Theories of MotivationTheories of Motivation

An Overview of Some of the Popular Management Theorists

Alderfer’s ERG TheoryAlderfer’s ERG Theory

Clayton P Alderfer proposed a hierarchy involving three sets of needs:

• Existence: needs satisfied by such factors as food, air, water, pay, and working conditions.

• Relatedness: needs satisfied by meaningful social and interpersonal relationships.

• Growth: needs satisfied by an individual making creative or productive contributions.

• Tested by Thematic Apperception TestERG Theory

FrustrationFrustrationof growth needsof growth needs

FrustrationFrustrationof growth needsof growth needs

Frustration ofFrustration ofrelatedness needsrelatedness needs

Frustration ofFrustration ofrelatedness needsrelatedness needs

FrustrationFrustrationof existence needsof existence needs

FrustrationFrustrationof existence needsof existence needs

ImportanceImportanceof growth needsof growth needs

ImportanceImportanceof growth needsof growth needs

Importance of Importance of relatedness needsrelatedness needs

Importance of Importance of relatedness needsrelatedness needs

ImportanceImportanceof existence needsof existence needs

ImportanceImportanceof existence needsof existence needs

SatisfactionSatisfactionof growth needsof growth needs

Satisfaction ofSatisfaction ofrelatedness needsrelatedness needs

Satisfaction ofSatisfaction ofexistence needsexistence needs

ERG Theory Relationships Among Frustration, ERG Theory Relationships Among Frustration, Importance, and Satisfaction of NeedsImportance, and Satisfaction of Needs

Chris Argyris (1923 Chris Argyris (1923 -

• Influenced by the humanist approach of Abraham Maslow and the socio-technical process of E. Wight Bakke.

• Indicated his feelings about how organizations neglected human needs.

• If treated like a child one will behave like a child – result is organizational mediocrity

Maturity – Immaturity Continuum

Chris Argyris

Chris Argyris – Personality vs. Organization

• Certain organizational practices, such as the division of labor, interfere with the development of healthy human personalities.

• These practices promote immature, not mature behavior.

• In an attempt to self-actualize, individuals run into the obstacles posed by formal organizations.

• The result is defensive behaviors, with management reacting by becoming more autocratic or by turning to sugar-coated human relations.

Chris ArgyrisChris Argyris

Albert BanduraAlbert Bandura Albert Bandura proposed a social cognitive theory

(social learning theory; self-efficacy theory) which refers to an individual’s belief that they are capable of performing a task.

Four ways self efficacy can be increased:

1. Enactive mastery – if you’ve performed task in the past, you can do it again

2. Vicarious modeling – you become more confident because you see someone else do the task

3. Verbal persuasion – you become more confident because someone convinces you that you have the skills necessary to perform task

4. Arousal – if you get “psyched up” then you perform better

Social LearningSelf-efficacySocial Cognitive

Abraham MaslowAbraham MaslowMaslow defined human needs as:

Physiological: the need for food, drink, shelter, and relief from pain.Safety and security: the need for freedom from threat; the security from threatening events or surroundings.Belongingness, social, and love: the need for friendship, affiliation, interaction, and love.Esteem: the need for self-esteem and for respect from others.Self-actualization: the need to fulfill oneself by maximizing the use of abilities, skills, and potential

Hierarchy of Needs

Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Maslow’s Need Hierarchy

• Maslow’s theory assumes that a person attempts to satisfy the more basic needs before directing behavior toward satisfying upper-level needs.

• Lower-order needs must be satisfied before a higher-order need begins to control a person’s behavior.

• A satisfied need ceases to motivate.

Need HierarchyNeed Hierarchy

David McClellandDavid McClellandProposed Theory of Needs:

Need for Achievement (nAch) – drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of standardsNeed for Affiliation (nAff) – the desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationshipsNeed for Power (nPow) – need to make others behave in a way in which they would not have behaved otherwise (to have power over them)

nAchnPownAff

McClelland’s Learned Needs TheoryMcClelland’s Learned Needs Theory

AchievementAchievement

(n Ach)(n Ach)

AffiliationAffiliation

(n Aff)(n Aff)

PowerPower

(n Pow)(n Pow)

Douglas McGregor (1906-1964)Douglas McGregor (1906-1964)• Taught psychology at MIT.• At Antioch College, McGregor

found that his classroom teaching of human relations did not always work in practice.

