Theoretical Perspective in Sociology (SA 531)

Unit ISociological ThinkingThe Sociological imagination and the promise of SociologyC. Wright Mills (1916-1962) An American SociologistMills is remembered primarily for The Sociological Imagination (1959) an excellent introduction to and outline of the humanist impetus (momentum) behind sociology as a discipline.Sociological imagination enables us to distinguish between personal troubles and public issues.

C. Wright Mills (1916-1962)• Taught Sociology at Columbia University• White Collar (1951)• The Power Elite (1956)• The Sociological Imagination (1959)

Definition of sociological imagination• An awareness of the relationship between an individual and the wider society.

(making the connection)• It is the ability to view our own society as an outsider might, rather than from the

perspective of our limited experiences and cultural biases.• The sociological imagination is the sociological vision, a way of looking at the

world that can see connections between the apparently private problems of the individual and important social issues.

• He argues for a humanist sociology connecting the social, personal, and historical dimensions of our lives, and which is critical of abstracted empiricism and grand theory alike.

Promise The task of sociology is to…• To turn indifference (apathy) and uneasiness (anxiety) into well-being• But, how does sociology do that?

Sociological Imagination• A quality of mind that allows us to connect:

“Personal troubles of the milieu”(biography)with“Public issues of social structure”(history)

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• Examining these relationships gives us the knowledge to understand society, our place in it, and the ability to make changes

Mills• Criticized sociologists who remained detached from the world they observed• Believed Sociologists should be active agents of social change

• Mills deplores the ahistorical bias among empiricists, that is, their tendency to deal mainly with contemporaneous events for which they are likely to get the kind of data they need.

• In fact, what contemporary sociologists emphasize in their work may be simply a passing fancy, having little connection with the important work of the past or little promise for the future.

• In the opinion of P. Sorokin, current sociological preoccupations are nothing but “fads or foibles” (1956) and, in the view of C. Wright Mills they indicate a decline of “the sociological imagination” (1959).

Mills argued• It is not enough to understand society at the macro (structural) level or the micro

(individual level)...• In order to further the social sciences and social change, necessary to examine how

social structures and individuals affect each other. • Sociology is a way of seeing and making sense of the world• Sociology involves critical thinking and a vigilant skepticism of commonsense

explanations about the world

Sociology • Sociological knowledge and common sense• Common sense—knowledge gained thru conversations, experience, and media• Sociological knowledge—gained only through research which is tested & validated• How do sociology understand social behavior?• C. Wright Mills—Sociological imagination• It is a awareness of the relationship between an individual and wider society

CultureSocializationSocial interactionSocial organizations & institutionsSocial inequalityEnvironment

– How do sociology understand social behavior?– C. Wright Mills—Sociological imagination– It is a awareness of the relationship between an individual and wider society

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Seeing SociologicallySociology:• “the scientific study of human social life, groups, and societies.” (Giddens &

Duneier, p. 3)• a “way of seeing”; a perspective• Seeing what?

Sociological Imagination C. Wright Mills (1959)

-“think ourselves away” from the familiar routines of our daily lives-look at them anew-from another’s perspective

Mills’ Promise• social scientist’s concern with history: epoch• concern with biography: type of character that prevails• Understanding these things—the sociological imagination—is “our most needed

quality of mind.” (36)Sociological imagination: the coffee example• Daily ritual (often shared)• Legitimate drug• Social and economic relations in production and consumption• Global socio-economic and political development• Ecology

The Development of Sociological Thinking • Sociology encompasses a diversity of theoretical approaches. • Theories - constructing abstract interpretations that can be used to explain a wide

variety of empirical situations. B. Reductionism and non-reductionism• Any intellectual strategy for reducing apparently diverse phenomena to some

primary or basic explanatory principle. Example- Some forms of Marxism, in which economic relations are supposed wholly to determine social and political life, are also commonly criticized as economic reductionism.

Reductionism• The complex organization of life presents a dilemma to scientists seeking to

understand biological processes.– We cannot fully explain a higher level of organization by breaking it down

into parts.– At the same time, it is futile to try to analyze something a complex as an

organism or cell without taking it apart.• Reductionism - Reducing complex systems to simpler components, is a powerful

strategy in biology.3

• Reductionism is balanced by the longer-range objective of understanding emergent properties.

An example• Durkheim explained variations in the suicide rate by focusing on social solidarity.• According to Durkheim, the more a group's members share beliefs and values, and

the more frequently and intensely they interact, the more social solidarity there is in a group.

