theories and mythology

8/6/2019 Theories and Mythology

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The Collective Unconscious

Jung taught that the psyche consists of various systems including thepersonal

unconsciouswith its complexes and a collective unconscious with its archetypes.Jung's theory of apersonal unconsciousis quite similar to Freuds creation of a region

containing a person's repressed, forgotten or ignored experiences. However, Jungconsidered thepersonal unconsciousto be a "more or less superficial layer of the

unconscious." Within the personal unconscious are what he called "feeling-toned

complexes." He said that "they constitute the personal and private side of psychic

life."3These are feelings and perceptions organized around significant persons or

events in the person's life.

Jung believed that there was a deeper and more significant layer of the unconscious,

which he called thecollective unconscious,with what he identified

asarchetypes,which he believed were innate, unconscious, and generally universal.

Jung'scollective unconscioushas been described as a "storehouse of latent memorytraces inherited from man's ancestral past, a past that includes not only the racial

history of man as a separate species but his pre-human or animal ancestry as

well."4Therefore, Jung's theory incorporates Darwin's theory of evolution as well asancient mythology. Jung taught that thiscollective unconsciousis shared by all people

and is therefore universal. However, since it is unconscious, not all people are able to

tap into it. Jung saw thecollective unconsciousas the foundational structure of

personality on which thepersonal unconsciousand the ego are built. Because he

believed that the foundations of personality are ancestral and universal, he studied

religions, mythology, rituals, symbols, dreams and visions. He says:

All esoteric teachings seek to apprehend the unseen happenings in the psyche, and allclaim supreme authority for themselves. What is true of primitive lore is true in even

higher degree of the ruling world religions. They contain a revealed knowledge that

was originally hidden, and they set forth the secrets of the soul in glorious images.5

Psychoanalysis of MythFreud's and Jung's theories

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1 Psychoanalysis of Myth - Introduction


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4 Theories of Mythology

There are four basic theories in mythology. These theories are the rational myth theory, the functionalmyth theory, the

structural myth theory, and the psychological myth theory. The rational myth theorystates that myths are created to explain

natural events and forces. Functional myths are a type of myths that are created as a kind of social control. The

structural myth theory states that myths are patterned after the human mind as well as human nature. The psychological

myth states that myths are created based on human emotion.

Rational myth theory states that myths are made to better understand natural events and forces that occur in the everyday

lives of people. This theory also explains that gods and goddesses controlled all of these happenings of nature. Creation

myths from different cultures are all examples of rational myths. They explain how man was created and explain what god

and g

Comparative mythology is the comparison ofmyths from different cultures in an

attempt to identify shared themes and characteristics.[1] Comparative mythology

has served a variety of academic purposes. For example, scholars have used the

relationships between different myths to trace the development

ofreligions and cultures, to propose common origins for myths from different

cultures, and to support variouspsychological theories.


21/26

Contents

[hide]

1 Comparativists versus particularists

2 Approaches to comparative mythology

o 2.1 Linguistic

o 2.2 Structural

o 2.3 Psychological

3 Some mythological parallels

o 3.1 The Flood

o 3.2 The creative sacrifice

o 3.3 The dying god

o 3.4 The structure of hero stories

o 3.5 Axis mundi

o 3.6 Titanomachy

o 3.7 The deus otiosus

o 3.8 Founding myths

4 See also

o 4.1 Fields of study

5 References

6 Sources

7 Selected bibliography

[edit]Comparativists versus particularists

The anthropologistC. Scott Littleton defines comparative mythology as "the

systematic comparison of myths and mythic themes drawn from a wide variety of

cultures".[1] By comparing different cultures' mythologies, scholars try to identify

underlying similarities and/or to reconstruct a "protomythology" from which those

mythologies developed.[1] To an extent, all theories about mythology follow a

comparative approach: as the scholar of religion Robert Segal notes, "by

definition, all theorists [of myth] seek similarities among myths". [2] However,

scholars of mythology can be roughly divided into particularists, who emphasize

the differences between myths, and comparativists, who emphasize the

similarities. Particularists tend to "maintain that the similarities deciphered by

comparativists are vague and superficial".[3]


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Comparative approaches to mythology held great popularity among eighteenth-

and nineteenth-century scholars. Many of these scholars believed that all myths

showed signs of having evolved from a single myth or mythical theme.[4] For

example, the nineteenth-centuryphilologistFriedrich Max Mllerled a school of

thought which interpreted nearly all myths as poetic descriptions of the sun'sbehavior. According to this theory, these poetic descriptions had become

distorted over time into seemingly diverse stories about gods and

heroes.[4]However, modern-day scholars lean more toward particularism, feeling

suspicious of broad statements about myths.[5] One exception to this trend

is Joseph Campbell's theory of the "monomyth", which is discussed below.