• From these experiences, his ideas evolve and lead him to recognize the influence of assumptions we make about people and our managerial style.Douglas McGregor

Theory XTheory X• Management is responsible for organizing the elements of

productive enterprise – money, materials, equipment, people – in the interest of economic ends.

• With respect to people, this is a process of directing their efforts, motivating them, controlling their actions, modifying their behavior to fit the needs of the organization.

• Without this active intervention by management, people would be passive – even resistant – to organizational needs. They must, therefore, be persuaded, rewarded, punished, controlled – their activities must be directed. This is management’s task -- in managing subordinate managers or workers. We often sum it up by saying that management consists of getting things done through other people.

Theory X Theory X

• Behind this conventional theory there are several additional beliefs – less explicit, but widespread:

– The average man is by nature indolent – he works as little as possible.

– He lacks ambition, dislikes responsibility, prefers to be led.

– He is inherently self-centered, indifferent to organizational needs.

– He is by nature resistant to change.– He is gullible, not very bright – the ready dupe of the

charlatan and the demagogue.

Theory YTheory Y

• Management is responsible for organizing the elements of productive enterprise – money, materials, equipment, people – in the interest of economic ends.

• People are not by nature passive or resistant to organizational needs. They have become so as a result of experience in organizations.

• The motivation, the potential for development, the capacity for assuming responsibility, the readiness to direct behavior toward organizational goals are all present in people. Management does not put them there. It is a responsibility of management to make it possible for people to recognize and develop these human characteristics for themselves.

• The essential task of management is to arrange organizational conditions and methods of operation so that people can achieve their own goals best by directing their own efforts toward organizational objectives.

• Work is inherently distasteful to most people.

• Most people are not ambitious, have little desire for responsibility, and prefer to be directed.

• Most people have little capacity for creativity in solving organizational problems.

• Motivation occurs only at the physiological and safety levels.

• Most people must be closely controlled and often coerced to achieve organizational objectives.

• Work is as natural as play, if the conditions are favorable.

• Self-control is often indispensable in achieving organizational goals.

• The capacity for creativity in solving organizational problems is widely distributed in the population.

• Motivation occurs at the social, esteem, and self-actualization levels, as well as physiological and security levels.

• People can be self-directed and creative at work if properly motivated.

Theory XTheory X Theory YTheory Y

Frederick Herzberg Frederick Herzberg (1923-2000)(1923-2000)

• His research emphasized job enrichment (depth) rather than job enlargement– Job context (hygiene factors) –

needed to be optimal to prevent job dissatisfaction. These factors (according to Herzberg) did not motivate.

– Job content (motivators) – factors that did lead to motivation

– Money (according to Herzberg) could motivate if it was seen as a reward for accomplishment; but if money was given without regard for merit, then it was a hygiene factor.

Frederick Herzberg

Policies and Administration

Supervision

Working Conditions

Interpersonal Relations

Money, Status, Security

Achievement

Recognition for Accomplishment

Challenging Work

Increased Responsibility

Growth and Development

HYGIENE FACTORSENVIRONMENT

MOTIVATORSWHAT THEY DO

Motivation and Hygiene FactorsMotivation and Hygiene Factors

Extrinsic factorsExtrinsic factors Intrinsic factorsIntrinsic factors

Factors within the Factors within the job context:job context:

Factors within the Factors within the job content:job content:

PayPay

StatusStatus

Working conditionsWorking conditions

AchievementAchievement

Increased responsibilityIncreased responsibility

RecognitionRecognition

DissatisfiersDissatisfiersHygiene factorsHygiene factors

DissatisfiersDissatisfiersHygiene factorsHygiene factors

SatisfiersSatisfiersMotivatorsMotivatorsSatisfiersSatisfiers

MotivatorsMotivators

Herzberg’s Two-Factor TheoryHerzberg’s Two-Factor Theory

I. TRADITIONALI. TRADITIONALHigh job High job dissatisfactiondissatisfaction

High job High job satisfactionsatisfaction

II. HERZBERG’S TWO-FACTOR VIEWII. HERZBERG’S TWO-FACTOR VIEWLow jobLow jobsatisfactionsatisfaction

High jobHigh jobsatisfactionsatisfaction

Low jobLow jobdissatisfactiondissatisfaction

High jobHigh jobdissatisfactiondissatisfaction

Motivators•Feeling of achievement•Meaningful work•Opportunities for advancement•Increased responsibility•Recognition•Opportunities for growth

