Theory and Technology of Rock Excavationfor Civil Engineering

Dingxiang Zou

Theory and Technologyof Rock Excavation for CivilEngineering

123

Dingxiang ZouHong KongHong Kong

ISBN 978-981-10-1988-3 ISBN 978-981-10-1989-0 (eBook)DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-1989-0

Jointly published with Metallurgical Industry Press

Library of Congress Control Number: 2016954905

© Metallurgical Industry Press and Springer Science+Business Media Singapore 2017This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publishers, whether the whole or partof the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations,recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmissionor information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilarmethodology now known or hereafter developed.The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in thispublication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt fromthe relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.The publishers, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in thisbook are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publishers nor theauthors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein orfor any errors or omissions that may have been made.

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Foreword I

Rock excavation is a complex, nuanced, and hard work. The book “Theory andTechnology of Rock Excavation for Civil Engineering” not only outlines varioustheoretic topics on rock excavation, but also introduces various excavation tech-niques under the guidance of these theories. This book, which combines theory andpractice with an abundance of figures, data and illustrations, can be applied as thereference material for the relevant subjects in addition to being an invaluablehandbook.

Mr. D. Zou, the author of this book, is one of the standing directors of the ChinaSociety of Explosives and Blasting. “A Three-Dimensional Mathematic Model inCalculation the Rock Fragmentation of Bench Blasting in the Open Pit” (BMMCmodel)—which was developed by the author during the period of working in theMaanshan Institute of Mining Research in early 1980s—is described as “the firstcomplete numerical model for blasting in China” by Prof. Jun Yang, and wasincluded in the teaching materials of postgraduate study of blasting. Finally, thistext was also introduced in “Theory and Technology of Engineering Blasting,”chiefly edited by Prof. Yalun Yu, as well as the “Blasting Handbook,” chieflyedited by me.

The author has a solid theoretical foundation and rich experience accumulatedduring long-term on-site engineering practice. More recently, in particular, morethan twenty years of working in Hong Kong has conferred upon Zou better accessto the most advanced theories and technologies on rock excavation in the world. Allof these are fully delineated in this book.

The author has worked tirelessly in dedicating himself to the field of rockexcavation, a fact that is reflected in his completion of this book in both English andChinese within the three years since his retirement. I agreed with pleasure and

v

enthusiasm to write this foreword at his request, and I hereby recommend this bookto all my colleagues in the field and those learning the nuances of rock excavation.I also sincerely hope that the younger generation would uphold this same scientificspirit in the future and contribute to the theory and technology of rock excavation inthe service of humanity.

Professor Xuguang WangAcademician

China Academy of Engineering

vi Foreword I

Foreword II

Rock excavation changes the profile of rock mass of the earth’s surface, in whichblasting is the most effective method. In layman’s terms, blasting is a matter of“changing the ground with a big bang,” through varying amounts of magic andbewilderment. The blasting expert, however, feels a rush of excitement and joy afterevery successful blast as he reshapes the earth by his own hand. It is with this senseof wonder that the author writes this book and applies his over 50 years of pro-fessional experience.

After retiring and reviewing every blast in his career, Zou felt compelled to passon his singular knowledge to the younger generation of earth scientists and engi-neers. After accumulating all of his practical experience and knowledge, Zou wrote“Theory and Technology of Rock Excavation for Civil Engineering” within threeyears. Though the book adds only a drop to the sea of knowledge, it reflects hispassion and expertise on a deep and palpable level, while providing an invaluableaccount to the next generation of rock excavation experts.

This book covers a wide range of topics pertaining to rock excavation, fromgeological structure to engineering properties, from the equipment and tools ofexcavation to explosives and blasting accessories, from smooth blasting topre-reinforcement of rock mass to tunnel lining, from technical data of constructiontechnology to the expert system of excavation design, from safety and environ-mental protection to project management systems, all illustrated in detail. In manysections of the book the author imparts unique insights, and the abundance ofreliable data and reference materials can be used as a handbook. As such, it is aninvaluable text in the field of rock engineering.

The author had completed three years of postgraduate studies and cultivated thetheoretical thinking. In this book, especially in the field of blasting theory, Zoubreaks through the traditional theory of “blasting craters” and instead asserts thatthe rock mass of an object is a structural mass which had been cut by variousweakened planes to form a structure of “natural blocks”. Blasting, then, is thesecond fragmentation of the “natural blocks” and results in a new distribution.Under this foundation, Zou applies the theory of strain wave transportation

vii

to develop the BMMC computer program, which more profoundly reflects theprocess of rock blasting.

