CHAPTER 11

THEORETICAL OVERVIEW

Context of Teaching

Teacher Quality

Teaching Effectiveness

D Factors Influencing Teacher Effectiveness

P References

CHAPTER I1

Theoretical Overview

The present study is conceived basically around four major dimensions

of factors viz., personal-, psychological-, institutional-, and sociological- that are

supposed to influence the teacher effectiveness. The dimensions have acquired highly

precise scientific meanings in modem educational and psychological literature. An

attempt has been made here to examine the theoretical basis of the major dimensions

of factors with a view to obtaining an insight into the influence on the effective

teaching. Consequently, an attempt has been made to bring together some important

literature in the area under study which has been classified under the following heads:

2.1 Context of' Teaching

2.1.1 Concept of Teaching

2.1.2 Teachers' Beliefs about Learning

2.1.3 Learner's View about Teachers and Learning

2.2 Teacher Quality

2.2.1 Quality Education

2.2.2 Arranging and Conducting Outdoor Activities is Indicator of Teachers'

Efficiency

2.3 Teaching Effectiveness

2.3.1 Effective Teaching Behaviours

2.3.2 Criteria for Teacher Effectiveness.

2.3.2.1 Teacher Effectiveness as a Process

26 Theoretical Overview

-

2.3.2.2 'Teacher Effectiveness as a Product

2.3.2.3 Teacher Effectiveness as a Presage

2.4 Factors Influencing Teacher Effectiveness

2.4.1 Teacher Education and 'reachers' Effectiveness

2.4.2 Personality Factors and Teachers' Effectiveness

2.4.3 Academic Achievement and Teachers' Effectiveness

2.4.4 Subject Matter Knowledge and Teachers' Effectiveness

2.4.5 Intelligence and Teachers' Effectiveness

2.4.6 Adjustment and Teachers' Effectiveness

2.4.7 Job Satisfaction and Teachers' Effectiveness

2.4.8 Interests and Teachers' Effectiveness

2.4.9 Attitude towards Teaching Profession

2.4.10 Teacher-Pupil Relationship and Teachers' Effectiveness

2.4.1 1 Socio-Economic Status and Teachers' Effectiveness

2.4.12 Miscellaneous Factors of Teachers' Effectiveness

2.1 The Context of Teaching

Research studies which adopted a detailed focus on life in the

classroom established more sophisticated approach to understanding the complex

interaction of pupils and teachers. Kounin's (1977) work, which highlighted the

complexities of classroom life, has remained influential for twenty years.

Doyle (1990 a) provides an overview of studies which have focused on classroom

contexts. Classrooms are crowded and busy places in which groups of students who

vary in interests and liabilities must be organised and directed. Moreover, these

27 -- - -

Jheoret~cal Overview

groups assemble regularly for long periods of time to accomplish a wide variety of

tasks. Many events occur simultaneously; teachers must react often and immediately

to circumstances, and the course of events is frequently unpredictable. Teaching in

such settings requires a highly developed ability to manage events.

Teachers display significant differences in how they cope with this

complex environment. They differ in their responses to the simultaneous events, with

their multifaceted nature, and the need for immediate action Experienced teachers

monitor and interpret such events and demands in greater detail - with more insight

and understanding - than do their less experienced colleagues, they respond

effortlessly and tluidly (Sabers, Cushing, and Berlin, 1991). Teaching experience is

conventionally regarded as an asset, presumably positively related to teaching

success.

Experienced Teachers' understanding of classroom processes is more

connected and complex. For example, they do not separate issues of classroom

management ttom pedagogy in the way that beginner teachers do (Copeland,

Birmingham, Demulle, Demidiocaston, and Natal, 1994). Teachers who actively

accept the complexity of the classroom orchestrate events in their classes more

successfully than those who do not (Doyle, 1977). All teachers, however need to be

able to handle uncertainty in the classroom setting (Floden and Buchmann, 1993).

Recognition of the influence of the classroom context has enhanced

our understanding of classroom change. Although classrooms are very dynamic, they

can also be very resistant to change. Simple intervention, such as adding a specific

teacher skill or changing the content of the curriculum, often shows little lasting

28 Theorebcal Ovelvrew -- -

impact. It even remains an open question whether major interventions, such as the

introduction of new technology, will significantly change classroom practice (Cuban,

1993).

The content of what is taught influences how it is taught. This has led

to a greater focus on teachers' knowledge of subject matter, since, however, the

subject matter of schools will change in various ways, such knowledge must be

dynamic and context-dependent rather than static. According to Carlsen (1991),

teachers hold multiple representations of subject concepts and, in their teaching, select

those based on their understanding of the context of instruction and their prior

knowledge of what is likely to be effective for particular learners. So researchers into

pedagogy not only endeavour to investigate how teachers organise subject matter in

their own minds, but are also interested in the teachers' ability to understand and

apply the subject-matter in different ways, according to the context of their classes,

the sequence of lessons, and their knowledge of the learning groups and individuals.