[edit]Approaches to comparative mythology

Comparative mythologists come from various fields,

including folklore, anthropology, history, linguistics, and religious studies, and

they have used a variety of methods to compare myths. These are some

important approaches to comparative mythology.

[edit]Linguistic

Some scholars look at the linguistic relationships between the myths of different

culturesfor example, the similarities between the names of gods in different

cultures. One particularly successful example of this approach is the study

ofIndo-European mythology. Scholars have found striking similarities between

the mythological and religious terms used in different cultures of Europe and

India. For example, the Greeksky-god Zeus Pater, the Roman sky-god Jupiter,

and the Indian (Vedic) sky-god Dyau Pit have similar names.

This suggests that the Greeks, Romans, and Indians originated from a common

ancestral culture, and that the names Zeus, Jupiter, andDyaus evolved from an

older name, *Dyus ph2ter, which referred to the sky-god, or to get a perfect

English cognate, a day-father, in a Proto-Indo-European religion.[6]

See also: Proto-Indo-European religion andProto-Indo-Iranian religion

[edit]Structural

Some scholars look for underlying structures shared by different myths. The

folklorist Vladimir Propp proposed that many Russianfairy taleshave a common

plot structure, in which certain events happen in a predictable order.[7] In contrast,

the anthropologist Claude Lvi-Straussexamined the structure of myths in terms

of the abstract relationships between its elements, rather than their order in the


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plot. In particular, Lvi-Strauss believed that the elements of a myth could be

organized into binary oppositions (raw vs. cooked, nature vs. culture, etc.). He

thought that myth's purpose was to "mediate" these oppositions, thereby

resolving basic tensions or contradictions found in human life or culture.[8]

See also: Lvi-Strauss#The structuralist approach to myth, Structuralanthropology, andVladimir Propp

[edit]Psychological

Some scholars propose that myths from different cultures reveal the same, or

similar, psychological forces at work in those cultures. SomeFreudian thinkers

have identified stories similar to the Greek story ofOedipus in many different

cultures. They argue that these stories reflect the different expressions of

the Oedipus complex in those cultures.[9] Likewise, Jungians have identified

images, themes, and patterns that appear in the myths of many different cultures.They believe that these similarities result from archetypes present in

the unconscious levels of every person's mind.[10]

See also: Oedipus complex,Analytical psychology, andJungian archetypes

[edit]Some mythological parallels

Comparative mythology has uncovered a number of parallels between the myths

of different cultures, including some very widespread recurring themes and plot

elements. Here are some examples.

[edit]The Flood

Main article: Deluge (mythology)

Cultures around the world tell stories about a great flood.[11] In many cases, the

flood leaves only one survivor or group of survivors. For example, both

the Hebrew Bible and the Babylonian Epic of Gilgamesh tell of a global flood that

wiped out humanity and of a man who saved the Earth's species by taking them

aboard a boat.[12] Similar stories of a single flood survivor appear in Hindu

mythology,[13]Aztec mythology,[14] and the Greek myth ofDeucalion.

[edit]The creative sacrifice

Many cultures have stories about divine figures whose death creates an essential

part of reality.[15][16] These myths seem especially common among cultures that

grow crops, particularly tubers.[17] One such myth from New Guinea tells of a

miraculously-conceived girl named Hainuwele, whose murdered corpse sprouts


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into the people's staple food crops.[18] The Chinese myth ofPangu,[19] the Vedic

myth ofPurusha[20], and the Norse myth ofYmirall tell of a cosmic giant who is

killed to create the world.[15] Similar is the Christian myth of Christ, whose death

refashions the world.