Having worked extensively in Hong Kong, Zou has encountered and embracedmany opportunities to work with advanced equipment, materials, as well as newtheoretical ideas and methods, all of which constitute the contents of this book.Hong Kong is a small city with a massive population, and with strict requirementson safety, environmental protection and sound construction management, this casestudy is introduced in the book as a valuable reference for similar conditions inmainland China.

Despite differences in regions and industries, individual words and terms not inline with the mainland can still be understood. Some terms like “chief shotfier”evoke vivid imagery, and may be accepted and popularized someday in the future.

China contains the largest quantity and scale of rock excavation in the world.I sincerely hope the young people who are engaging in rock excavation areenlightened by this book, contribute to the great rejuvenation of China and con-struct a more beautiful world.

China Professor Xiaohe XuMay 2016 Northeastern University

viii Foreword II

Preface

In order to develop and improve their living space and to get resources from theearth, ever since human entered a civilized society, surface and deep excavationshave become an important part of civil engineering and mining, from the earlysimple manual excavations to modern sophisticated blasting and mechanicalexcavation mankind has experienced a long history of thousands of years, hasaccumulated a lot of knowledge. A variety of theories have been developed toexplain the diversified issues appeared during the process of excavation with thedevelopment of the science and technology.

This book summarizes the technical progress and various theories on excavationin recent decades, developed by scholars of various countries, including the authorof this book, major focus on rock excavation, which is more difficult and chal-lenging compared to excavation of other material. Taking into account that miningengineering has more complex features, this book covers essentially the scope ofcivil engineering, while majority of the content is also applicable to mining engi-neering. As rock blasting is still the most important means of rock excavation,theories and technologies of rock blasting are particularly expounded in more detailthan other excavation methods.

The author used to work in an underground mine for 11 years on varioustechnical and management roles, worked in the field of research for another11 years as well. During this period he got a chance to have a short term of study onmining and visit Sweden in 1984. Later he came to work in Hong Kong for over25 years. A wealth of practical experience and knowledge has been accumulatedduring his long-term on-site technical work. Dedication to the research furtherdeveloped and raised the author’s theoretical level. His professional career in HongKong enables the author to have more accesses to the worldwide advanced tech-nologies and theories in the field of rock excavation. The 50 years professionalexperience and accumulated knowledge has laid a solid foundation for this book.

In reading various publications in the field of rock excavation it is noted that theauthors of the Europe and United States, including India, Japan and South Africa,rarely introduce the works and valuable theoretical contributions, which are still inapplication, made by Chinese and Russia (former Soviet Union) scholars.

ix

By striking a balance, while introducing Europe and United States scholars’ works,Chinese and Russia scholars’ are mentioned as well.

The book is divided into three parts.The first part is the basis. It includes basic knowledge and relevant theories on

the rock and rock mass—the objectives of the excavation engineering, the basicknowledge, techniques and basic theories on the drilling and blasting and explosivematerials.

The second part is on surface rock excavation. After introducing variousmethods of non-blast techniques, highlights of surface blasting, the application ofcomputer simulation and CAD technique are illustrated in detail.

The third part is on underground rock excavation. Before comprehensivelyillustrating technology and theories on the drilling and blasting, ventilation, loadingand haulage, ground reinforcement and support, computer application for under-ground excavation, varieties on mechanical excavation methods including tunnel-ing, shaft and TBM technique are also described in detail.

Due to the complex working environment for rock excavation, especially whenexplosives are used for rock blasting, the comprehensive description of varieties onsafety issues during excavation and necessary safety precautions and securitymeasures are provided as much as possible in the book.

To be more practical, a variety of technical methods and data from varioussources are provided in the book, making it a reference book covering both theo-retical and practical applications.

The targeted audience of this book are engineers, researchers and academicsengaged in rock excavation, but is equally applicable as a teaching reference forteachers and students in civil and mining engineering. The author sincerely hopesthat this book could be of some help to readers.

At the age of seventy, the author spent three years to finish this book. It could bethe last and one of the most important achievements in his whole life. It is hopedthat the younger generation would share his experience and knowledge from thisbook.

The author received strong support and encouragement from the friends andcolleagues during the writing process.

Special thanks are given to:The younger schoolmate, Dr. Ruilin Yang (Principal Research Fellow in Orica),

Mr. Archie Cheung (AMS Hong Kong), and Dr. Li Liang (Professor ofNortheastern University, China). They helped the author in reviewing somechapters.