The acts of teaching include the logical acts of teaching - informing,

explaining, describing, exemplifying, instancing, showing, and the like - and those

quite different acts of controlling, motivating, and evaluating which are managerial in

nature and which are essential ingredients of teaching as enacted in the interactions of

teacher and taught, made necessary by the institutional context of teaching. There are

also those acts involved in planning of teaching - diagnosing, selecting, and

prescribing what is to be taught.

Figure 2.1 sets out details of the parameters of the subsystem of

teaching.

29 - Theoretical Overview

Planning teaching Teaching in interaction

1 Diagnosing Purposing I I ~ o t i v a t i n ~ Acts I

Figure 2.1 : The Subsvstems of Teaching

Source: Denham and Lieberman (1980)

2.1.1 Copcept of Teachin%

The concept of teaching effects refers to conditions which come about

because of teaching. The effects of teaching are the outcomes that are influenced by

teaching activities. They include all outcomes that can be shown to be influenced by

teaching, teacher effectiveness concerns only those outcomes that reflect the agency

of the teacher and the objects of education. A given outcome is affected by teaching

requires that a cause-effect relationship be established between some aspect of

teaching and the outcome in question. Establishing cause-effect relationships, is

always difficult in the social sciences, and confusion has also appeared concerning

designs for research on the effects of teaching.

Teaching can have many outcomes. Regarding the relationship

between teaching and learning, teaching is to learning as selling is to buying (Dewey,

1934, p.35). Most studies of teaching effects concern pupils, but teaching also has an

impact on others in the school, parents, members of the community or nation, and the

teacher himself or herself. Effects may be conceptualised as applying to individuals,

groups, institutions. or the entire society. They may also be conceived as changes in

behaviour or thought, as cognitive, affective, conative, or psychomotor events, as

immediate or long term, as incremental or cumulative. Moreover, variables that may

be examined for teaching effects may be generated by various theories ranging from

behaviourism to cognitive psychology, Marxism, developmental psychology, role

theory, symbolic interactionism, psychoanalytic theory, or concepts of leading

educators.

2.1.2 Teachers' Beliefs about Learnin%

Teachers' beliefs about learning essentially how children's minds

work, is increasingly being recognised as important. Teachers' view about how

learning takes place, albeit implicit ones, affect the ways in which they design

learning opportunities for their pupils.

Bruner (1996) has written about the conceptions that teachers have

about the minds of learners. He characterises these as:

(1) Seeing children as initiative learners: the acquisition of 'know-how'

(2) Seeing children as learning from didactic exposure: the acquisition of

propositional knowledge.

(3) Seeing children as thinkers: the development of intersubjective interchange.

Modem pedagogy is moving increasingly to the view that the child

should be aware of his own thought process, and that it is crucial for the pedagogical

theorist and teacher alike to help him to become more metacognitive - to be as aware

of how he goes about his learning and thinking as he is about the subject matter he is

studying. Achieving skill and accumulating knowledge are not enough. The learner

can be helped to achieve full mastery by reflecting as well upon how he is going about

3 1 Theoretical Overview

..-. .

his job and how his approach can be improved. Equipping him with a good theory of

mind - or a theory of mental functioning - is one part of helping him to do so.

Research on the brain and learning (Hart, 1983; Jensen, 1994;

Sylvester, 1995) supports Bruner's definition of pedagogy. It confirms the

importance of metacognition; it also emphasises the importance of early education.

The first ten years of childhood are known to be highly significant in the development

of the braln's capacity to learn (Dryden and Voss, 1994; Hannaford, 1995).

Therefore, primary teachers need to continue to learn how to develop children as

thinkers. This will include creating an atmosphere in which it is acceptable to make

mistakes and will require the type of' relationship between the teacher and the learner

so that children develop from an early age a constructive attitude towards learning and

a positive view about themselves as learners. This will enable teachers to make

explicit, and, if necessary, challenge their beliefs about learning so that they can be as

aware of how they go about their teaching as they are about the subject matter to be

taught.

2.1.3 Learners' View About Teachers and barnin&

What do young learners think about teaching and learning? When

pupils' opinion is sought about their learning and the most effective ways in which

teachers can promote learning, pupils can be relied upon to stress the importance of

teacher-pup11 relationships (Rudduck, Chaplain, and Wallace, 1996; MacGilchrist,

Myers, and Reed. 1997).