Biological Explanation• Sociobiology is based on the premise that some behaviors (both social and

individual) are at least partly inherited and can be affected by natural selection. It begins with the idea that behaviors have evolved over time, similar to the way that physical traits are thought to have evolved. It predicts therefore that animals will act in ways that have proven to be evolutionarily successful over time, which can among other things result in the formation of complex social processes conducive to evolutionary fitness.

• The discipline seeks to explain behavior as a product of natural selection. Behavior is therefore seen as an effort to preserve one's genes in the population. Inherent in Socio-biological reasoning is the idea that certain genes or gene combinations that influence particular behavioral traits can be inherited from generation to generation.

• For example, newly dominant male lions often will kill cubs in the pride that were not sired by them. This behaviour is adaptive in evolutionary terms because killing the cubs eliminates competition for their own offspring and causes the nursing females to come into heat faster, thus allowing more of his genes to enter into the population. Sociobiologists would view this instinctual cub-killing behavior as being inherited through the genes of successfully reproducing male lions, whereas non-killing behaviour may have "died out" as those lions were less successful in reproducing.

Base of Socio-biologySociobiology is based upon two fundamental premises:

• Certain behavioral traits are inherited, • Inherited behavioral traits have been honed by natural selection. Therefore, these

traits were probably "adaptive" in the species` evolutionarily evolved environment.

Genetics• Genes determine the structures, appearance, and to some extent, the behavior of an

organism• Genes are inherited by offspring from their parents• Genes are made of DNA; DNA is used to make proteins, the working parts of a cell

Natural and Supernatural explanation• Natural- Darwin's theory • Supernatural – Religious explanations• Psychological- Our believes

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• Chemical- one cellular to multi cellular or from sea creature

What is perspective?Literal MeaningsPerspective (visual): • the way in which objects appear to the eye• is based on the viewer’s position in relation to the object

Figurative MeaningsPerspective (cognitive): • one's "point of view”; the choice of a context for opinions, beliefs and experiences• is based, often, on a person’s experience

Point of view (literature): • the experience as related by the narrator

Perspective is…• As an overall approach or viewpoint toward a subject, including – i) a set of

questions to be asked about the subject, ii) a general theory or theoretical approach to explaining the nature of the subject

and often, iii) a set of values relating to the subject.

What is Theory ?

““Theory!Theory!””

A word to strike fear into the hearts of Sociology teachers and students alike…

It’s going to be complicated – I’ll never understand it…

It’s complicated – how can I teach it so they’ll grasp it?

However, as with everything in life, theory is as complicated as you want to make it.

And as with most things, if you understand the basics, it’s much easier to grasp the harder bits…

And besides – (sociological) theory is ImportantImportant.

If we grasp the theory behind something, everything else is much easier to understand…

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“How is our identity shaped by culture?”

““Theory”Theory”

A suggested explanation for something…

A systematic and general attempt to explain something…

“Why do people get married?”

“Why do people commit crimes?

“How does the media affect us?” “Why do kids play

truant from school?”

“Why do some people believe in God?”

““Theory”Theory”

…is something we use all the time in our everyday life

“Why do I feel unwell?”

“Why are my friends behaving oddly?”

“Why do I have to go to school?”

We all use theory to construct explanations about the social world in which we live…

Which, in a way, is what Sociologists also try to do…

In a slightly different way, of course…

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Sociological TheorySociological TheoryComes in a variety of shapes and sizes…

High-Level TheoriesHigh-Level Theories

Mid-Range TheoriesMid-Range Theories

Low-Level TheoriesLow-Level Theories

Focus on trying to explain how and why society is ordered

Focus on trying to explain some general aspect of social behaviour

Focus on trying to explain a specific aspect of social behaviour.

Why do I always fall asleep in Psychology lessons?

Why do girls achieve higher educational qualifications than boys?

FunctionalismFunctionalism…

Marxism…Marxism…

Interactionism…Interactionism…

Feminism…Feminism…

If you understand the basic principles of High-level theories you will find it easier to understand other types of theory.

High level theories are usually known by their more-common label of “Sociological Sociological PerspectivesPerspectives”

A “perspective”, for our current purposes, is simply a way of looking at and understanding the social world.

Different sociologists, working within different perspectives, construct different theories about the nature of that world…

This is because Mid-range and Low-level theories are often based on the principles underpinning High-level theories.

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So, Theory is…• An account of the world which goes beyond what we can see and measure. (It

embraces a set of interrelated definitions and relationships that organizes our concepts of and understanding of the empirical world in a systematic way.)