Mr. Guy Bridges, the Director of Aecom Asia, who reviewed the manuscriptcompletely, gave valuable comments and helped me to improve the English of thisbook.

The staff of Atlas Copco and Sandvik who offered a lot of information andreviewed and improved the relevant contents in the book, and

My classmate and best friend, Prof. Baozhi Chen (former Dean of the School ofResources and Civil Engineering, Northeastern University, China) gave me active

x Preface

encouragement and strong support starting from the outset of the planning period ofthis book.

In the book the author shows his affection to his alma mater—NortheasternUniversity in China. Some important achievements of the author’s predecessors,which are yet glorious so far, are introduced in this book. Professor Xiaohe Xu, thesupervisor of the author and a respected scholar, wrote the Second Foreword of thebook, even at the age of over 80 years, which also greatly encouraged and inspiredauthor.

The author is especially honored that the respectable academician, ChinaAcademy of Engineering, President of China Society of Explosives and Blasting,Prof. Xuguang Wang wrote the First Foreword for the book. The author would liketo take this opportunity to express his sincere appreciation.

Hong Kong Dingxiang ZouJuly 2016

Preface xi

Acknowledgments

The author wishes to express his sincere gratitude to the following governmentdepartments, professional societies, manufacturing companies, publishers, andother professionals, as listed below, for their permission, facilities and release oftechnical data, release of literature, information, material and encouragement.I sincerely apologize if I missed anyone who also contributed for the publishing ofthis book.

The Head of the Geotechnical Engineering Office and the Director of the CivilEngineering and Development Department, the Government of the Hong KongSpecial Administrative Region for the permission to publish the figures, tables andtext concerned and give me a chance to introduce the successful experience to theworldwide on the geotechnical engineering and management of explosives andblasting works.

A.A. Balkema/RotterdamAECOM Asia Company Ltd.Archie Mining Services Limited and Mr. Archie CheungAssociation of Geotechnical & Geoenvironmental Specialists (Hong Kong)American Rock Mechanics AssociationAtlas CopcoAustralian Centre for Geomechanics (ACG)Australasian Tunnelling SocietyBARTZBeijing University of Science and Technology, Prof. Qu, ShijieBalavto Ltd. AjdovščinaBASF Construction Chemicals Europe AGCanadian Institute of Mining, Metallurgy and PetroleumCardox International LimitedCFI Technologies LLCChina University of GeosciencesChina Engineering Consultants, Inc., Taiwan

xiii

City University of Hong Kong and Prof. Raymond WongControlled Blasting Solutions Ltd.Durham Geo Slope Indicator (DGSI)Dyno Nobel Asia Pacific PTY LTDEditorial Office of Journal of Rock Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering(JRMGE)Electronic Journal of Geotechnical EngineeringELSEVIER Inc.EPC-FRANCEEuropean Federation of Explosives Engineers (EFEE)Herrenknecht GmbHILF Consulting Engineers, AustriaInstitute of Rock and Soil Mechanics Chinese Academy of Sciences andJRMGEInstitution of Mechanical EngineersInternational Tunnelling Association (AITES/ITA)International Society of Explosives EngineersJohn Wiley and Sons Inc.LLC Blast MakerLuleå University of TechnologyMr. Partha Das Sharma and the Weblog www.miningandblasting.wordpress.comNortheastern University, ChinaOrica and Dr. Yang, RuilinOslo Norwegian Group for Rock MechanicsProduct Technology Ltd.Rock DrillSandvik and TamrockScientific Research Publishing Inc. and Mr. Bijan EhsanzadehSinosteel Maanshan Institute of Mining Research Co., Ltd.Sing Tao Publishing Group Ltd.SISGEO S.r.l.Southwest Jiaotong University, China and Prof. J.C. ZhangSwedish Detonic Research Foundation (SveDeFo)Taylor & Francis GroupThe Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy (The AusIMM)The Institute of Materials, Minerals and Mining, UKThe Norwegian Tunnelling SocietyTunnelseisTunnel Talk direct by designMetallurgy Industry Press 冶金工业出版社

Science Press 科学出版社

National Defense Industry Press 国防工业出版社

xiv Acknowledgments

Ordnance Industry Press 兵器工业出版社

China Railway Press 中国铁道出版社

«Engineering Blasting» «工程爆破»«Blasting» «爆破»Tsinghua University Press 清华大学出版社

Acknowledgments xv

Contents

Part I Basics

1 Geology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.1 Categories of Rock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