A number of research studies have looked into the pupils' view of

teachers and school. Wragg asked pupils about what makes a good teacher (Wragg,

32 -- - - - - - - Theoretrcal Ovewrew

1984; Woods. 1990). In an evaluation of school improvement in a range of Scottish

schools, the Improving School Effectiveness Project also asked primary pupils aged

six and ten in Scotland about their experience of school (Thomas, Smees, and Boyd,

1998). Blatchford (1996) has interviewed a sample of children at seven, eleven and

sixteen on attitudes to school and school-based work. Pollard has been involved in a

number of studies, the early ones looking at the child's view of the classroom and

later ones at the curriculum and the assessment process (Pollard, Broad, Croll,

Osbom, and Abbott, 1994; Pollard, 1996). Tunstall and Gipps (1996) studying

teacher feedback to young children in formative assessment, asked six- and seven-

year old children about how the teacher helped them to improve their work and about

what helped children to do well in various subjects/tasks. The findings are fairly

consistent: children like teachers who are k i d and helpful, fairly interesting and fun,

and explain things well.

The pupils become increasingly aware of teacher power and control

and very aware of the extent to which their activities were evaluated by teachers.

Their preferred orientation was 'pleasing teacher' and they showed a growing

preoccupation with avoiding failure (Broadfoot and Pollard, 1998). This finding

poses a challenge for primary teachers as the impact of this kind of pedagogy appears

to close down rather than open up learning opportunities.

Smith's (1998) model of accelerated learning illustrates in many

respects. He uses the findings of brain research to offer a means whereby teachers

can raise pup11 motivation and achievement in a planned, structured but flexible way.

The structural approach to teaching 'is based on an understanding of how we learn

33 Theoretrcal Ovewrew

- - - -

rather than an expedient preoccupatiorl with what we learn'. Smith argues that

'attention to process and appropriate process interventions shifts thinking away from

content coverage'

2.2 Teacher Quality

Teacher quality would be determined by a complex interaction of

several dimensions. It is not difficult to draw up a list of qualities that characterise an

effective teacher by pooling the opinions of educational experts, parents and

guardians, headmasters, principals and managers of schools, teacher educators and

school teachers, and the pupils. Such a comprehensive collection of judgements is

bound to help in formulating a list of qualities which reflect the opinions of a variety

of people, and be acceptable to all. Studies of good and poor teachers, of reasons why

teachers fail or succeed, classroom performance of different types of teachers,

conditions and requirements for teacher selection, reasons for dismissal of teachers,

can help to confirm or modify the set of characteristics evolved through pooling of

judgements. And finally, appraisal of activities involved in teaching, tests of qualities

commonly associated with teaching success, and measures of pupil change can be

used to provide a comprehensive picture of the total personality of an effective

teacher. These qualities, however, should not be considered in an isolated way. They

do not have a separate, isolated existence, but are merged into the total

psychophys~cal organism of the individual. It is more appropriate and nearer truth to

talk in terms of an effective teaching personality rather than a set of independent

characteristics of a teacher (Adaval, 1979).

34 Theoretical Overview

. ~~ - ~ ~ p ~ - .

It cannot be rigid either in respect of a particular set of qualities that a

successful teacher should possess or the degree to which each of the qualities is

desirable. Even the success or failure of a teacher will have to be judged in the

context of the specific teaching learning situation in which he is operating. Different

situations may demand different types of treatment, and a teacher's success has in his

capacity to select and adopt the approach that suits the nature of a particular situation

best. So a teacher who is successful in a particular teaching learning situation may be

complete failure in another. If this principle, that the effect of a given factor is

relative to the situation in which it functions, is applicable to teaching competencies,

research efforts in this area should be directed toward identifying those teacher

abilities, traits, and qualities, which make for a high level of effectiveness for different

purposes, persons and situations. After such identifications have been made, it may

be possible to find patterns of abilities, traits, and qualities which have high

correlations with teaching success in a number of teaching situations.

It should, therefore, be possible to identify some such characteristics of

teacher effectiveness which may be useful in most, if not all, of the different types of

teaching situations. It would also be desirable to be sufficiently elastic in laying down

the criteria, especially in view of the fact that no two situations are exactly the same.

As a matter of fact, a really successful teacher would be a harmonious

and balanced personality, with the greatest amount of agreement between what he is

and what he does. A tool can, however, be evolved to assess the gap between the

being and the doing of an individual, and the educational measures could be adopted

35 Theoret~cal Overview

to minimlse thls gap. It would also help in eliminating teachers who differ

considerably in what they do from what they profess.

2.2.1 Ouality Education.

The overall scenario in education as changing so fast that many

institutions and individuals are finding it difficult to keep pace with it. Competition

and selection of the best has become the order of the day. In the internationally

competitive world, 'quality' has become the password-'quality' in all products,

processes and even in the services is the function of value addition through

intelligence efforts.