Hygienes•Pay•Status•Job security•Working conditions•Fringe benefits•Policies and procedures•Interpersonal relations

Traditional and Herzberg Views of Satisfaction - Traditional and Herzberg Views of Satisfaction - DissatisfactionDissatisfaction

Frederick HerzbergFrederick Herzberg

THE JOB ITSELFAND THE

MOTIVATORFACTORS

RESPONSIBILITY ACHIEVEMENT

WORK ITSELF RECOGNITION

GROWTH

ADVANCEMENT

THE JOB SURROUNDINGSAND THE

HYGIENE FACTORS

SUPERVISION

BENEFITS

INTER-PERSONALRELATION-

SHIPS

SECURITY

SALARY

STATUS

COMPANYPOLICY AND

ADMINIS-TRATION

WORKINGCONDITIONS

Motivation and Hygiene FactorsMotivation and Hygiene Factors

A Comparison of the Content TheoriesA Comparison of the Content Theories

MaslowMaslow(need hierarchy)(need hierarchy)

Self-actualizationSelf-actualization

EsteemEsteem

Belongingness,Belongingness,social, and lovesocial, and love

Safety and securitySafety and security

PhysiologicalPhysiological

MaslowMaslow(need hierarchy)(need hierarchy)

Self-actualizationSelf-actualization

EsteemEsteem

Belongingness,Belongingness,social, and lovesocial, and love

Safety and securitySafety and security

PhysiologicalPhysiological

HerzbergHerzberg(two-factor theory)(two-factor theory)

The work itselfThe work itself•ResponsibilityResponsibility•AdvancementAdvancement•GrowthGrowth

AchievementAchievementRecognitionRecognition

Quality of inter-Quality of inter-personal relationspersonal relationsamong peers, withamong peers, withsupervisors, withsupervisors, withsubordinatessubordinates

Job securityJob security

Working conditionsWorking conditionsSalarySalary

HerzbergHerzberg(two-factor theory)(two-factor theory)

The work itselfThe work itself•ResponsibilityResponsibility•AdvancementAdvancement•GrowthGrowth

AchievementAchievementRecognitionRecognition

Quality of inter-Quality of inter-personal relationspersonal relationsamong peers, withamong peers, withsupervisors, withsupervisors, withsubordinatessubordinates

Job securityJob security

Working conditionsWorking conditionsSalarySalary

AlderferAlderfer

GrowthGrowth

RelatednessRelatedness

ExistenceExistence

AlderferAlderfer

GrowthGrowth

RelatednessRelatedness

ExistenceExistence

McClellandMcClelland

Need forNeed forachievementachievement

Need forNeed forpowerpower

Need forNeed foraffiliationaffiliation

McClellandMcClelland

Need forNeed forachievementachievement

Need forNeed forpowerpower

Need forNeed foraffiliationaffiliation

MotivatorsMotivators

HygieneHygieneconditionsconditions

HigherHigherorderorderneedsneeds

BasicBasicneedsneeds

Work DesignWork Design

• Richard Hackman, Edward Lawler, and Greg Oldham’s work extended Herzberg’s notions by adding a situational (it depends…) dimension– Key job characteristics– Depending on an individual’s

“growth-need strength,” these characteristics could be amplified to make the job more meaningful.

Outcomes(Personal and Work)

Knowledge of Results of Work

Responsibility for Outcomes

Meaningfulness of Work

Critical Psychological

State

Core Job Characteristics

Skill VarietyTask Identity

Task Significance

Autonomy

Feedback About Job

High Internal Work Motivation

High Quality Work Performance

High Satisfaction with Work

Low Absenteeism and Turnover

Employee Growth Need

Job Characteristics ModelJob Characteristics Model

Motivation: Expectancy Theory Motivation: Expectancy Theory Victor Vroom Victor Vroom

• The expectancy theory of Victor Vroom helps explain the choosing process among individuals in terms of the value (valence) of the reward and the expectancy of receiving the reward.

Victor Vroom

Expectancy TheoryExpectancy Theory

Expectancy TheoryExpectancy Theory

• Lyman Porter and Edward Lawler extended Vroom’s work with their model of expectancy.