1.1.1 Igneous Rocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.1.2 Sedimentary Rocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61.1.3 Metamorphic Rocks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

1.2 Properties of Rock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101.3 Geological Structures of Rock Mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

1.3.1 Folds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171.3.2 Faults. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181.3.3 Discontinuities: Bedding Planes, Joints,

and Fractures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201.3.4 The Compound Structures—Unconformities . . . . . . . . . 231.3.5 Geometric Representation of Structural Elements . . . . . 23

1.4 Properties of Rock Mass and Their Effects to RockExcavation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271.4.1 Characterization of Discontinuities in a Rock Mass. . . . 291.4.2 Field Investigations on Rock Mass Properties . . . . . . . . 311.4.3 Groundwater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311.4.4 The Effects of Rock Mass Properties

to the Excavation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321.5 Classification of Rock Sturdiness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

1.5.1 Protodyakonov’s Rock Classification. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371.5.2 “Three in One” Comprehensive Classification

of Rock Mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401.5.3 China’s “Standard for Engineering Classification

of Rock Masses” GB50218-2014 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

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2 Rock Drilling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492.1 Mechanism of Rock Breakage by Drilling and Drillability

of Rock. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492.1.1 Mechanism of Rock Breakage During Drilling . . . . . . . 492.1.2 Drillability of Rock and Its Classification . . . . . . . . . . . 52

2.2 Classification of Drilling Machines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 642.2.1 Classification on Drilling Manner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

2.3 Classification on Drilling Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 672.4 Rotary-Percussive Drilling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

2.4.1 Top Hammer Drilling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 692.4.2 Down-the-Hole (DTH) Drilling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

2.5 Rotary Drilling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 792.5.1 Rotary Drilling with Rolling Tricone Bits . . . . . . . . . . . 792.5.2 Rotary Drilling with Drag Bits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80

2.6 Rotary-Percussive Drilling Accessories. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 822.6.1 Integral Drill Steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 832.6.2 Type of Threads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 852.6.3 Shank Adapters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 862.6.4 Drill Rods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 872.6.5 Couplings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 892.6.6 Drill Bits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 902.6.7 The Service Lifetime of Drilling Accessories . . . . . . . . 94

2.7 Selection of Rock Drill and Accessories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 952.7.1 Fields of Application for Different Drilling

Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 952.7.2 Principles of Selection of Drilling Equipment

for Surface Excavation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 952.7.3 Selection of Drilling Equipment for Underground

Excavation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 962.7.4 Selection of Drilling Accessories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97

References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103

3 Explosives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1053.1 History of Explosives Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1053.2 Characters of Explosion of Explosives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1073.3 Types of Chemical Decomposition of Explosives

and the Detonation Process. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1083.3.1 Types of Chemical Decomposition of Explosives . . . . . 1083.3.2 Detonation Process of an Explosive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109

3.4 Oxygen Balance of Explosives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1143.5 Thermochemistry of Explosives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117

3.5.1 Detonation Heat of Explosives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1173.5.2 Detonation Temperature of Explosives . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1233.5.3 Detonation Volume of Explosives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125

xviii Contents

3.5.4 Detonation Pressure and Velocity of Detonationof Explosives. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126

3.6 Classification of Explosives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1273.6.1 Classification by Composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1273.6.2 Classification by Sensitivity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1283.6.3 Classification by Detonation Velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1283.6.4 Classification by Purpose (Application) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1293.6.5 Classification by IMDG Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130

3.7 Properties of Explosives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1323.7.1 Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1323.7.2 Strength and Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1363.7.3 Sympathetic Detonation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1413.7.4 Sensitivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1423.7.5 Water Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1433.7.6 Fumes and Fume Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1443.7.7 Desensitization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1473.7.8 Stability and Shelf Life for Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148

3.8 Commercial Explosives (Industrial Explosives) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1493.8.1 Nitroglycerin (NG)-Based Explosives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1503.8.2 AN-TNT-Based Explosives—Ammonite . . . . . . . . . . . . 1523.8.3 Water-Based Explosives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1563.8.4 Bulk Blasting Agent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161

References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169

4 Initiation System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1714.1 Detonators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171

4.1.1 Brief History on Detonators. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1714.1.2 Plain Detonators and Safety Fuses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1734.1.3 Electric Detonators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1774.1.4 Electromagnetic Detonators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1844.1.5 Shock Tube Detonators (Nonel System) . . . . . . . . . . . . 1854.1.6 Electronic (Digital) Detonators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194