The cry for improving the quality of education has been on the increase

as revealed from the writings of progressive educational thinkers like Dewey (1937);

Smith and William (1950); Manuel (1978); Bennett, Desforges, Cockbum, and

Wilkinson (1984); Coombs (1985); Sivadasan (1986); Bane jee (1994); Rajput (1994,

1999); Gnanam and Stella (1999); and Prakash (2000).

In the present day fast changing socio-economic context, no one is sure

of the shape things may take in the near future. It is not easy to perceive which of the

skills acquired or learning attained will really equip the learner for the next four to

five decades. As such, the chief task of our schools should be training of thoroughly

developed people who possess the basic facts of knowledge in the field of science and

technology, and at the same time are trained for skilled physical labour. Rao (1992)

believes that the study process could be more productive, if learners were taught

specific skills and techniques which could formalise the study process.

Considering the critical importance of the early development, it can be

said that the most decisive battle for equality of opportunities and democratisation of

education is to be won at pre school level. Some of the main tasks of the pre-primary

teacher are:

(i) to create an affective climate providing security;

(ii) to create favourable situation for cognitive, affective (including aesthetic),

and psychomotor development.;

(iii) to enrich the social experience of the child;

(iv) to enrich the cultural background of the child;

(v) to promote language development;

(vi) to help in acquiring the basic concepts of time, space and quantity;

(vii) to foster readiness for primary instruction; and

(viii) to help the family in its educational task.

As for primary teachers, it seems that two types of primary teachers

should be distinguished; for the age group 5 to 8 and for the group beyond age 8. The

first group is at the transition of pre-primary and primary education, and for that

reason should be non-graded. The teachers should have practically the same

preparation as the pre-primiuy teachers plus a high level training in the teaching of

reading and writing, in oral communication, mathematics instruction, and in

diagnostic and remedial techniques.

In order to develop a primary pedagogy which encourages effective

learning we need primaly teachers who not only have good subject knowledge and

classroom management skills but who also have a good understanding of how

children learn and are able to use this understanding to inform the teaching strategies

they employ. More attention needs to be paid to metacognition - the second type of

learning - and, therefore to the practical strategies which teachers can use to

encourage children to function effectively in thinking about learning. Important

elements of pedagogy will include getting children to think about their own learning,

teaching them how to evaluate their work and the effectiveness of their current

strategies, and teaching them new learning strategies. Educationists need to pay much

more attention to the implications for pedagogy of the findings of research into the

function~ng and development of the brain to ensure that primary teachers rnaximise

the brain's potential for learning in the primary years.

Primary teachers need to ensure that the classroom climate they create

enables children to be both learners and thinkers. This will include creating an

atmosphere in which it is acceptable to make mistakes and will require the type of

relationship between the teacher and the learner, so that children develop from an

early age a constructive attitude towards learning and a positive view about

themselves as learners (Gipps and Tunstall, 1998).

i'here is a key message that underlies these implications, namely that

primary teachers need to ensure that they too are lifelong learners. They need to be

given opportunities to model the active approaches to learning. This will enable

teachers to make explicit, and, if necessary, challenge their beliefs about learning so

that they can be as aware of how they go about their teaching as they are about the

subject-matter to be taught.

38 -. - - . - . - - Theoretical Overv~ew

2.2.2 Arranging and Conducting Outdoor Activities is Indicative of

Teacher Efficiency.

l'eaching is conducted predominantly in three types of learning

environment-classroom, laboratory and outdoors. Outdoor activities (field trips) have

the potential to enhance constructive social relationship among teachers as well as

many of the variables that characterise teaching leaming environment measures.

'Learning by doing' and Leaming by living' are the two cardinal principles of

teaching. When pupils learn with materials collected by them, they may develop love

for labour. Teaching in our classrooms is mostly rigid and verbal and, therefore, quite

uninteresting. Even though suitable outdoor sources are available to learn through

concrete first-hand experiences and situations, students are generally forced to sit in

denatured buildings and encouraged to memorise unrelated facts and principles

without understanding their practical implications.

Swafford (1995) made a s w e y to determine the perceptions of

outdoor educational professionals concerning the best methods, strategies, materials

and resources for elementary teachers to use in developing an outdoor laboratory for

their school. He designed an outdoor laboratory based on the significant activities by

the participants

The ability of learners to acquire scientific concepts in informal

learning institutions such as museums, zoos, aquaria and science centres is enhanced

by using authentic investigative methods similar to those employed by scientists.