Expectancy TheoryExpectancy Theory(Lyman W. Porter – Edward E. Lawler III)(Lyman W. Porter – Edward E. Lawler III)

Performance(Accomplishments)

6

Value of Reward

1

Effort

3

RolePerceptions

5

AbilitiesAnd

Traits

4

IntrinsicRewards

7A

ExtrinsicRewards

7B

Satisfaction

9

PerceivedEquitableRewards

8

Revised Diagram of the Theoretical Model

SOURCE: Managerial Attitudes and Performance, 1968, Richard D. Irwin Inc.

PerceivedEffect-Reward

Probability

2

Principles of Expectancy TheoryPrinciples of Expectancy Theory

• V1 = S(V2 x I)– The valence associated with various first-level outcomes is a

sum of the multiplication of the valences (V2) attached to all second-level outcomes with their respective instrumentalities (I)

• M = f(V1 x E)– Motivation is a multiplicative function of the valence for each

first-level outcome (V1) and the perceived expectancy (E) that a given behavior will be followed by a particular first-level outcome

• P = f(M x A)– Performance is considered to be a multiplicative function of

motivation (the force) and ability

Process Theories of Motivation:Process Theories of Motivation:Expectancy TheoryExpectancy Theory (continued)(continued)

Management practices:• Managers need to focus on employee

expectations for success.• Managers must actively determine which

second-level outcomes are important to employees.

• Managers should link desired second-level outcomes to the organization’s performance goals.

Expectancy Theory Example

Valences of second-level outcomes(in parentheses)

Day off (6)

Recognition/complimentfrom boss (3)

Mention of performancein personnel record (1)

Day off (6)

Recognition/complimentfrom boss (3)

Mention of performancein personnel record (1)

Day off (6)

Recognition/complimentfrom boss (3)

Mention of performancein personnel record (1)

0.6

1.0

0.3

0.2

0.7

-0.1

0.0

0.2

-0.4

Finishing budgeton time (6.9)

Finishing budgeton required daybut after deadline(3.2)

Finishing budgeton day afterdeadline (.20)

0.4

0.7

1.0

2.76

2.24

.20

Motivation

Instrumentalities (howmuch performanceoutcome and second-leveloutcome are associated

Performanceoutcome(valences xinstrumentalities)

Expectancy(probability ofperformance giveneffort)

Equity TheoryEquity Theory

• Equity theory is not a new one but focuses on how individuals perceive their reward or pay compared to what others are receiving.

• Issues of social justice and distributive justice are involved in the theories of Stacy Adams and Elliot Jaques. Elliot Jacques

Process Theories of Motivation:Process Theories of Motivation:Equity TheoryEquity Theory

• Employees compare their efforts and rewards with those of others in similar work situations.

• Individuals, who work in exchange for rewards from the organization, are motivated by a desire to be equitably treated at work.

• Equity exists when employees perceive that the ratios of their inputs (efforts) to their outcomes (rewards) are equivalent to the ratios of other similar employees.

• Inequity exists when these ratios are not equivalent.

Compares his/her input/outcome ratio to reference person’s (RP) inputs (I) and outcomes (O)

and perceivesand perceivesOP ORP IP

IRP

equity=

OP ORP IP

IRP

inequity<

OP ORP IP

IRP

inequity >

or

or

IP: Inputs of the personIP: Inputs of the person

OP: Outcomes of the personOP: Outcomes of the person

IRP: Inputs of reference IRP: Inputs of reference personperson

ORP: Outcomes of reference ORP: Outcomes of reference personperson

A person (P) with certain inputs (I) and receiving certain outcomes (O)

The Equity Theory of Motivation

Managing Across CulturesManaging Across Cultures

• Geert Hofstede (1928 - ) describes cultural differences in different countries.– Individualism vs. collectivism

(group orientation);– Power Distance: The level of

preference for equality or inequality within groups:

– Uncertainty avoidance: The preference for risk vs. structure.

– Masculinity (assertiveness) vs. femininity (tender values).

– Long term vs. Short term orientation.

Geert Hofstede

Courtesy of Prof. Hofstede

Last Thoughts ……Last Thoughts ……from Peter Druckerfrom Peter Drucker

“I would hope that American managers—indeed, managers worldwide—continue to appreciate what I

have been saying almost since day one: that management is so much more than exercising rank and privilege; it’s so much more than ‘making deals.’ Management affects people and their lives, both in business and in many other aspects as well. The

practice of management deservers our utmost attention; it deserves to be studied”