4.2 Detonating Cord . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1974.3 Cast Boosters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202

5 Mechanisms of Rock Breakage by Blasting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2055.1 Shock Wave and Stress Wave in Rock Generated

by Explosion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2055.1.1 Shock Wave and Stress Wave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2055.1.2 Types of Stress Wave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2055.1.3 Reflection of Stress Wave from a Free Face . . . . . . . . . 206

5.2 Mechanism of Rock Breakage by Blasting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2075.2.1 Crushed Zone Produced by Shock Waves . . . . . . . . . . . 2085.2.2 Radial Cracking Zone Produced by Stress Waves . . . . . 209

Contents xix

5.2.3 Reflection of Stress Waves from Free Face . . . . . . . . . . 2105.2.4 Role of the Explosion Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210

5.3 Explosive’s Energy Distribution During Rock Blastingand Livingston’s Blasting Crater Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2145.3.1 Explosive’s Energy Distribution During Rock

Blasting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2145.3.2 Livingston’s Crater Blasting Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214

5.4 Rock Classification by Blastability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2185.4.1 Rock Blastability and Its Effective Factors . . . . . . . . . . 2185.4.2 Criterion of Rock Classification by Blastability . . . . . . . 2235.4.3 Rock Classification by Blastability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225

References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233

6 Blasting Assessment Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2356.1 Desk Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235

6.1.1 Gathering Information from Relevant Authorities . . . . . 2356.1.2 Identification of the Area Which Will Be Affected

by the Blasting Works. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2366.1.3 Contact and Collect Necessary Information

from All Units Within the Affected Areaby the Excavation Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236

6.1.4 Collect Necessary Information About ExistingGeotechnical Features, Meteorological, andHydrogeological Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237

6.2 Field Investigation and Condition Survey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2376.2.1 Investigation, Including Photography

and Surveying, of the Current Conditionof All Facilities Within the Zone of Influenceby Blasting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237

6.2.2 Field Investigation of All Geotechnical andGeological Features Within the Zone of Influenceby Blasting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238

6.2.3 Records of Existing Defects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2386.3 Analysis of the Potential Influence of Blasting Works

to the Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2396.3.1 Environment Impact Assessment (EIA)

for the Transport and Storage of Explosives . . . . . . . . . 2396.3.2 Potential Risk of Blasting Flyrock. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2396.3.3 Influence of Blasting Vibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2406.3.4 Influence of the Air Overpressure Produced

by Blasting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2436.3.5 Arrangement of the Monitoring Points

for All Sensitive Receivers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245

xx Contents

6.4 Proposals for Elimination or Controlling the AdverseInfluences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2456.4.1 Protective Measures for Prevent Blasting Flyrock . . . . . 2456.4.2 Limitation of Blasting Vibration

for All Protective Objects and Its Controls . . . . . . . . . . 2456.4.3 Limitation of Air Overpressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2546.4.4 Equipment for Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2586.4.5 Levels of Alert, Action, and Alarm of Blasting

Vibration and AOP and CorrespondingRequirements and Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259

6.5 Methodology of the Excavation by Blasting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2626.5.1 Arrangement of Excavation Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2626.5.2 Working Scale, Excavation Method,

and Main Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2626.5.3 Explosives to Be Used in the Project

and the Outline of Blasting Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2626.5.4 Security Measures, Scope of Safe Evacuation,

and Evacuation Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2636.5.5 Assessment of the Feasibility of an On-Site

Explosive Magazine, and Its Arrangementand Security Measures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263

Annex: Contents of a Blasting Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265

Part II Surface Excavation

7 Non-blasting Excavation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2697.1 Manual Splitting and Hydraulic Rock Breaker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269

7.1.1 Manual Splitting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2697.1.2 Hydraulic Hammer Breaker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270

7.2 Hydraulic Rock Splitters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2727.2.1 Wedge-Type Hydraulic Splitters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2727.2.2 Piston-Type Hydraulic Rock Splitter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274

7.3 Non-explosive Cracking Agent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2757.4 Other Non-explosive Excavation Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276

7.4.1 Controlled Foam Injection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2797.4.2 Gas Pressure Rock-Breaking Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2807.4.3 Pulse Plasma Rock Splitting Technology (PPRST) . . . . 282

References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283

8 Bench Blasting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2858.1 Geometrical Parameters of Bench Blasting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285

8.1.1 Blasthole Inclination, β . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2858.1.2 Blasthole Diameter, D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286