• A theory is a way of making sense of a distributing situation so as to allow us most effectively to bring to bear our repertoire [range] of habits, and even more important, to modify habits or discard them altogether, replacing the by new ones as the situation demands. In the reconstructed logic, accordingly, theory will appear as the device for interpreting, criticizing, and unifying established laws, modifying them to fit data unanticipated in their formulation and guiding the enterprise of discovering new and more powerful generalizations. –By: Abraham Kaplan

How is theory made?• Robert Merton says: six different types of work are often lumped (amalgamated)

together as comprising sociological theory.A. MethodologyB. General sociological orientationsC. Analysis of sociological conceptsD. Post factum sociological interpretations E. Empirical generalizationsF. Sociological theory

Sociological Perspectives…Sociological Perspectives…The following slides are designed to help you understand the basic themes / principles of a range of sociological perspectives

They do this by using analogies…

In other words, they help you to decide “what society is like” (from different sociological perspectives) by asking you to compare “society” to something familiar…

Part of your task in the following screens, therefore, is to use a variety of different analogies to develop a picture of how the concept of “society” is seen and explained by different sociological perspectives…

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D. Sociology of knowledge: Basic Principles and ProtocolThe Sociology of knowledge is the study of the relationship between human thought and the social context within which it arises, and of the effects prevailing ideas have on societies. It is not a specialized area of sociology but instead deals with broad fundamental questions about the extent and limits of social influences on individual's lives and the social-cultural basics of our knowledge about the world.

The term first came into widespread use in the 1920s, when a number of German-speaking sociologists, most notably Max Scheler, and Karl Mannheinm, wrote extensively on it. With the dominance of functionalism through the middle years of the 20th century, the sociology of knowledge tended to remain on the periphery of mainstream sociological thought. It was largely reinvented and applied much more closely to everyday life in the 1960s, particularly by Peter L. Berger and Thomas Luckmann in The Social Construction of Reality (1966) and is still central for methods dealing with qualitative understanding of human society.

• The sociology of knowledge, although a recognized sociological specialty since the late 1920s, is often regarded as a unique field of study, which, to a greater degree than other areas of sociology, has fascinated scholars throughout the social and human sciences.' Because of its claim that the discovery of truth is socially and historically conditioned.

• While the older sociology of knowledge characterized by Karl Mannheim, asked how the social location of individuals and groups shapes their knowledge', more recent sociologies of knowledge examine `how kinds of social organization make whole orderings of knowledge possible, rather than focusing on the differing social locations and interests of individuals or groups'.

• The modern sociology of knowledge, by contrast, investigates the interconnections between categories of thought, knowledge claims and social reality - the Seinsverbundenheit (existential connectedness) of thought (Karl Mannheim).

• Karl Marx was a significant precursor of the field, with his theory that under certain historical conditions economic realities ultimately determine the ideological `superstructure' by way of various socioeconomic processes. This conception remains a central issue in the sociology of knowledge, and it has directly inspired some exemplary analyses of problems of cultural production, for example in the work of Georg Lukacs.

• Emile Durkheim, too, is an important pioneer of the sociology of knowledge, even though he failed to develop a general model of the classificatory process. Durkheim argued, especially in The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life (1912) and in Primitive Classification (1903, with Marcel Mauss), that the basic categories that order perception and experience (space, time, causality, direction) derive from the social structure, at least in less complex societies. Durkheim, Mauss and also Lucien

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Levy-Bruhl examined the forms of logical classification of 'primitive' societies and concluded that the basic categories of cognition have social origins. But they were not prepared to extend this kind of analysis to more complex societies.

• It was Max Scheler who first used the term Wissenssoziologie (sociology of knowledge) a in the early 1920s and who, in Problems of a Sociology of Knowledge ([1926] 1990) provided a first systematic introduction. Scheler extended the Marxist notion of substructure by identifying different `real factors' (Realfaktoren) which condition thought in different historical periods and in various social and cultural systems in specific ways. These `real factors' have sometimes been regarded as institutionalized instinctual forces, and as representing an ahistorical concept of superstructure. Scheler's insistence on a realm of eternal values and ideas, however, limits the usefulness of his notion of `real factors' for the explanation of social and cultural change.

