooked

older adults. In a survey conducted by

the U.S. National Council on Aging in

2005, 91% of more than 800 officials

representing 20 of the leading non-

profits in the U.S. could not report any

organizational practices to engage old-

er adults. They cited lack of staff, train-

ing, screening, and placement systems

as key barriers.21

Principles for sound volunteer man-

agement among older adults are likely

similar to those for other age groups,

such as matching volunteers’ interests

and skills with tasks, providing train-

ing and ongoing support, and formally

recognizing volunteers’ contributions.

There is some research, however, sug-

gesting that older adults might have

unique volunteer needs and prefer-

ences, such as having flexible hours

that allow them to fulfill other work

and family obligations.22 For older

adults with limited mobility, transpor-

tation to volunteer activities is espe-

cially important, as are volunteer op-

portunities that can be done remotely

within the volunteers’ homes.

The national government in the U.S.

has devoted some resources to facili-

tate volunteerism among older adults

specifically through the U.S. Corpora-

tion for National and Community Ser-

vice’s Senior Corps programs. Senior

Corps is targeted toward connecting

adults ages 55+ with opportunities to

address pressing social issues and en-

gages about 500,000 adults a year.23

Similarly, within the past decade, the

China National Committee on Aging

has launched the “Silver Hair Action

Program,” which involves retirees

with professional expertise visiting

under-developed areas of China to

support community development. An-

other national volunteer program is

“Loving Care to Help the Growth of

the Young,” which involves older

adults supporting children in need

throughout the country.17

Most people in the U.S. find volunteer

opportunities through their own pri-

5

vate networks of local service organi-

zations, such as by contacting their

neighborhood school; hospital; senior

center; church, temple, or synagogue;

and a variety of nongovernmental

charitable organizations, such as Cath-

olic Charities or United Way. Other

volunteers create their own opportuni-

ties, such as by identifying local organ-

izations that already are working on a

particular issue and building teams of

volunteers through their own private

networks and beyond.24

Recognizing that finding volunteer

opportunities can be challenging, a

growing number of organizations host

online databases that people can

search to find suitable volunteer op-

portunities. For example, AARP—a

membership organization in the U.S.

that advocates on behalf of adults ages

50 and over—has created an online

database for volunteer opportunities.25

People can visit the site to seek volun-

teer opportunities by location, date,

and keyword. The database also desig-

nates volunteer opportunities that can

be conducted online within one’s own

home.

Matching volunteers with the right

opportunity requires efforts by organi-

zations, as well as by prospective vol-

unteers themselves. The Center for

Philanthropy and Community Service

at the University of Texas suggests that

volunteers consider the following

questions while seeking volunteer op-

portunities:26

What causes or issues are especial-

ly meaningful to you? Is there a

particular group of people or so-

cial issue that you seek to address

through your volunteer work (e.g.,

children, poverty, education, vul-

nerable older adults)? Are you in-

terested in issues in your immedi-

ate community or those that exist

farther away?

Do you want to volunteer in a way

that uses the skills you already

have, or do you want to do some-

thing completely different? What

things are you looking to learn?

What type of activities do you

NOT want to do as a volunteer?

Are you interested in a one-time

volunteer activity (e.g., helping

with a special event at an organi-

zation) or a more regular volunteer

activity (e.g., weekly visits with

people receiving volunteer ser-

vices)? Are you interested in vol-

unteer work only on the evenings

and weekends? How many hours

can you commit?

What kind of people do you want

to work with in terms of the peo-

ple receiving services and your co-

workers? Would you prefer to

work alone or with a group, or

with a friend or family members?

Although cultural norms might dictate

that adults appear “selfless” in their

pursuit to volunteer, it is important for

volunteers to be realistic with them-

selves and volunteer organizations

concerning their needs and interests so

that they can be effective in their vol-

unteer role.

Summary and Conclusion

This report has summarized major ideas that have emerged over the past 15 years regarding older

adults’ volunteerism. Key ideas include:

Older adults’ volunteerism is influenced by their individual capacity (e.g., health) and organization-

al capacity (e.g., nonprofit organizations actively asking older adults to serve). Leaders in the field

predict that Baby Boomers will be especially likely to volunteer in later life.

Volunteering is a broad term that covers a wide range of activities. Older adults in the U.S. are like-

ly to volunteer through religious organizations and to engage in professional or managerial roles,

such as by serving on nonprofit boards.

(Continued on p. 7)

6

Summary and Conclusion Continued

Enthusiasm for older adults’ volunteerism is based on the idea that it benefits society, service organ-

izations, and individual older adults themselves. There is some research to support these ideas.

There are several national programs in the U.S. and China focused on community service among

older adults. Many older adults volunteer, however, through service organizations that attract vol-

unteers of all ages. Online databases in the U.S. publicize these opportunities.

In conclusion, there is growing enthusiasm to move beyond a deficits approach to aging—whereby old-

er adults are unilaterally viewed as vulnerable individuals in need of care—to a strengths perspective

whereby older adults are viewed, in part, as a population who contribute to others’ well-being. Volun-

teerism among older adults is one primary way in which this shift in thought can lead to change in ac-

tion for the benefit of aging individuals, communities, and society as a whole.