Contents xxi

8.1.3 Height of Bench, H . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2868.1.4 Burden, W . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2878.1.5 Spacing, S . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2918.1.6 Subdrilling, H . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2938.1.7 Stemming, L2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2948.1.8 Blasthole Pattern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295

8.2 Specific Charge (Powder Factor) and Explosive ChargingCalculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2978.2.1 Specific Charge (Powder Factor) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2978.2.2 Calculation of Explosive Charging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298

8.3 Charge Configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2998.3.1 Continuous Charge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2998.3.2 Continuous Decking Charges (Fig. 8.8b). . . . . . . . . . . . 2998.3.3 Isolated Deck Charges (Fig. 8.8c) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300

8.4 Firing Method and Firing Sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3018.4.1 Electric Detonator Initiation System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3018.4.2 Shock Tube Detonator Initiation System . . . . . . . . . . . . 3068.4.3 Electronic Detonator Firing Sequence Design . . . . . . . . 308

8.5 Delay Timing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312

9 Trench Blasting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3139.1 Blasthole Pattern and Firing Sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313

9.1.1 Blasthole Diameter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3139.1.2 Drilling Pattern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3139.1.3 Firing Sequence. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315

9.2 Explosive Charging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3159.3 Blasting Safety in Trench Excavation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323

10 Contour Blasting Technique for Surface Excavation . . . . . . . . . . . . 32510.1 Types of Contour Blasting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32510.2 Presplitting and Smooth Blasting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326

10.2.1 The Characters of Presplitting and SmoothBlasting Holes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326

10.2.2 The Mechanism of Presplitting and SmoothBlasting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326

10.3 Parameters of Presplitting and Smooth Blasting . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32910.3.1 Theoretical Approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32910.3.2 Empirical Approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331

10.4 Blast Design, Charging, and Initiation for Presplittingand Smooth Blasting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33310.4.1 Blast Design of Presplitting and Smooth Blasting . . . . . 33310.4.2 Explosive Charging for Presplitting and Smooth

Blasting Holes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334

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10.4.3 Stemming and Initiation of Contour BlastingHoles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335

10.5 Cushion Blasting and Line Drilling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33810.5.1 Cushion Blasting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33810.5.2 Line Drilling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340

References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341

11 Blasting Safety for Surface Blasting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34311.1 General Roles of Blasting Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34311.2 Flyrock and Its Control. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344

11.2.1 Flyrock and Its Cause of Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34411.2.2 Calculation of Flyrock Distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34611.2.3 Precaution and Protective Measured for Flyrock . . . . . . 350

11.3 Ground Vibration and Its Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35411.3.1 Ground Vibration Produced by Rock Blasting. . . . . . . . 35411.3.2 Factors which Affect the Magnitude of Ground

Vibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35811.3.3 Controlling Ground Vibration During Blasting . . . . . . . 36311.3.4 Prediction and Restriction Criteria of Ground

Vibration by Rock Blasting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36411.3.5 Instrumentation for Monitoring Blasting Vibration . . . . 369

11.4 Air Overpressure Produced by Surface Blastingand Its Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37011.4.1 Air Overpressure Produced by Surface Blasting . . . . . . 37011.4.2 Factors which Affect the Air Overpressure . . . . . . . . . . 37111.4.3 Estimation of Air Overpressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37411.4.4 Criteria for Limiting Air Overpressure in Surface

Blasting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37511.4.5 Measures for Reducing Air Overpressure

Produced by Surface Blasting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377

12 Blasting Models and Computer-Aided Designfor Bench Blasting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37912.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379

12.1.1 Blasting Models. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37912.1.2 Computer-Aided Blasting Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38012.1.3 Size Distribution of Rock Fragments in Blasting. . . . . . 380

12.2 Some Typical Blasting Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38312.2.1 Harries’ Mathematical Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38312.2.2 Favreau’s Model and BLASPA Simulation

Program. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38612.2.3 Kuz–Ram Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38812.2.4 BMMC Mathematical Model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392

Contents xxiii

12.2.5 Blasting Models for Jointed Rock Mass . . . . . . . . . . . . 40112.2.6 SABREX Model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405

12.3 Some Typical Program of Computer-Aided Design . . . . . . . . . . 40712.3.1 Blast Maker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40712.3.2 EXPERTIR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41012.3.3 Blast-Code. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41112.3.4 IESBBD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417

References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423

Part III Underground Excavation

13 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42713.1 Type and Features of Underground Excavation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42713.2 Relationship Between Underground Excavation

and Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42913.2.1 Effects of Underground Excavation

to the Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42913.2.2 Environment Restrictions to the Underground

