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    Theories & ModelsEDFN201B Instructional Design

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    Instructional Design (n):

    The process by which

    instruction is improved

    through the analysis of

    learning needs and

    systematic development oflearning materials.

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    Some more definitions:

    Instructional Design simply means using a systematicprocess to understand a human performance problem,figuring out what to do about it and then doingsomething about it (McArdle, 1991).

    Instructional Design is the science of creating detailedspecifications for the development, evaluation andmaintenance of situations which facilitate the learning(Richey, 1986).

    Instructional Design is the entire process of analysis of

    learning needs and goals and the development of adelivery system to meet the needs (Briggs, 1977).

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    Module 1 - Theories and

    Models Objectives:

    Students will be able to

    distinguish between a theory and a model

    explain the difference between a theory and amodel

    correctly classify each of a set of theories andmodels

    defend the classification of theories and models develop a simple lesson that demonstrates

    understanding of the various instructionaldesign theories 4

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    Theories and Models

    Theories

    What is a theory? A theory

    Provides a general explanation for observations made

    over time, Explains and predicts behavior,

    Can never be established beyond all doubt

    May be modified

    Seldom has to be thrown out completely if thoroughlytested but sometimes a theory may be widely acceptedfor a long time and later disproved.

    (Dorin, Demmin & Gabel, 1990) 5

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    "A theory is a set of interrelated principles anddefinitions that present a systematic view ofphenomena by specifying relationships amongvariables with the purpose of explaining natural

    phenomena." Kerlinger 1986

    "Any set of hypotheses or principles linked bylogical or mathematical arguments which is

    advanced to explain an area of empirical reality oftype of phenomenon."

    Jary & Jary 1995

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    A theory is not a collection of facts;it is a way of thinking aboutorganisational organisations.

    Theories in educationalorgnaisations provide a way ofseeing and analysing teaching more

    accurately and deeply that oneotherwise could.

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    Theory Development

    How do theories develop?

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    Atomic Theory

    Since the beginning of history, people havetheorized about the nature of matter.

    ancient Greeks

    matter was composed of fire, water, earth andair.

    the continuous theory matter could be infinitely subdivided into smaller

    and smaller pieces without change. Orbital model and the quantum-mechanical model

    matter made up of particles so small thatthey cannot be divided.

    (Dorin, Demmin & Gabel, 1990) 9

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    Comparing to Learning

    Theories

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    Learning Theory

    The behaviorist learning theory centered

    around that which was observable, notconsidering that there was anything occurringinside the mind. Behaviorism can be comparedto Dalton's atom, which was simply a particle.

    the cognitive model of learning was born whenthere was realisation that the mind was not ablack box.

    Soon, however, theorists realized that the "atom"is not stable, it is not so "cut and dried". Its in flux.

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    The constructivist learning theory tells us thateach organism is constantly in flux, and althoughthe old models work to a certain degree, otherfactors most also be considered.

    The quantum theory builds upon the previousatomic theories.

    Constructivism builds upon behaviorism andcognitivism in the sense that it accepts multiple

    perspectives and maintains that learning is apersonal interpretation of the world.

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    Cognitive approaches have a place inconstructivism also, since constructivismrecognises the concept of schema andbuilding upon prior knowledge andexperience.

    The greatest difference is that of evaluation.In behaviorism and cognitivism, evaluation

    is based on meeting specific objectives,whereas in constructivism, evaluation ismuch more subjective.

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    Types of theories

    Learning Theories

    Instructional Theories

    Motivational Theories

    Communication TheoriesGeneral Systems Theories

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    Learning theories:

    Learning theory is intended todescribe how learning takes place.There are 2 main schools of thought -

    behavioural and cognitive. In general,behavioural learning theories providethe theoretical basis for systematic, ordirected, instructional designs, while

    cognitive learning theories provide thebasis for constructivist instructionaldesigns. 15

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    Instructional Theories:

    Instructional theory is a discipline that focuseson how to structure material for promoting theeducation of human beings, particularly youth.Originating in the United States in the late 1970s,

    instructional theoryis typically divided into twocategories: the cognitive and behaviorist schoolsof thought. Instructional theory was spawned offthe 1956 work of Benjamin Bloom, a Universityof Chicago professor, and the results of hisTaxonomy of Education Objectives one of thefirst modern codifications of the learningprocess.

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    Motivational Theories:

    Motivation theory is concerned withthe processes that describe why andhow human behavior is activated and

    directed. It is regarded as one of themost important areas of study in thefield of organizational behavior. Thereare two different categories of

    motivation theories - content theories,and process theories.

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    Content Theories of Motivation

    Also known as Needs Theory,

    the content theory of

    motivation mainly focuses onthe internal factors that

    energize and direct humanbehavior.