• Mannheim thought that the sociology of knowledge' was destined to play a major role in intellectual and political life, particularly in an age of crisis, dissolution and conflict, by examining sociologically the conditions that give rise to competing ideas, political philosophies, ideologies and diverse cultural products. Mannheim vigorously pursued the idea that sociology of knowledge is somehow central to any strategy for creating a rapprochement between politics and reason, and this pursuit connects his various essays in the sociology of knowledge. Throughout, he believed that such a sociology has an important transformative effect on its practitioners: sociology of knowledge calls intellectuals to their vocation of striving for synthesis. It changes their relationship to the parties contending in society, giving them distance and overview. But Mannheim's conception of the specific ways in which such a sociology might affect the state of political knowledge fluctuated and changed. There are three main versions: 1. Sociology of knowledge as a pedagogical but also political mode of encountering and acting on the forces making up the political world;2. Sociology of knowledge as an instrument of enlightenment, related to the dual process of rationalization and individuation identified by Max Weber, and comparable to psychoanalysis, acting to set men and women free for rational and responsible choices by liberating them from subservience to hidden forces they cannot control; and3. Sociology of knowledge as a weapon against prevalent myths and as a method for eliminating bias from social science, so that it can master the fundamental public problems of the time and guide appropriate political conduct.

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E. History of early Sociology: Political, Economic, Religious and Intellectual contexts How did sociology begin?

• Sociology emerged in the middle of the nineteen century in Europe• Ibn Khaldun Born on May 1st, 1332 in Tunisia, (generally known after a remote

ancestor) was also known as father of modern social science and cultural history. • Three factors led to the development of sociology

1.Industrial Revolution 2.Travel 3.Success of Natural Sciences

Economic Context

Industrial Revolution• The Industrial Revolution was a period from the 18th to the 19th century where

major changes in agriculture, manufacturing, mining, and transport had a profound effect on the socioeconomic and cultural conditions starting in the United Kingdom, then subsequently spreading throughout Europe, North America, and eventually the world.

Industrial RevolutionEurope was changing from agriculture to

factory productionMasses of people moved to the cities in

search of workIn cities people met ambiguity, crowding,

filth, and povertyIndustrial Revolution challenged the

traditional order and opened the door for democratic changes

Social changes undermined the traditional explanations of human existence , thus sociology came into practice

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Political/social Context

Way of thinking in this period• Less concern to God and political leaders• more focus on individual liberty and individual right

Combination of all ContextsThree revolutions pushed people to think about society in a new way:

1. Scientific Revolution suggested that a science of society is possible.2. Democratic Revolution suggested people can intervene to improve society.3. Industrial Revolution presented social thinkers with social problems in need of a

solution. To maintain social order.Intellectual /Enlightenment • The eighteenth century is the Age of Enlightenment.  The Enlightenment popularizes

the ideas developed during the Age of Reason.  The Enlightenment is basically the view or belief that modern science and our understanding of the social world derived from modern science can help us to improve the living conditions on this planet.  War, poverty, and injustice are not God-given punishments for our sinfulness but bad management.  Oppressive governments can be reformed or overthrown.  Social inequality can be alleviated and, maybe, overcome.

French Revolution (1789-1799)• The French Revolution was not only a crucial event considered in the context of

Western history, but was also, perhaps the single most crucial influence on British intellectual, philosophical, and political life in the nineteenth century.

The Europeans had been successful in obtaining colonies

Their colonial empires uncovered them to

radically different cultures

distressed by these contrasting ways of life, they began to ask questions why cultures differed

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Age of ReasonEnlightenment Period contributed as:• Human societies are perfectible if only we have the will and use our scientific

knowledge to plan and socially engineer for a better future.  There is no limit to what human reason and resourcefulness can achieve.

Religious Context• Political, industrial and social change causes to change in religion.• Comte, Durkheim, Weber(Protestant –capitalism), Marx also wrote about religion.• The power and position of ‘religious leader’ thought differently- scientifically,

economically, politically.• Ex- Dominant Christianity, Rigid, Muslim invader, Hinduism

Sociology of 19th Century • The advent of serious social problems

Dislocated, dispossessed workersInflux of rural population to citiesInadequate city infrastructureTraditional authority replaced by science

• Sociology developed as a discipline that promised answers to these Social ProblemsMajor Figures

Philosophers of BC• Plato (428-348 BC)– Republic• Aristotle (384-322 BC)—Ethics and Politics• Heroduts (484-425 BC)– Father of History• Cicero (106-43 BC)• Lucretius (96-55 BC)• Important figures of the Enlightenment era include:

    Denis Diderot (1713 – 1784)    Jean le Rond d'Alembert (1717 – 1783)    Voltaire (1694 – 1778)    Jean-Jacques Rousseau 1712  – 1778 Gotthold Lessing

    Immanuel Kant 1724 - 1804     Thomas Paine (1737 - 1809    Thomas Jefferson (1743 – 1826)

F. Classical SociologyA. Comte’s method of social inquiry and the idea of human progress The Father of Sociology

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Method of social inquiryPositive philosophy

• Distinct and complex social science• Scientific method of society• Positivism –method and theory