[edit]The dying god

Main article: Life-death-rebirth deity

Many myths feature a god who dies and often returns to life.[21] Such myths are

particularly common in Near Eastern mythologies.[22] The anthropologist Sir

James Frazercompared these "dying god" myths in his multi-volume work The

Golden Bough. The Egyptian god Osirisand the Mesopotamian god Tammuz are

examples of the "dying god", while the Greek myths ofAdonis (though a mortal)

has often been compared to Osiris and the myth ofDionysos also features death

and rebirth.[23] Some scholars have noted similarities between polytheistic storiesof "dying gods" and the Christian story ofJesus of Nazareth.[24] Awareness of

these similarities goes back to the early Christian era, when the church

fatherJustin Martyrdiscussed them.[25]

See also: Descent to the underworldandJesus Christ and comparativemythology

[edit]The structure of hero stories

A number of scholars have suggested that hero stories from various cultures

have the same underlying structure. Otto Rank, who began his career as afollower ofSigmund Freud, argued that the stories of heroes' births have a

common Oedipal structure.[26] Other scholars, including Lord Raglan and, more

recently, Joseph Campbell, have also suggested that hero stories share a

common structure.[27] Some comparative mythologists look for similarities only

among hero stories within a specific geographical or ethnic range. For example,

theAustrian scholarJohann Georg van Hahn tried to identify a common structure

underlying "Aryan" hero stories.[28] Others, such as Campbell, propose theories

about hero stories in general. According to Campbell's "monomyth" theory, hero

stories from around the world share a common plot structure.[29] Because of its

extremely comparative nature, the monomyth theory is currently out of favor with

the mainstream study of mythology.[5]

See also: Monomyth andHero

[edit]Axis mundi


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Main article:Axis mundi

Many mythologies mention a place that sits at the center of the world and acts as

a point of contact between different levels of the universe.[30] This "axis mundi" is

often marked by a sacred tree or other mythical object. For example, many myths

describe a great tree or pillar joining heaven, earth, and the

underworld.[31]VedicIndia, ancient China, and the ancient Germans all had

myths featuring a "Cosmic Tree" whose branches reach heaven and whose roots

reach hell.[32]

See also: Yggdrasil, Omphalos, andMountMeru

[edit]Titanomachy

Many cultures have a creation myth in which a group of younger, more civilized

gods conquer and/or struggle against a group of older gods who represent the

forces of chaos. In the Greek myth of the Titanomachy, the Olympian

gods defeat the Titans, an older and more primitive divine race, and establish

cosmic order.[33][34] In Hindu mythology, the devas (gods) battle

the asuras (demons).[34] And the Celtic gods of life and light struggle against

the Fomorians, ancient gods of death and darkness.[34]

This myth of the gods conquering demons - and order conquering chaos - is

especially common in Indo-European mythologies. Some scholars suggest that

the myth reflects the ancient Indo-Europeans' conquest of native peoples during

their expansion over Europe and India.[35][36]

However, non-Indo-European cultures also have such myths. For example, many

Near Eastern mythologies include a "combat myth" in which a good god battles

an evil or chaotic demon.[37] An example is the BabylonianEnuma Elish.[38]

See also: Titanomachy, Theomachy, andTheogony

[edit]The deus otiosus

Many cultures believe in a celestial Supreme Being who has cut off contact with

humanity. Historian Mircea Eliade calls this Supreme Being a deus otiosus (an

"idle god"),[39] although this term is also used more broadly, to refer to any god

who doesn't interact regularly with humans. In many myths, the Supreme Being

withdraws into the heavens after the creation of the world.[40]Baluba

mythology features such a story, in which the supreme God withdraws from the

earth, leaving man to search for him.[41] Similarly, the mythology of

the Hereros tells of a Sky God who has abandoned mankind to lesser


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divinities.[42] In the mythologies of highly complex cultures, the Supreme Being

tends to disappear completely, replaced by a strongly polytheistic belief

system.[43]

See also: deus otiosus andSky Father

[edit]Founding myths

Main article: Founding myth

Many cultures have myths describing the origin of their customs, rituals, and

identity. In fact, ancient and traditional societies have often justified their customs

by claiming that their gods or mythical heroes established those

customs.[44][45] For example, according to the myths of theAustralianKaradjeri,

the mythical Bagadjimbiri brothers established all of the Karadjeri's customs,

including the position in which they stand while urinating.[46]

See also: National myth

[edit]

theories and mythology

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