This is the finding of Arenson (1996) fiom using Zoo Reach Program. He proposes

the program as an effective model for further development of informal leaming

39 Theoretrcaf Overvrew

-. - - - - --

techniques. This program was designed for Kindergarten, first and second grade

students in order to heighten the students' awareness of wildlife and to assist with

their acquisition of related concepts by allowing scientific study of the Los Angeles

Zoo. The program includes teaching, training, curricular materials and hands on

objects used while touring the facility.

2.3 Teachire Effectiveness

The term, 'teaching effectiveness' seems to imply effectiveness of

teaching within the unit, whereas 'teacher effectiveness' addresses individual teacher

performance. i.e. an effective teacher succeeds in producing desired changes among

the students through hisher teaching. Helshe is satisfied with teaching as a profession

and able to accomplish the prefixed goals of teaching effectively.

'Teaching effectiveness cannot be judged in a vacuum. It is to be

related to the achievement goals, envisaged in terms of the aims of education

embedded in the nation's philosophy of life. A teacher's success depends largely

upon his capacity to reflect the national philosophy in his own life and actions, and to

initiate the child into it. Teaching effectiveness, which includes precise measurement

and which is related to and perhaps depend on teaching behaviour and a host of

several other factors, has always intrigued educationists. Efforts made by researchers

from time to time to isolate teaching effectiveness and examine its ingredients have

not been wholly successful.

The literature on teacher effectiveness suggests that effective teachers

operate in a holistic way, drawing on a range of skills and their observations of a

particular class at a particular time (Kyriacou, 1991). There has been a number of

40 Theoretical Overview

reviews of what co~lstitutes effective teaching and the characteristics of the effective

teachers (Brophy and Good, 1986; Creemers, 1994; Tabberer, 1994; Joyce, Calhoun,

and Hopkins. 1997). Martimore (1994) also suggests a range of necessary teacher

skills, organising analysis, synthesis, presentational, assessment, management and

evaluative. It is in the light of these considerations that we have to evolve a set of

qualities desirable in an efficient teacher, who would be representative of his national

culture, and still have an individuality of his own.

Teaching effectiveness appeared to be strongly associated with the

following clusters (Good and Grouws, 1975).

(1) student-initiated behaviour

(2) whole class instruction

(3) general clarity of instruction, and availability of information as needed

(process of feedback in particular)

(4) a non-evaluative and generally relaxed learning environment

(5) higher achievement expectations

(6) classrooms that are relatively free of major behavioural disorders.

All educationists agree that in the new policy of education an effective

teacher will continue to occupy a unique and vital place in the total process of

education. Nevertheless, despite considerable research in recent years, there hardly

seems to be any decisive concurrence over the concept of an effective teacher.

Rut what makes the teachers effective, what are the characteristics of

effective teachers and how to identify them. Until and unless these issues are

successfully resolved it would be difficult to select the right type of would be teachers

4 1 -- -- -

Theoretical Overv~ew

for training to develop appropriate teaching strategies, toddling the right type of

teacher educators all this with a view to exploring the process and structure variables

responsible for conditioning teacher effectiveness.

I'eaching is a series of events through which a teacher attempts to

bring desired behavioural change in students. Through teaching the manner of

thinking, feelings and acting of students is changed. Different learners at different

ages and stages require different methods of teaching in order to achieve optimum

learning of different kinds. There is no simple recipe. for effective teaching in any

phase of education. Teachers need to develop a full repertoire of skills and techniques

designed to achieve different types of learning outcome. This process takes time and

involves training, practice and reflection. It is ongoing throughout the careers of

teachers whichever phase of education they work in and is optimised where teachers

are in a supportive environment and can adopt a mastery approach to their own

learning. Allowance needs to be made for this in the demands made on teachers'

working lives. Teaching uses the adaptability of students to complex environments.

Effective teaching can only be considered in relation to effective

learning. This raises the question of how learning and teaching are generally

conceptualised. Research has shown that academic learning can be defined as a

quantitative increase in knowledge; memorising; the acquisition for subsequent

utilisation of facts and methods; the abstraction of meaning, and interpretative process

aimed at understanding reality (Saljo, 1979). Certainly, teaching has been seen in

many different ways. It has been seen on a continuum from the transmission of

42 -- Theorebcal Overv~ew

knowledge at one end to the facilitation of learning. at the other, broadly mirroring

conceptions of learning (Kember, 1997).

l 'he flexibility which is exhibited by expert teachers may explain the

lack of a single. simple conception of teaching. Expert teachers are able to adopt a

range of strategies which are fit for particular learning aims and circumstances. In

any single lesson they may transmit knowledge and facilitate learning by stimulating

interest. explaining, instructing, managing, discussing, guiding, counselling, and

supporting. Teachers' decisions about what will be appropriate in a particular

situation have to take account of a range of interacting factors, which will now be

explored using a multi-dimensional model of teaching and learning as a framework.