Method of social inquiry Positive philosophy Distinct and complex social science Scientific method of society Positivism –method and theory

Idea of human progress Law of social evolution Theological Metaphysical Positive

Subject matter of Sociology• Social Static• Social Dynamic

The Father of Sociology August Comte’s philosophy based on his conclusion that an intellectual discipline progresses only to the degree that it is grounded in facts and experience, i.e., rests on information about which one can reasonably make positive statements• Comte hoped that sociologists would use scientific methods to gain knowledge of

the social world• Then they would advise people about how life ought to be lived• This would the cure from social chaos

Auguste Comte (1798-1857)

The new social science that Comte sought to establish was first called social social physicsphysics but he coined the word sociology,sociology, a hybrid term compounded of Latin and Greek parts

Comte first used the term sociology in print in 1838

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KARL MARX Karl Marx (1818-1883) was a socialist theoretician and organizer, a major figure in the history of economic and philosophical thought, and a great social prophet.Life• Karl Marx has had profoundly practical impact on world politics in late 19th and

early 20th century.• He was born on May 5th, 1818 in Trier to a Lutheran converted family descended

from Jewish Rabbis and Scholars.• Marx began his education at the University of Bonn and then transferred to continue

his studies at the University of Berlin where he came under the influence of Hegelian philosophy.

• Marx fled to Paris and began work on The Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844, a work that displays the influence of Ludwig Feuerbach and is associated with an understanding of Marx as a humanist as opposed to the historical determinist contained in later works.

• In 1843, he married Jenny Westphalen and later met Friedrich Engels (1820 – 1895), a wealthy textile manufacturer who became Marx’s lifetime intellectual collaborator and financial supporter.

• During this time, Marx published the Communist Manifesto of 1848 that explained the difference between the League’s philosophy and the philosophy of Saint Simon, Fourier, Owen, Bakunin, and Proudhon.

• The Manifesto ends with these famous words:“Let the ruling class tremble at a Communist revolution. The proletarians have nothing to lose but their chains. They have a world to win. Working men of all countries, unite!”

• Marx’s words appeared prophetic as revolutions and class warfare swept Europe.• Marx emphasized practice (praxis) the transformative power of philosophy.

“The philosophers have only interpreted the world, in various ways; the point, however, is to change it.”

• In 1849, Marx fled the forces of reaction to London where he lived in poverty and had three children die.

• Marx’s time in London was spent in the reading room of the British Museum and in organizing the International Workingmen’s Association.

• Isaiah Berlin paints a picture of Marx highlighting his strength of passions and his intolerance for those not convinced by his logic.

• Marx died in 1883. Engels noted:Fighting was his element. And he fought with a passion, a tenacity [resolve] and a success which few could rival… (H)e died, beloved, revered [respected]and mourned by millions of revolutionary fellow workers – from mines of Siberia to the coasts of California, in all points of Europe and America…. His name will endure through the ages, and so also will his work.

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Major Intellectual Contributions:1. Elaboration of the conflict model of society, specifically the theory of social

change based upon antagonisms between social classes; 2. The insight that power originates primarily in economic production; and 3. His concern with the social origins of alienation.

Karl Marx• The basis of human society is how humans work on nature to produce the means of

subsistence. • There is a division of labor into social classes (relations of production) based on

property ownership where some people live from the labor of others. • The system of class division is dependent on the mode of production. • Society moves from stage to stage when the dominant class is displaced by a new

emerging class• There is a distinction between the means of production and the relations of

production • The Means of Production:

• Land• natural resources• technology

• The Relations of Production:• The social and technical relationships people enter into as they acquire

and use the means of production• This comprised not only relations among individuals, but

between or among groups of people, or classes.“It is not the consciousness of men that determines their existence, but on the contrary, it is their social existence that determines their consciousness.”• Marx believed that the basis of social order in every society is the mode of

production of material goods• What is produced, and how it is produced determine the differences in people’s

wealth, power, and social status• The mode of production also determines all expressions of “civilization”: Law,

Philosophy, Art, Religion, etc. (superstructure) • The History of humanity has been punctuated by several “stages” characterized by

different modes of production:– Primitive hunting and gathering societies which had no extra wealth and

therefore no private property, social classes, class struggles, or even the need for government (thesis)

Struggle for scarce resources between competing groups (anti-thesis)The establishment of empires (synthesis)– Slave societies with a rich ruling class opposed by an oppressed underclass of

slaves (thesis)The tension between native slave holders and non-native slaves (anti-thesis)The collapse of empires (synthesis)