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    Process Theories of Motivation

    Process theories of

    motivation provide an

    opportunity to understandthought processes that

    influence behavior.19

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    Communication Theories:

    Communication Theory

    attempts to document types

    of communication, and tooptimize communications for

    the benefit of all.20

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    General Systems Theories

    Systems theory is atransdisciplinary approach thatabstracts and considers a system as

    a set of independent andinteracting parts. The main goal isto study general principles of

    system functioning to be applied toall types of systems in all fields ofresearch.

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    Instructional Design Theory

    Learning theoryis the study ofhow people learn.

    Instructional Design Theoryis the study ofhow to bestdesign instruction so that learning will take place.Instructional design theory, then, is drawn from learningtheory.

    Learning theories have significant bearing oninstructional design, as there is a logical developmentfrom learning to instruction. Instructional designoptimizes learning outcomes while learning theories arethe backbone of any instructional design. Instructionaldesign is the articulation or the manifestation of thelearning theories, and its main aim is to optimize learningby using the known theories of learning.

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    What is a model?

    A model is a mental picture

    that helps us understand

    something we cannot see orexperience directly.

    (Dorin, Demmin & Gabel,1990) 23

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    Models may be very simple or very

    complex.

    Each model reflects only a limited aspect of

    the total

    No single model, or combination of models,reveals the truth.

    the concept of model is used not so

    much for the purpose of obtainingexplanations as for predicting

    phenomena 24

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    Types of models

    Physical models

    Analogue models

    Conceptual models

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    Physical Model

    A physical model is a smaller or larger

    physical copy of an object. The object

    being modelled may be small (for

    example, an atom) or large (for example,the Solar System).

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    Analogue Model

    A model based on similarities between the system under

    study and another system or process.

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    Conceptual Model

    "a set of abstract and general concepts and propositions

    that integrate those concepts into a meaningful

    configuration (Lipitt, 1973; Nye & Berardo, 1981)" (as cited

    in Fawcett, J., 1995, p.2).

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    Developing models

    Key features in common with the

    development of any model are:

    simplifying assumptions must be made;

    boundary conditions or initial conditions

    must be identified;

    the range of applicability of the model

    should be understood.

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    Instructional Design Models

    An instructional design model gives

    structure and meaning to an I.D.

    problem, enabling the would-be

    designer to negotiate the design taskwith a semblance of conscious

    understanding. Models help us to

    visualize the problem, to break it downinto discrete, manageable units.

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    ID Models

    Dales Cone of Experience

    ADDIE

    Dick & Carey

    Morrison, Ross and Kemp

    ASSURE

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    Dales Cone of Experience

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    ADDIE Model

    Analysis

    Design

    Development

    Implementation

    Evaluation

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    Dick & Carey Model

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    Dick & Carey/Systems

    Approach Model Identify Instructional Goal(s)

    Conduct Instructional Analysis

    Analyze Learners and Contexts

    Write Performance Objectives

    Develop Assessment Instruments

    Develop Instructional Strategy

    Develop and Select Instructional Materials

    Design and Conduct Formative Evaluation of Instruction

    Revise Instruction

    Design and Conduct Summative Evaluation

    With this model, components are executed iteratively and in

    parallel rather than linearly.

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    Morrison, Ross & Kemp

    Identify instructional problems, and specify goals for designingan instructional program.

    Examine learner characteristics that should receive attentionduring planning.

    Identify subject content, and analyze task components related to

    stated goals and purposes. State instructional objectives for the learner.

    Sequence content within each instructional unit for logicallearning.

    Design instructional strategies so that each learner can master

    the objectives. Plan the instructional message and delivery.

    Develop evaluation instruments to assess objectives.

    Select resources to support instruction and learning activities. 37

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    38The oval shape of this model (see Figure 1) is constructed to convey the idea that

    the design and development process is an iterative cycle that needs constant

    planning, design, development and assessment to ensure effective instruction.

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    ASSURE Model

    identifies six major steps in an instructional planning

    process.

    The Assure Model is:

    A procedural guide for planning and delivering instruction that

    integrates technology and media into the teaching process. A systematic approach to writing lesson plans.

    A plan used to help teachers organize instructional

    procedures.

    A plan used to help teachers do an authentic assessment of

    student learning.

    A model that can be used by all presenters.

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    ASSURE model

    Analyse Learners

    State Objectives

    Select, modify and design Methods, Media and Materials

    Utilise Methods, Media and Materials

    Require learner participation

    Evaluate and revise

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    References

    Intelligent Leadership

    Studies in Educational Leadership, 2007, Volume 6, 67-98,

    DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4020-6022-9_5

    Contemporary Learning Theories, Instructional Design and

    Leadership

    Larry Sackney and Brenda Mergel

    lDorin, H., Demmin, P., Gabel, D. (1990). Chemistry: Thestudy of matter. (3rd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice

    Hall, Inc.41