Theories of Personality

Chapter 13

Measuring Personality Genetic influences on personality Environmental influences on personality Cultural influences on personality Psychodynamic influences on personality The inner experience

Defining Personality and Traits. Personality

Distinctive and relatively stable pattern of behaviours, thoughts, motives, and emotions that characterizes an individual throughout life.

Trait A characteristic of an individual, describing a

habitual way of behaving, thinking, and feeling.

Projective Tests Projective tests

Based on the assumption that the test taker will transfer (“project”) unconscious conflicts and motives onto an ambiguous stimulus.

Examples include the Thematic Apperception Test and the Rorschach

Thematic Apperception Test Person is asked to tell a

story about the “hero” in the picture Another projective test

Based on Murray’s personality theory People are

distinguished by the needs that motivate their behaviour

The Rorschach Inkblot Test Ambiguous stimuli Person is asked to

report what they see This type of test is

called projective No clear image, so

the things you see must be “projected” from inside yourself Sample Rorschach Card

Objective Tests Standardized questionnaires requiring

written responses; typically include scales on which people rate themselves: ‘I am easily embarrassed’ T or F ‘I like to go to parties’ T or F

More reliability and validity than projective tests.

Better at predicting behaviour.

Factor analysis: A statistical method for analysing the

intercorrelations among various measures or test scores; clusters of measures or scores that are highly correlated are assumed to measure the same underlying trait or ability (factor).

Example: Cattel’s 16 Personality Factors (PF) Questionnaire.

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory

Most widely used personality instrument Now the MMPI - 2

Clinical & Employment settings Measures aspects of personality that, if

extreme, suggest a problem e.g., extreme suspiciousness

Long test ‑ 567 questions

Characteristics of the MMPI‑2 Has several different scales (multiphasic) Scales thought to measure different kinds of

psychological disorders e.g., depression

Scale scores indicate how you compare with others

Overall assessment is interpretive From inspecting profile of different scales

MMPI Score Profile

MMPI Validity Scales Four scales designed to determine whether

respondent is presenting self accurately. Example: L scale (‘Fake Good’) - Trying

too hard to present self in a positive light. “I smile at everyone I meet” (T) “I read every editorial every day” (T)

MMPI Sample Items I usually feel that life is worthwhile and

interesting Depression

Evil people are trying to influence my mind Paranoia

I seem to hear things that other people can’t hear Schizophrenia

“Big Five” Personality Dimensions

Extroversion Neuroticism Agreeableness Conscientiousness Openness to experience

“Big Five” Personality Dimensions

The Big Five have emerged as distinct, central personality dimensions in many countries around the world.

Are stable over a lifetime. Some argue it is incomplete; other important

dimensions (e.g., religiosity) are missing Others (Eysenck) argue for only 3 factors.

Genetic Influences on Personality Heredity and temperament Heredity and traits

Genetic Influences on Personality 123 pairs of identical twins

and 127 pairs of fraternal twins

Measured on “Big Five” personality dimensions

Results suggest that personality differences in the population are 40 - 50% genetically determined.

Heredity and Temperament Temperaments

Physiological dispositions to respond to the environment in certain ways.

Present in infancy and assumed to be innate. Includes:

Reactivity Soothability Positive and Negative Emotionality

Temperaments are relatively stable over time.

Heredity and Traits Heritability

A statistical estimate of the proportion of the total variance in some trait that is attributable to genetic differences among individuals within a group.

Heritability of personality traits is about 50%. Within a group of people, about 50% of the variation

associated with a given trait is attributable to genetic differences among individuals in the group.

Genetic predisposition is not genetic inevitability.

Environmental Influences on Personality

The power of parents The power of peers Situations and circumstances

The Power of Parents The shared environment of the home has little influence

on personality. The nonshared environment is a more important

influence. Few parents have a single child-rearing style that is

consistent over time and that they use with all children. Even when parents try to be consistent in the way they

treat their children, there may be little relation between what they do and how their children turn out.

The Power of Peers Adolescent culture includes different peer

groups organized by different interests. Peer acceptance is so important to children

and adolescents that being bullied, victimized or rejected by peers is far more traumatic that punitive treatment by parents.