They focus primarily on the pupils and usually adopt a combination of activities either

sequentially or concurrently to deal with one or more goals simultaneously taking

account of the current conditions at the time (Brown and Mclntyre, 1993). Teaching

Like most expert skills relies on knowing 'how to do the right thing at the right time'

(Domer and Scholkopf, 1991).

An overview of the literature on teaching effectiveness reveals no

standard, commonly agreed upon definition or list of effective teaching qualities.

Most studies tend to emphasise qualities such as knowledge and organisation of the

subject matter, skills in instruction, and personal qualities and attitudes that are useful

when working with students (Braskamp, Brandenburg, and Ory, 1984; Cashin, 1995).

When personal qualities are emphasised, effective instructors are described as

enthusiastic. energetic. approachable, open, imaginative, and possessing a sense of

humour. When teaching skills and mastery of subject matter are emphasised,

43 - - - - Theoretical Overview

effective instructors are described as being masters of the subject matter, organised

and emphasise important concepts, able to clarify ideas and point out relationships,

able to motivate students, able to pose and elicit useful questions and examples,

creative or imaginative and reasonable and fair.

The evaluations seem to focus on providing feedback to, and

evaluating the performance of, individual teachers. In addition to providing such

feedback, the information from the evaluations (along with other information) could

be used to evaluate teaching effectiveness in the curriculum. For the purpose of this

study and in keeping with correct practice, the terms, 'teaching effectiveness' and

'teacher effectiveness' were used synonymously.

2.3.1 Effective Teaching Behaviours.

The five key behaviours - lesson clarity, instructional variety, teacher

task orientation, student engagement, and success rate - are essential for effective

teaching. Without the knowledge and skill to present lessons that are clear, that

incorporate variety, that are task oriented, and that actually engage students in the

learning process at moderate to high rates of success, a teacher cannot be effective in

producing desirable patterns of student achievement and attitude.

Another five had had some support and appears logically related to

effective teaching. These five helping behaviours can be used in combinations to

implement the key behaviours. The five helping behaviours are use of students' ideas

and contributions, structuring, and questioning, probing and teacher affect.

Wfective teaching involves the orchestration and integration of key

and helping behaviours into meaningful patterns to achieve specified goals.

44 -- ~~~ ---- Theoretical Overview

Borich (1996) has given some of the general indicators of effective

teaching that are currently supported by the research literature.

I he effective teacher:

o Takes personal responsibility for students' learning and has positive

expectations for every learner.

a Matches the difficulty of the lesson with the ability level of the students and

varies the difficulty when necessaty to attain moderate to high success rates.

o Gives students the opportunity to practise newly learned concepts and to

receive t~mely feedback on their performance.

o Maximises instructional time to increase content coverage and to give students

the greatest opportunity to learn.

o Provides direction and control of student learning through questioning,

structuring, and probing.

o Uses a variety of instructional materials and verbal and visual aids to foster

use of student ideas and engagement in the learning process.

u Elicits responses from students each time a question is asked before moving to

the next student or question.

o Presents materials in small steps with opportunities for practice.

o Encourages students to reason out and elaborate on the correct answer.

o Engages students in verbal questions and answers.

o Uses naturally occurring classroom dialogue to get students to elaborate,

extend, and comment on the content being learned.

45 Theorebcal Overview - - - -.

o Gradually shifts some of the responsibility for learning to the students -

encouraging independent thinking, problem solving, and decision making.

o Provides learners with mental strategies for organising and learning the

content being taught.

2.3.2 Criteria for Teacher Effectiveness.

The process determining the qualities of a successfkl teacher is still in

its preliminary stage, and more scientific investigation, under rigorous conditions is

needed to bring out concrete results. Whatever has been done is important by way of

initial exploration, but the right approach may still be far away.

2.3.2.1 Teacher Effectiveness as a Process

This refers to the assessment of the teacher behaviour in a classroom

situation in maintaining effective classroom discipline and report with students. The

assessment is made through observation of teacher and student behaviours, their

interactions among each other. They remain indices of social, emotional climate of

the classroom.

2.3.2.2 Teacher Effectiveness as a Product

This refers to the summative evaluations of the teaching measured in

terms of relating outcomes of students. The effectiveness of the teacher is judged

from the quality of performance of the students at the examinations. Based on this

~dea. some educational authorities stress on the examination result of the students as

an Indicator of the sincerity of the teacher and standard of a school. Results of school

achievement tests, intelligence tests and other tests of cognitive, affective and

conative access are used to measure the effectiveness of teacher.

