Theories of the Family: Talcott Parsons

Scheduling Change• Original Plan

– Becker and Parsons today– Two Prominent Critiques on Tuesday

• New Plan (Today)– Parsons– Critiques

• New Plan (Tuesday)– Becker– Critiques

• Readings– DO NOT READ THE ASSIGNED READINGS– Instead read “Feminism and the Family” I will scan it and post it on Blackboard and

the course website tonight.– IF YOU HAVE ALREADY READ THE POSTED READINGS I WILL ACCEPT A RESPONSE

BASED ON THEM INSTEAD

Lecture Outline

• Structure of Sociological Theory• Structural Functionalism: 3 Components of the

social system • Connections among components• Functional Requisites of a Social System (AGIL)• Latent Pattern Variables• Volunteeristic Action• Equilibrium and Change• Critiques

Comparing Sociological Perspectives

• Four main categories: 1. Subject matter 2. Assumptions about social action3. Methodology 4. Theoretical Objective

Subject Matter

• Macrosociology: the unit of analysis is a higher order than the individual– Characteristics of social structure

• Institutions • Inequality

• Microsociology: the unit of analysis is the individual or interaction between individuals

• Communication• Face-to-face encounters • Decision-making processes

Assumptions about social action

• Actors are PredictableOR

• Actors are Creative

• Motivated by ValuesOR

• Motivated by Interests

Predictable Creative

Valu

esIn

tere

sts

Parsons

Becker

Methodology

From Research Methods Knowledge Base at: http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/dedind.php

Reality – A more Circuitous Approach

Observation

Pattern

Hypothesis

Theory

Deductive (Top-Down)

Observation

Pattern

Hypothesis

Theory

Inductive (Bottom-up)

Observation

Pattern

Hypothesis

Theory

Objectives

Describe Explain

A Sociological Theory is a Special Case of a Sociological Perspective

Sociological Theory:

• Begins by systematically defining concepts– Also frequently lays out the underlying assumptions

• Puts forth empirically testable general propositions about the concepts– A theory must be falsifiable

Talcott Parsons (1902-1979)

• Did his undergraduate work in Biology at Amherst College– Important to the development of his organic

perspective of social systems• Studied with Malinowski at LSE– European Structuralist Anthropologist

• Did an exchange at Heidelberg – Influenced by Max Weber’s theory of action

• Later translated most of Weber’s works to English

• Taught at Harvard between 1927 and 1973

Structural Functionalism• ‘The main guiding line of the analysis is the concept that a complex

social system consist of a network of interdependent and interpenetrating subsystems, each of which, seen at the appropriate level of reference , is a social system in its own right, subject to all the functional exigencies of any such system relative to its institutionalized culture and situation…” (Quoted from Calhoun et al. 2007 p.431)

• Society is a set of mutually dependent systems• Studies how each subsystem contributes to the system’s

maintenance (the subsystem’s function)– Biological analogy

3 Components of the Social System

1. Cultural System: shared symbolic meanings– Religious beliefs– National values– Language – Fashion – Cuisine

2. Personality System: elements of identity• The basic unit is the individual– Social needs, motivations and attitudes• Gratification motivation: close to a utilitarian principle

• Behavioural organism– Biological needs and constraints • Central nervous system• Physical capabilities

– Strength– Fecundity

3. Social System: modes of interaction among actors– Within the social system people act according to

the principle of “optimization of gratification”– All relationships in the social system are mediated

by the cultural system (roles)

Connections Among Systems

Institu

tions

Internalization

(pattern variables)

Socialization (roles)

Cultural System

Personality SystemSocial System

Connections Among Systems: An Example of how Socialization Makes the Family “Work”

Institu

tions

Internalization

(pattern variables or

appropriate means to

achieve goal )

Socialization (roles) Mother/Father

Cultural System (Values)

Personality System (needs and biological capacities)