Excavation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43013.3 Methods of Underground Excavation in Rock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433

14 Mechanical Underground Excavation in Rock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43514.1 Drilling and Breaking Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43514.2 Roadheader Excavation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43714.3 Raise Boring. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441

14.3.1 Methods of Raise Boring. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44114.3.2 Main Uses of Raise Boring in Civil Construction . . . . . 44514.3.3 Main Benefits of Raise Boring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446

14.4 Tunnel Boring Machine (TBM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44714.4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44714.4.2 Classification of TBM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44914.4.3 Mechanism of Rock Breakage by Cutting Tools . . . . . . 45314.4.4 Operation Systems of TBM. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45614.4.5 TBM Type Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462

14.5 Mechanical Excavation for Shaft Sinking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46214.5.1 Roadheader Excavation: Vertical Shaft Machine

(VSM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46414.5.2 Shaft Boring Machine (SBM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465

14.6 Bored Piles in Rock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46714.6.1 Small- to Medium-Sized Bored Pile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46914.6.2 Large-Diameter Concrete Bored Pile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469

References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471

xxiv Contents

15 Other Underground Excavation Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47315.1 Cut-and-Cover Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473

15.1.1 Construction Methods of Cut-and-Cover . . . . . . . . . . . . 47315.1.2 Support Methods for the Sidewalls

of the Excavation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47615.2 Jacked Box Tunneling and Pipe Jacking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478

15.2.1 Jacked Box Tunneling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47815.2.2 Pipe Jacking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480

References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482

16 Introduction to Underground Excavation by Drillingand Blasting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48316.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483

16.1.1 Working Cycle of Excavation by D & B . . . . . . . . . . . 48316.1.2 Working Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48316.1.3 Drilling Equipment, Explosives, and Blasting

Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48416.2 Excavation Methods for Tunnels and Caverns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485

16.2.1 Full-Face Excavation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48516.2.2 Partial Face Excavation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486

16.3 Excavation Methods for Shaft. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48816.3.1 Shaft Sinking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48816.3.2 Raise Driving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491

16.4 Explosive Charging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49616.4.1 Manual Charging. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49616.4.2 Pneumatic Charging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 498

References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 502

17 Contour Blasting for Underground Excavation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50317.1 The Characters of Contour Blasting for Underground

Excavation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50317.2 Charge Calculation for Smooth Blasting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50417.3 Blasthole Charging for Smooth Blasting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 508

18 Blasting Design for Underground Excavation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50918.1 Blasting Design for Tunnel (Cavern) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509

18.1.1 Hole Layout and Firing Sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50918.1.2 Types of Cut-Hole Pattern. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50918.1.3 Some Important Issues on Cut Holes

and Tunnel Blasting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51518.1.4 Parallel-Hole Cut Design: Cylinder Cuts . . . . . . . . . . . . 51818.1.5 Blasthole Pattern for Stoping. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52118.1.6 Lifter Holes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52318.1.7 Contour Holes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525

Contents xxv

18.1.8 Lineal Charge Concentration of Blasthole . . . . . . . . . . . 52518.1.9 General Information for Tunnel Blasting Design . . . . . . 526

18.2 Blasting Design for Shaft: Full Face Sinking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52918.2.1 Types of Cut-Hole Pattern. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52918.2.2 Blasting Parameters for Shaft Blasting . . . . . . . . . . . . . 531

18.3 Firing Sequence Design for Underground Blasting . . . . . . . . . . . 53218.3.1 Principle of Firing Sequence Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53218.3.2 Small Tunnel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53418.3.3 Large Tunnel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53518.3.4 Tunnel Blasting with Electronic Detonators. . . . . . . . . . 537

18.4 Computer-Aided Tunnel Design and Management . . . . . . . . . . . 53918.4.1 Sandvik ISURE® Software: Tunnel Management

Software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54018.4.2 Atlas Copco: Underground Manager MWD . . . . . . . . . 545

References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 551

19 Loading and Transportation for Underground Excavation . . . . . . . 55319.1 Loading and Haulage in Tunnel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 553

19.1.1 Wheel Loader and Dump Truck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55519.1.2 Continuous Mucking Machine and Shuttle

Car/Belt Conveyor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55619.1.3 Railway Transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 558

19.2 Loading and Hoisting in Shaft Excavation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56219.2.1 Manual Shaft Sinking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56219.2.2 Mechanizing Shaft Sinking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 562

References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 566

20 Ventilation for Underground Excavation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56720.1 Requirement of Ventilation for Underground Excavation . . . . . . 567