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Feudal society with a noble class of landowning lords opposed by an oppressed class of serfs (thesis)The forces of urbanization and specialization of labor, development of checking, banking systems, paper moneyed systems (anti-thesis)The emergence of the merchant class, or bourgeoisie (synthesis)

– Capitalist society with a rich class of factory owners, or the bourgeoisie (thesis)

Challenge by an oppressed class of factory workers, or the proletariat (anti-thesis)Socialist society run by the workers with no private property, and thus no social classes, or class conflicts (anti-thesis, and final stage)

Historical Materialism - continued• The stages of Marx’s materialist conception of history:

– Primitive Communism– Slavery– Feudal Lords– Capitalism– Advanced Communism

Historical Materialism - continued• The forces of production (technology people use) and the relations of production

(the division of labor) are exploitative as long as classes exist.• These forces and relations are the substructure (economic conditions) that produces

the superstructure of society (political, social, religious, legal, educational, and cultural institutions).

Theory of Alienation• Humans find the cosmos as a hostile place.

– For Hegel, thinking about the universe and framing it within concepts offers the peace of mind we seek.

– For Marx, creative labor to produce what we need for survival is the way for overcoming this alienated experience. Class structure and the division of labor negate possibilities of creativity and worsen human creativity.

• Capitalism combats creative labor in three ways:– By separating labor from its products, capitalism steals from workers of pride

in their craft.– Avaricious (greedy) competition turns workers against each other and replaces

quantity for quality as innovation and creativity are excluded from work.– The bourgeoisie maximally exploits the worker bringing the quality of the

worker’s life to a low point in human history.Theory of Alienation - Continued• Despite his criticisms, Marx does not consider capitalism an immoral (corrupt)

system.• According to his understanding of history, capitalism is a necessary stage to bring

about advanced communism.

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• After the dictatorship of the proletariat passes, the alienation of the workers will cease.

• Machines will deal with the tedium and boredom of labor and man will become “the real, conscious lord(s) of Nature.”

Theory of Surplus Value• Marx used John Locke’s labor theory of value to demonstrate how capitalists were

taking the surplus value of labors efforts to empower themselves.• As the capitalists sought to increase profits, they would rely more and more on

constant capital (machinery, buildings, and raw materials).• As competition intensifies more and more workers will be released and many

defeated capitalists will join the ranks of the proletariat.• Eventually the masses in desperate circumstances will rebel and overthrow the

capitalist mode of production and transfer economic ownership and political control into public hands.

• The implications of Marx’s theory:• The class consciousness of the proletariat will be elevated in such a way to

understand and challenge capitalist exploitation. They will seize the means of production and govern as the dominant class (the dictatorship of the proletariat)

• The “state” as a development of superstructure from the Capitalist Era, will pass away

• Material goods will be produced by the working class who will collectively own the means of production (this means the end of private property) and democratically make all managerial decisions

• There will be an abundance of material goods produced by workers that will be equitably distributed to everyone according to their need, irregardless of what they have produced

Spencer and growth, structure and differentiationLife of Spencer• Birth- 27 April 1820• Technical degree• No University degree• No thorough study of books• Mental and physical problems in the later parts of life• Death- 8 December 1903

His Contribution• Spencer interpreted society as a living, growing organism which, as it becomes more

complex, must self-consciously understand and control the mechanisms of its own success (social Darwinism)

• Coined “Survival of the fittest”

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• He adopted the view that social institutions, like plants and animals, adapted progressively and positively to their social environment.

• Accepted the Darwinian view of –process of natural selection• This means- fit would survive and proliferate whereas the unfit would eventually die

out.• He emphasized the individual unlike the Comte (Larger units such as family)• Society as organism- shared by Comte and Durkheim• Structure and parts and their relationships is the concern of Spencer• He further looked about functions of the parts for each other and to maintain the

system as a whole• Functionalist

Evolutionary Concept• Rejected three stages of social development• Forms of evolution theory which is complex and ambiguous• First- Compounding theory- Society grows through both the multiplication of

individuals and the union of groups. (Increasing size of society)• Larger and more differentiated social structures create the situation of increasing

differentiation of the functions they perform. • Indefinite to definite, simple to complex, Homogeneity to Heterogeneity • Compound society by emerging new groups of people (doubly and trebly

compound)• Theory of evolution- militant to industrial societies• Militant- offensive and defensive warfare feature • Functionally warfare was for creating larger groups that helped to develop industrial

society• Fittest society –survives and unfit society dies

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Emile Durkheim - 1858-1917

Durkheim addressed the consequences of work (specifically the division of labor) on modern society

Durkheim addressed the consequences of work (specifically the division of labor) on modern society