Situations and Circumstances People routinely reveal all of the big five traits in

their everyday behaviour. Why are there variations in individual

expressions of traits? Depending on context, some behaviours are

rewarded and others are not. Reciprocal determinism

In social-cognitive theories, the two way interaction between aspects of the environment and aspects of the individual in the shaping of personality traits.

Reciprocal determinism

Cultural Influences on Personality Culture, values and traits Customs in context Aggressiveness and altruism

Culture, Values, and Traits Culture

A program of shared rules that govern the behaviour of members of a community or society, and

a set of values, beliefs and attitudes shared by most members of that community.

Culture, Values, and Traits Individualist cultures

Cultures in which the self is regarded as autonomous, and individual goals and wishes are prized above duty and relations with others.

Collectivist cultures Cultures in which the self is regarded as

embedded in relationships, and harmony with one’s group is prized above individual goals and wishes.

Customs in Context When culture isn’t appropriately considered,

people attribute unusual behaviour to personality. Examples include bathing and tardiness.

Monochronic cultures Time is ordered sequentially, schedules and deadlines

valued over people.

Polychronic cultures Time is ordered horizontally, people valued over schedules

and deadline.

Aggressiveness Considerable cross-cultural evidence

suggests that male aggression results more from cultural factors than biological ones.

In cultures in which competition for resources is fierce and survival is difficult, men are “toughened up” and pushed to take risks.

Altruism

Culture also strong influence on moral behaviour. American children were less likely to be altruistic when compared with children from Kenya, India, Mexico, the Phillipines and Okinawa.

Psychodynamic Influences on Personality

Defining key terms Freud and psychoanalysis Other psychodynamic approaches

Key terms Psychodynamic theories

Explain behaviour and personality in terms of unconscious energy dynamics within the individual.

Psychoanalysis A theory of personality and method of

psychotherapy developed by Sigmund Freud. Emphasize unconscious motives and conflicts.

The Structure of Personality Id: Operates according to the

pleasure principle Primitive and unconscious

part of personality

Ego: Operates according to the reality principle Mediates between id and

superego

Superego: Moral ideals and conscience

Defense Mechanisms Repression Projection Displacement Reaction formation Regression Denial

The Development of Personality Freud’s stages

Oral Anal Phallic Latency period Genital

Fixation occurs when stages aren’t resolved successfully.

Other Psychodynamic Approaches Jungian Theory

Collective unconscious The universal memories, symbols, and

experiences of humankind, represented in the archetypes or universal

symbolic images that appear in myths, art, stories, and dreams.

2 important archetypes are maleness and femaleness which he believed existed in both sexes.

Other Psychodynamic Approaches The Object-Relations School

Emphasizes the importance of the infants first two years of life and the baby’s formative relationships, especially with the mother.

Emphasized children’s needs for a powerful mother and to be in relationships.

Three scientific failings Violating the principle of falsifiability. Drawing universal principles from the

experiences of a few atypical patients. Basing theories of personality development

on retrospective accounts and the fallible memories of patients.

Evaluating Psychodynamic Theories

The Humanistic Approach Abraham Maslow Carl Rogers Rollo May Evaluating Humanists

Abraham Maslow Humanist psychology

An approach that emphasizes personal growth, resilience, and the achievement of human potential.

For Maslow, personality development can be viewed as a gradual progression toward self-actualization - achieving one’s full potential.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of NeedsSelf-Actualization

Physiological

Safety

Belongingness

Esteem

Carl Rogers

Unconditional Positive Regard Love or support given to another person with

no conditions attached. Conditional Positive Regard

A situation in which the acceptance and love one receives from significant others is contingent upon one’s behaviour.

Carl Rogers’ Personality Theory

The needs for self-actualization and positive regard create a potential for conflict.

Rollo May Shared with humanists the belief in free

will and freedom of choice but also emphasized loneliness, anxiety and alienation.

Extistentialism Free will confers on us responsibility for our

actions.

Evaluating Humanists Hard to operationally define many of the

concepts. Have added balance to the study of personality. The approach has encouraged others to focus on

“positive psychology.” The argument that we have the power to choose

our own destiny has fostered a new appreciation for resilience.