As Fullan (1991) has put it, school improvement and therefore pupil

improvement, 'depends on what teachers do and think. It's as simple and as complex

as that'.

Positive interactions between teacher and pupils are important in

facilitating learning. Teachers' self-efficacy as teachers is also an important predictor

of pupil learning outcomes (Tschannen, Hoy, and Hoy, 1996).

2.3.2.3. Teacher Effectiveness as a Presave

'This refers to the teachers' personality attributes , characteristics of

teachers in training, their knowledge and achievement and in-service.

'The effectiveness of the teacher is judged by considering his

qualifications, articles written, paper presented at seminars in relation with his

colleagues and other members of the community, etc. The criterion does not take into

consideration the classroom situations as an indirect determinant of the teacher

effectiveness.

Bennet (1976) has summarised the result of various research studies in

this sphere as follows:

(1) Although the evidence is equivocal it would appear that positive teacher

behaviours are generally more conducive to better pupil growth on most

achievement measures.

(2) There is a possibility that these relationships may vary or be non-linear,

depending upon (i) the task of complexity of achievement measure , (ii)

grade and level and (iii) level of ability of pupils

47 - ~~ ~~ ~ - ~~ -. Theoretical Ovewiew

(3) There is evidence that these relationships may be mediated by the anxiety

level of the pupil.

(4) Positive teaching behaviours appear to generate more positive attitudes to

school and school work.

2.4 Factors Influencing Teachers' Effectiveness

Researchers in India and abroad have tried to find out the correlates of

teachers' effectiveness. All educationists agree that teacher effectiveness is the most

important determinant of what constitutes effective teaching. Some of the factors

reported to be influencing the teachers' effectiveness has been given below:

2.4.1 Teacher Education and Teachers' Effectiveness.

The ultimate aim of teacher education is to prepare effective teachers-

teachers who are capable of bringing behavioural changes in pupils under their charge

to an optimum level in relation to the input in terms of human energy and material

resources expended in the process.

Teacher preparation ought to begin with a sound pre service teacher

education programme that may transform an individual into a competent and

committed professional functionary, fully equipped with an equally comprehensive

professional readiness to perform these tasks with perfection and satisfaction.

It provides some pedagogical concepts and principles to the

prospective teachers, develop in them certain desirable attitudes, and provide for

training in teaching skills. As a matter of fact, the pedagogical concepts and

principles of teaching are provided to the prospective teachers in the hope that these

will affect their classroom behaviours, rather in the hope that these concepts will be

48 ~- -. - ..- Theoretical Overview

translated into actual teaching behaviours. The prospective teachers teach under the

supervision of teachers and teacher educators presumed to be equipped with better

teaching skill than themselves. They plan lesson, prepare teaching aids, give lesson,

handle classes for various activities, get guidance and supervision from the

supervisors and try to improve their skills of teaching (Dave, 1998).

It is being increasingly appreciated that before a teacher is assigned the

responsibility of teaching in schools, familiarity with basic understanding of

sociological, philosophical and psychological principles is a basic prerequisite. No

teacher can be successful in school without a thorough and practical understanding of

the specific community, the learner's needs, societal expectations and basic objectives

of the particular stage of education.

2.4.2 Personalitv Factors and Teachers' Effectiveness.

In identifying the personality traits of an effective teacher, we have to

realise that there are certain characteristics of a general nature, which may be common

to all professionals. These qualities are essential for a normal, healthy and balanced

individual. Yet, they are helpful in making him effective in a vocation of his choice.

And, then, there are qualities specifically required for success in teaching. These may

not be necessary for an engineer or a medical practitioner, but are essential in the case

of a teacher (Nelson, 1998).

Many investigators have brought out clearly that personality is closely

related with teaching effectiveness. Linda (1990) says that teaching is a very human

activity; mental balance, personal and social adjustment, teacher-pupil relationship,

and personality. They seem to be important factors in teaching efficiency.

49 Theoretrcal Overview

2.4.3 Academic Achievement and Teachers' Effectiveness.

Academic achievement reveals scholastic performance of the

individual in the curricular subjects and shows learning outcomes (Debnath, 1971).

Generally it indicates proficiency in school subjects. Academic achievement of a

teacher is a weighted aggregate of division obtained at high school, higher secondary,

graduate, postgraduate and other examinations.

2.4.4 Subiect Matter Knowledge and Teachers' Effectiveness.

Subject matter knowledge is another variable that one might think

could be related to teacher effectiveness (Collinson, 1996). Studies of teachers'

scores on the subject matter tests of the National Teacher Examination have found no

consistent relationship between the measure of subject matter knowledge and teacher

performance as measured by student outcomes or supervisor of ratings.