The division of labor leads to specialization which in turn leads to anomie

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Durkheim addressed the consequences of work (specifically the division of labor) on modern society

The division of labor leads to specialization which in turn leads to anomie

Anomie is a social state of being that occurs when people have lost their sense of purpose - often during a period of dramatic social change

Durkheim addressed the consequences of work (specifically the division of labor) on modern society

The division of labor leads to specialization which in turn leads to anomie

Anomie is a social state of being that occurs when people have lost their sense of purpose - often during a period of dramatic social change

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Durkheim addressed the consequences of work (specifically the division of labor) on modern society

The division of labor leads to specialization which in turn leads to anomie

Anomie is a social state of being that occurs when people have lost their sense of purpose - often during a period of dramatic social change

Durkheim addressed the consequences of work (specifically the division of labor) on modern society

The division of labor leads to specialization which in turn leads to anomie

Anomie is a social state of being that occurs when people have lost their sense of purpose - often during a period of dramatic social change

Durkheim related incidences of anomie to suicide rates

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Durkheim's Method• He traveled around France and examined death certificates of suicides • Durkheim collected data on social background of suicide victims, e.g. demographic

information including age, religion, class, job, work history, income, wealth, gender, etc.

• Then Durkheim grouped people according to suicide rates and each social factorThe Sociological Explanation of Suicide• Émile Durkheim showed that suicide rates, are strongly influenced by social forces.• Durkheim argued that suicide rates vary because of differences in the degree of

social solidarity in different groups.

Durkheim addressed the consequences of work (specifically the division of labor) on modern society

The division of labor leads to specialization which in turn leads to anomie

Anomie is a social state of being that occurs when people have lost their sense of purpose - often during a period of dramatic social change

Durkheim related incidences of anomie to suicide rates

In order to deal with the (often) severe consequences of anomie, Durkheim advocated the creation of new social groups to provide a sense of belonging to members of society

Durkheim addressed the consequences of work (specifically the division of labor) on modern society

The division of labor leads to specialization which in turn leads to anomie

Anomie is a social state of being that occurs when people have lost their sense of purpose - often during a period of dramatic social change

Durkheim related incidences of anomie to suicide rates

In order to deal with the (often) severe consequences of anomie, Durkheim advocated the creation of new social groups to provide a sense of belonging to members of society

Ex - labor unions, political parties, etc

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Durkheim’s four types of suicide

Durkheim’s Theory of Suicide

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Durkheim’s Theory and Suicide Rates Today• Suicide is most common among the divorced and widowed.• Men, typically less involved in family life, are about four times more likely to

commit suicide.• Areas of the U.S. with high rates of church membership have low suicide rates.

Durkheim: Altruistic suicide • Occurs when norms tightly govern behavior, so individual actions are often in the

group interest.– Example: When soldiers knowingly give up their lives to protect members of

their unit.Altruistic suicide• Sati is a Hindi custom in India in which widow was burnt to ashes on her dead

husband’s pyre (altruistic suicide)• This is a voluntary act in which the woman decides to end her life with her husband

after his death Durkheim: Egoistic Suicide • Results from a lack of integration of the individual into society because of weak

social ties to others.– Example: The rate of egoistic suicide is likely to be high among people who

lack friends and are unmarried.Durkheim: Anomic Suicide• Occurs when norms governing behavior are vaguely defined.

– Example: When people live in a society lacking a widely shared code of morality, the rate of anomic suicide is likely to be high.

Organic/Mechanic Solidarity• As the division of labor in society became more complex, people became more

different and, thus, more dependent on one another • Organic Solidarity , then, describes the proper functioning of a variety of parts, or

organs of the society. • Mechanic Solidarity is related with traditional society

Religion• Totemism • Base of society

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Max Weber

Types of authority Protestantism and the rise of Capitalism

Authority• Max Weber, in his sociological work, identified and distinguished four types of

legitimate domination (Herrschaft in German, which generally means 'domination' or 'rule'), that have sometimes been rendered in English translation as types of authority, because domination isn't seen as a political concept in the first place. Weber defined domination (authority) as the chance of commands being obeyed by a specifiable group of people. Legitimate authority is that which is recognized as legitimate and justified by both the ruler and the ruled.

Types of Authority• The first type discussed by Weber is Rational-legal authority. It is that form of

authority which depends for its legitimacy on formal rules and established laws of the state, which are usually written down and are often very complex. The power of the rational legal authority is mentioned in the constitution. Modern societies depend on legal-rational authority. Government officials are the best example of this form of authority, which is prevalent all over the world.