7

References

1 Beard, J., Biggs, S., Bloom, D., Fried, L., Hogan, P., Kalache, A., & Olshansky, J. (2012). Global population ageing: Peril or

promise? Harvard Program on the Global Demography of Aging Working Paper No. 89. Retrieved from http://

www.hsph.harvard.edu/pgda/WorkingPapers/2012/PGDA_WP_89.pdf.

2 Cnaan, R. A., Handy, F., & Wadsworth, M. (1996). Defining who is a volunteer: Conceptual and empirical considera-

tions. Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, 25(3), 364-383.

3 Nelson, T. (2004). Ageism: Stereotyping and prejudice against older persons. Boston, MA: MIT Press.

4 Chong, A.M. (2010). Promoting volunteerism in later life in Hong Kong. China Journal of Social Work, 3(2/3), 313-322.

5 U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (2012). Volunteering in the United States, 2011. Retrieved from http://www.bls.gov/

news.release/volun.nr0.htm.

6 Morrow-Howell, N., & Wang, Y. (in press). Productive engagement of older adults: Elements of a cross-cultural re-

search agenda. Ageing International.

7 Chou, K., Chow, N.W.S., & Chi, I. (2003). Volunteering aspirations of Hong Kong Chinese soon-to-be-old adults. Activi-

ties, Adaptation, & Aging, 27(3/4), 79-96.

8 Mjelde-Mossey, L.A., Wu, B., & Chi, I. (2007). Civic engagement of the oldest-old in Shanghai. Asian Journal of Gerontolo-

gy & Geriatrics, 2(2), 61-68.

9 Tang, F., Choi, E., & Morrow-Howell, N. (2010). Organizational support and volunteering benefits for older adults. The

Gerontologist, 50 (5), 603-612.

10 Cheung, C., & Kwan, A.Y. (2006). Inducting older adults into volunteer work to sustain their psychological well-being.

Ageing International, 31, 44-58.

11 Harvard School of Public Health and the Metlife Foundation. Reinventing aging: Civic engagement and Baby Boomers. Re-

trieved from http://assets.aarp.org/rgcenter/general/boomers_engagement.pdf.

12 Greenfield, E. A. (2010). Identifying the boundaries and horizons of the concept of civic engagement for the field of

aging. In G. O’Neill & S. F. Wilson (Eds.), Civic engagement in an older America

(pp. 7-14). Washington, DC: The Gerontological Society of America.

13 Morrow-Howell, N. (2010). Outcomes of civic engagement for older adults. In G. O’Neill & S. F. Wilson (Eds.), Civic

engagement in an older America (pp. 125-131). Washington, DC: The Gerontological Society of America.

14 Havens, J., & McNamara, T.K. (2007). Civic engagement: Volunteering dynamics and flexible work options. Boston

College Center on Aging, Work, and Workplace Flexibility. Retrieved from http://www.bc.edu/content/dam/files/

research_sites/agingandwork/pdf/publications/IB07_VolunteeringDynamics.pdf.

15 Hawkins, D., Lamoreux, K., & Clemmons, D. (2005). Voluntourism as a catalyst for developing the potential of tourism

destinations. Tedqual, 7(1), 13-17.

16 Bushway, L.J., Dickinson, J.L., Stedman, R.C., Wagenet, L.P., & Weinstein, D.A. (2011). Benefits, motivations, and barri-

ers related to environmental volunteerism for older adults: Developing a research agenda. The International Journal of Ag-

ing and Human Development, 72(3), 189-206.

8

17 Mui, A.C. (2010). Productive ageing in China: A human capital perspective. China Journal of Social Work, 3(2/3), 111-123.

18 Hinterlong, J.E. (2010). Conceptual foundations and challenges: Civic engagement in later life. In G. O’Neill & S. F.

Wilson (Eds.), Civic engagement in an older America (pp. 15-21). Washington, DC: The Gerontological Society of Ameri-

ca.

19 Grimm, R., Jr., Spring, K., & Dietz, N. (2007). The health benefits of volunteering. Washington, DC: Corporation for Na-

tional and Community Service.

20 National Council on Aging. (2010). The Boomer solution: Skilled talent to meet nonprofit needs. Retrieved from http://

www.ncoa.org/assets/files/pdf/RespectAbility-Executive-Summary.pdf.

21 The Metlife Foundation and Civic Ventures. (2007). Booomers are ready for nonprofits, but are nonprofits ready for

them? Retrieved from http://www.civicventures.org/breakthrough/reports/ConfBdreport5-25.pdf.

22 Gerontological Society of America. (n.d.). Focus groups summary report: 2005 White House Conference on Aging. Re-

trieved from http://www.civicengagement.org/agingsociety/links/GSAfocusgroup_summary.pdf.

23 Corporation for National and Community Service. (n.d.) Senior Corps. Retrieved from http://www.seniorcorps.gov.

24 Corporation for National and Community Service. (n.d.) Getting started. Retrieved from http://www.serve.gov/

toolkits.asp.

25 AARP. (n.d.) Create the Good. Retrieved from www.createthegood.org.

26 Ellis, S.J. (n.d.) Finding the right volunteer opportunity for you. Retrieved from http://www.serviceleader.org/

volunteers/finding.

Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey

School of Social Work

390 George Street, Room 503

New Brunswick, NJ 08901

848-932-5383, ext. 25383

socialwork.rutgers.edu/huamin