(1) Healthy Childishness, Sexual Gratification

(2) Fecundity

Social System

Produce Children Sexual Fidelity

Parsons’ Four-Function Paradigm Applied to the United States as a Social System: AGIL

Reproduced from Wallace and Wolf 1995 pp. 41

Adaptation Goal Attainment

Latent Pattern Maintenance/ Tension Management

Integration

Economic Political

Education,Religious, Family

Legal

Adaptation

• The system’s adaptation to the material environment– Concerns the production and distribution of

resources– The economy performs these functions in USA

Goal Attainment

• Establish system goals and mobilize resources to fulfill them– Concerns the distribution of decision-making

power in society– The political institutions perform these functions

in USA

Integration

• Provides social cohesion and solidarity– Regulates social interactions and prevents the

mutual interference of systems– Also regulates conformity through the use of

social control – The legal institutions perform these functions in

USA

Latent Pattern Variable Maintenance

• Sufficiently motivates actors to fulfill their social roles

• Upholds the social system by transmitting values and invoking commitment to those values– Family, education, and religion perform these

functions in USA

Family as a subsystem with its own needs

Adaptation Goal Attainment

Latent Pattern Maintenance/ Tension Management

Integration

Economic: Father (Breadwinner)

Political:Father (Decision-Maker)

Value Transmission: Mother(Housewife)

Legal: Father(Co-ordinates and adjusts family relationships)

Latent Pattern Variables

• A series of orienting dichotomies– The meaning of a situation is determined for an

actor by the side (s)he chooses on these dichotomies

– Once the meaning is determined action can take place

Pattern Variables

Expressive Instrumental

Ascription

Diffuseness

Affectivity

Particularism

Collective

Achievement

Specificity

Neutrality

Universalism

Private

Individual Action: Volunteeristic Action

• Balances utilitarian elements of motivation with normative ones

S GOALS

Alternative MeansActor

Internalized Culture

Family as a Subsystem with its own Pattern Variables

• Within the family subsystem– Status is ascribed: based on age, gender and

generational rank– Distribution of goods is based on collectivist principles

“to each according to his needs”– Relationships are diffuse rather than specific– Familial relationships are imbued with high levels of

emotional gratification– The general orientation of family members is expected

to be based on collectivist principles rather than personal gain

Equilibrium Assumptions• Systems tend toward equilibrium• The four systems (AGIL) must perform their

functions to maintain system equilibrium• If the system is functioning equilibrium will be

maintained through 1. Socialization 2. Social Control

Malfunction!

Social Change in Structural-Functionalism

• Changes are gradual• No great disharmony• Societies become more

complex/differentiated as they must re-adjust to solve more problems– Similar to Durkheim’s idea of how the division of

labor develops• Very close analogy to evolution

1950s as a period of Re-equilibrium

• The nuclear family became more isolated– Wider kinship (beyond the household) lost its

functions• Physical separation of households

– Economic and social independence from kin

– Love and physical attraction became important

Structural Functionalism: A Theory?

• Deductive, macro theory of society• People’s actions are predictable and motivated by both

values and interests (although perceptions of interests are heavily shaped by values)

• Empirical evidence of function could be brought to bear

BUT• What would Constitute Contrary Evidence?

Critiques of Structural Functionalism:Internal Structure of the Theory

• Teleological argument – Assumes that social structures in and of

themselves have purposes and goals that benefit the system

• Tautological (Circular) reasoning– Uses a concept in both the cause and effect

• Inhibits comparative research

Critiques of Structural Functionalism: Substantive Validity

• Lacks a power dimension generally– Built on a consensus model of social order– Can’t account for rapid social change• Socially conservative because change is dysfunctional

(if as he assumes, the nuclear family is functional)

– Rigid Gender Roles• The assumption that the instrumental and expressive

functions in a family must be carried out by two separate people

Reading Assignment

• Which of the feminist arguments do you find most compelling and why? What kinds of critiques apply to Parsons and which to Becker?