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Born

21 April 1864Erfurt, Prussian Saxony, Germany

Died14 June 1920 Munich, Bavaria

Traditional authority• The second type of authority is Traditional authority, which derives from long-

established customs, habits and social structures. When power passes from one generation to another, then it is known as traditional authority. The right of hereditary monarchs to rule furnishes an obvious example. The Tudor dynasty in England and the ruling families of Mewar, in Rajasthan (India) are some examples of traditional authority.

Charismatic authority• The third form of authority is Charismatic authority. Here, the charisma of the

individual or the leader plays an important role. Charismatic authority is that authority which is derived from "the gift of grace" or when the leader claims that his authority is derived from a "higher power" (e.g. God or natural law or rights) or "inspiration", that is superior to both the validity of traditional and rational-legal authority and followers accept this and are willing to follow this higher or inspired authority, in the place of the authority that they have hitherto been following. Some of the most prominent examples of charismatic authority can be politicians or leaders, who come from a movie or entertainment background. These people become successful, because they use their grace and charm to get more votes during elections. Examples in this regard can be NT Rama Rao, a matinee idol, who went on to become one of the most powerful Chief Ministers of Andhra Pradesh.

Good Authority• The fourth type of authority is "Good authority". "Good authority" can be considered

people, organizations or sources considered subject matter experts in a given field. There are a select group that can speak to a variety of subjects with such authority that they can be considered "good authority" under what is known "blanket expertise" and can confidently offer their opinion in any area. The philosopher Michael Castellani is one such individual and his opinion, while often unwanted, should always be taken as well informed and substantiated.

Protestantism and Capitalism• He is typically cited, with Émile Durkheim and Karl Marx, as one of the three

principal architects of modern social science, and has variously been described as the most important classic thinker in the social sciences.

• According to Weber, one of the universal tendencies that Christians had historically fought against, was the desire to profit. After defining the spirit of capitalism, Weber argued that there were many reasons to look for the origins of modern capitalism in the religious ideas of the Reformation.

• Weber showed that certain types of Protestantism – notably Calvinism – favored rational pursuit of economic gain and worldly activities which had been given positive spiritual and moral meaning. It was not the goal of those religious ideas, but rather a byproduct – the inherent logic of those doctrines and the advice based upon

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them both directly and indirectly encouraged planning and self-denial in the pursuit of economic gain.

Examples of other religions• Next, Weber analyses the Hindu religious beliefs, including asceticism and the

Hindu world view, the Brahman orthodox doctrines, the rise and fall of Buddhism in Nepal, the Hindu restoration, and the evolution of the guru. Weber asks the question whether religion had any influence upon the daily round of mundane activities, and if so, how it impacted economic conduct. He notes the idea of an immutable (absolute) world order consisting of the eternal cycles of rebirth and the deprecation of the mundane world, and finds that the traditional caste system, supported by the religion, slowed economic development; in other words, the "spirit" of the caste system militated against an indigenous development of capitalism.

C H CooleyLooking-glass selfthe nature and history of human groupsLooking-glass self• Created by Charles Horton Cooley in 1902 (McIntyre 2006), the looking-glass self

is a social psychological concept that a person's self grows out of society's interpersonal interactions and the perceptions of others. Cooley clarified it in writing that society is an interweaving and interworking of mental selves. The term "looking glass self" was first used by Cooley in his work, Human Nature and the Social Order in 1902.

• In the looking-glass self a person views himself or herself through others' perceptions in society and in turn gains identity. Identity, or self, is the result of the concept in which we learn to see ourselves as others do. The looking-glass self begins at an early age and continues throughout the entirety of a person’s life as one will never stop modifying their self unless all social interactions are ceased.

• In hypothesizing the framework for the looking glass self, Cooley said, "the mind is mental" because "the human mind is social." Beginning as children, humans begin to define themselves within the context of their socializations. The child learns that the symbol of his/her crying will elicit a response from his/her parents, not only when they are in need of necessities such as food, but also as a symbol to receive their attention.

There are three main components of the looking-glass self (Yeung, et al. 2003).• We imagine how we must appear to others. • We imagine the judgement of that appearance. • We develop our self through the judgments of others. • The looking glass self is directly related to self-awareness; indeed, self-awareness

may be said to be formed via the process of undergoing the process coined by Cooley.

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• The concept is somewhat related to the psychological concept of projection; human beings interpret the reactions of others that they socialize with in regards to appearance, speech, mannerisms (all symbols) and project these interpretations unto themselves.

The nature and history of human groups• Primary group: small, informal, intimate, emotional, meaningful, lasting. Example:

family and friends.• Secondary group: formal, task oriented, members may be anonymous. Examples: a

job hiring committee or a large scale bureaucracy.

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