20.1.1 Requirement of Air Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56720.1.2 Fresh Air Supply Quantities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 568

20.2 Ventilation Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56820.2.1 Ventilation Machine: Fans. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56820.2.2 Requirements to Ventilation Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . 56820.2.3 Type of Fans for Underground Ventilation System . . . . 569

20.3 Design of Ventilation System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56920.3.1 Calculation of Discharge Volume of Ventilation . . . . . . 56920.3.2 Calculation of Ventilation Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57120.3.3 Design of Fan and Ventilation Duct . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57220.3.4 Choose of Van . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57320.3.5 Ventilation Duct . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 573

20.4 Ventilation Types for Underground Excavation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57520.4.1 Supply Ventilation (Press or Forcing Ventilation) . . . . . 57520.4.2 Extraction (Exhaust)-Only Ventilation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576

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20.4.3 Compound Type of Ventilation (Overlap System). . . . . 57720.5 Ventilation Optimization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 577References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 578

21 Ground Reinforcement and Support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57921.1 Effects of the Stability of Rock Mass to Underground

Excavation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57921.1.1 Concept of Ground Pressure and Stress Pattern

Around Underground Excavation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57921.1.2 Effects of Ground Conditions on Underground

Excavation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58421.1.3 Classification of Stability of Rock Mass for

Excavation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58421.2 Ground Prereinforcement for Excavation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 594

21.2.1 Ground Freezing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59421.2.2 Grouting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 600

21.3 Initial Support of Newly Excavated Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60721.3.1 Rock Dowels, Rock Bolts, and Rock Anchors . . . . . . . 60921.3.2 Types of Rock Bolts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60921.3.3 Application Guideline and Equipment

for Bolt Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61321.3.4 Installation of Wire Mesh on Rock Face . . . . . . . . . . . . 62121.3.5 Shotcrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62121.3.6 Steel Arch Ribs and Steel Lattice Arch Girders. . . . . . . 62321.3.7 Spiling (Forepoling) and Pipe Roofing . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62521.3.8 Portal Excavation and Temporary Support . . . . . . . . . . 628

21.4 Permanent Support for Underground Excavation . . . . . . . . . . . . 62821.4.1 Selection of Permanent Support. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62821.4.2 Types of Permanent Support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 629

21.5 New Austrian Tunneling Method (NATM). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 635References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 637

22 Monitoring and Instrumentation for Underground Excavation . . . . 63922.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63922.2 Settlement Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 640

22.2.1 Ground Settlement Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64022.2.2 Utility Settlement and Building Settlement

Monitoring. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64122.3 Displacement and Deformation Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 645

22.3.1 Inclinometer Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64522.3.2 Magnetic Extensometer and Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . 64722.3.3 Tiltmeter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64722.3.4 Crack Monitoring: Telltales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64922.3.5 Convergence Array Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 650

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22.3.6 Time-Domain Reflectometer Probe: SlopeMovement Detector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 654

22.4 Groundwater Monitoring. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65522.4.1 Standpipe and Piezometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65522.4.2 Vibrating Wire Piezometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65522.4.3 Pore Water Pressure Gauge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 658

22.5 Ground Vibration and AOP Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65822.6 Instrumentation Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 659

22.6.1 Instrumentation Selection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65922.6.2 Frequency of Monitoring Readings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66022.6.3 Warning Mechanism: 3A Levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 667

References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 667

23 Health and Safety, and Risk Management in UndergroundExcavation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66923.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66923.2 General Requirements for Underground Excavation . . . . . . . . . . 673

23.2.1 Employee Identification System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67323.2.2 Illumination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67323.2.3 Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67423.2.4 Signals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 675

23.3 Major Hazards and Risks and the Elimination Measures . . . . . . 67523.3.1 Ground Risk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67523.3.2 Ground Vibration Produced by Blasting . . . . . . . . . . . . 67623.3.3 Tunnel Boring Machine (TBM). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67823.3.4 Tunnel Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68023.3.5 Shaft Under Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68123.3.6 Tunnel Atmosphere and Air Quality Control. . . . . . . . . 68423.3.7 Fire and Rescue System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68523.3.8 Explosives and Blasting Works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 687

23.4 Explosives Stored in Site Magazine and Site Transportation . . . 69023.4.1 Site Explosives Magazine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69023.4.2 Explosives Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69523.4.3 Fire Extinguisher for Site Magazine

and Explosives Trucks and Its Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69623.4.4 Emergency Plan. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 697

References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 698

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