It is necessary for a teacher to be an effective one to have a deep and

thorough knowledge of his subject. He must be familiar with the different methods,

techniques, strategies and tactics of teaching and must possess art of using these

methods at appropriate time in the classroom. A teacher gets depth in knowledge of

the subject matter in his academic degree courses while the knowledge of teaching

skills and other qualities of teachers and teaching profession, are attained later during

teacher training course. Thus it may be said that higher the academic career of a

teacher greater are the chances of utilising his efficiency in teaching.

2.4.5 Intelligence and Teachers' Effectiveness.

Intelligence also known as the general mental ability helps an

individual to adjust to the environment and learn from the past experiences.

50 .--- ~~ ~

Theoretical Overview

Operationally speaking, intelligence is the ability which helps an individual to

succeed in school or in some job (Linda, 1990). A more comprehensive and perhaps

appropriate description is that intelligence include at least the abilities demanded in

the solution of problems which require comprehension and use of symbols.

2.4.6 Adiustment and Teachers' Effectiveness.

Every individual attempts to maintain balance with his circumstances

and tries to meet the demands of the situation. He utilised his previous experiences in

the process of maintaining equilibrium. Teachers who are adjusted to their

circumstances, domestic or departmental, seldom feel difficulty in coping with the

situation. They easily get along with their students and colleagues (Wangoo, 1984).

2.4.7 Job Satisfaction and Teachers' Effectiveness.

Job satisfaction refers to the satisfaction of a worker in his work. The

job satisfaction variable is found as very important predictor of teacher effectiveness

(Novack, 1999). A teacher who is satisfied with his students, colleagues and working

conditions will be successful in developing good relationship with the pupils,

colleagues and administrators. Thus it may be said evidently that satisfaction in the

profession of a teacher influences his effectiveness in teaching.

2.4.8 Interests and Teachers' Effectiveness.

Interests profoundly influence and mould individual's beliefs ,

attitudes, values and overt behaviour. They serve as powerful means for the

improvement of teaching work. Unless a teacher is interested in his job, subject and

his pupils, we can never be able to do justice to his pupils. A teacher having no

interest in his job will never try to improve his mode of teaching. If the teacher is not

5 1 - -- - - - -

Theorehcal Overview

interested in a particular subject, he cannot arouse curiosity of his pupils and help

them properly. Taking into consideration these facts, it is very necessary that

teacher's actual interests should be known for determining his effectiveness in

teaching (Birney. 1999).

2.4.9 Attitude Towards Teachi~lg Profession and Teachers' Effectiveness.

An attitude may be defined as the degree of positive and negative

effect associated with some psychological object. It means any symbol, person,

slogan, constitution, ideal or ideas towards which people can differ with respect to

positive or negative effect. An individual who has positive effect or feeling

associated with some psychological object is said to have a favourable attitude and

who has associated negative effect or feeling should be said to have an unfavourable

attitude. Obviously, efficiency is affected by the attitude. Teachers having positive

attitude towards their profession will be more devoted to their job (Mahadevappa,

1980). They would have sense of responsibility.

2.4.10 Teacher-Pu~il Relationship and Teachers' Effectiveness.

A teacher who has a good relationship with his students, should

perform his duties with interest and with satisfaction. He will enjoy his job and would

be capable to do his work with his best possible competence. His behaviour in the

classroom would be friendly, so his students would freely approach the teacher. That

again influences his effective teaching. Thus good teacher-pupil relationship should

be considered as a significant determinant of effective teaching (Taylor, Fraser, and

Fisher, 1997).

52 Theorebcal Overview

-- -

2.4.1 1 Socio-Economic Status and Teachers' Effectiveness.

Individuals are affected by their socio-economic environment, and

their status is determined by the accepted socio-economic norms. Individuals get

position on the basis of social prestige, education, occupation and the salary etc.

Many sociologists determine social status on the basis of the account of income,

social background, education, occupation etc. Obviously teachers' effectiveness is

influenced by socio-economic status of the teachers (Linda, 1990).

2.4.12 Miscellaneous Factors of Teachers' Effectiveness.

Teachers' effectiveness is influenced by number of other independent

variables acting singly or jointly with the variables like: age, teaching experience, sex,

level of aspiration, faith in moral values and locality of the school, status of the school

etc. that promote or hinder teachers' effectiveness and about which evidence has been

presented by the researchers.

It is evident that a teacher's effectiveness influenced by a horde of

factors. Some of them are external or environmental and some of them are internal.

In order to develop appropriate skills in teachers to handle the aids, the

provision of sufficient training programmes on regular basis is identified as the

essential ingredient.

A synoptic overview of the nature of these review would helps the

investigator to take stock of the researches completed in the area.

53 Theorehcal Overvrew

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