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1. Symbolic interaction system

The symbolic interaction perspective, also called symbolic interactionism, is a major

framework of sociological theory. This perspective relies on the symbolic meaning that

people develop and rely upon in the process of social interaction. Although symbolic

interactionism traces its origins toMax Weber'sassertion that individuals act according to

their interpretation of the meaning of their world, the American philosopherGeorge Herbert

Mead introduced this perspective toAmerican sociology in the 1920s.

The answer is in the definition of the situation that people create. Studies find that teenagers

are well informed about the risks of tobacco, but they also think that smoking is cool, that

they themselves will be safe from harm, and that smoking projects a positive image to their

peers. So, the symbolic meaning of smoking overrides that actual facts regarding smoking

and risk.

Some fundamental aspects of our social experience and identities, likerace andgender, canbe understood through the symbolic interactionist lens.

Having no biological bases at all, both race and gender are social constructs that function

based onwhat we believe to be true about people, given what they look like. We use

socially constructed meanings of race and gender to help us decide who to interact with,

how to do so, and to help us determine, sometimes inaccurately, the meaning of a person's

words or actions.

Critics of this theory claim that symbolic interactionism neglects the macro level of social

interpretation—the “big picture.” In other words,symbolic interactionists may miss the larger

issues of society by focusing too closely on the “trees” rather than the “forest”.The perspective also receives criticism for slighting the influence of social forces and

institutions on individual interactions. In the case of smoking, thefunctionalist

perspective might miss the powerful role that the institution of mass media plays in shaping

perceptions of smoking through advertising, and by portraying smoking in film and

television. In the cases of race and gender, this perspective would not account for social

forces like systemic racism orgender discrimination, which strongly influence what we

believe race and gender mean.

2. Conflict theory

Conflict theory emphasizes the role of coercion and power in producing social order. This

perspective is derived from the works ofKarl Marx, who saw society as fragmented into

groups that compete for social and economic resources. Social order is maintained by

domination, with power in the hands of those with the greatest political, economic, and

social resources. When consensus exists, it is attributable to people being united around

common interests, often in opposition to other groups.

Marx theorized that the work of producing consensus was done in the "superstructure" of

society--which is composed of socialinstitutions, political structures, and culture--and what

it produced consensus for was the "base," the economic relations of production (Read more

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about Marx's theory of base and superstructure here). Following on the heels of Marx,

Italian scholar and activistAntonio Gramsci argued that consensus to rule is achieved in

large part throughcultural hegemony, which refers to the dominant group's ability to attain

consent to their rule through ideas, norms, values, and beliefs.

According to conflict theory, inequality exists because those in control of a disproportionate

share of society’s resources actively defend their advantages. The masses are not bound tosociety by their shared values, but by coercion at the hands of those in power. This

perspective emphasizessocial control, not consensus and conformity. Groups and

individuals advance their own interests, struggling over control of societal resources.

Those with the most resources exercisepower over others with inequality and power

struggles result. There is great attention paid to class,race, and gender in this perspective

because they are seen as the grounds of the most pertinent and enduring struggles in

society.

Whereas most othersociological theories focus on the positive aspects of society,conflict

perspective focuses on the negative, conflicted, and ever-changing nature of society.Unlikefunctionalists who defend the status quo, avoidsocial change, and believe people

cooperate to effect social order, conflict theorists challenge the status quo, encourage social

change (even when this means social revolution), and believe rich and powerful people

force social order on the poor and the weak.

Conflict theorists, for example, may interpret an “elite” board of regents raising tuition to pay

for esoteric new programs that raise the prestige of a local college as self-serving rather

than as beneficial for students.

Whereas American sociologists in the 1940s and 1950s generally ignored the conflictperspective in favor of the functionalist, the tumultuous 1960s saw American sociologists

gain considerable interest in conflict theory. They also expanded Marx's idea that the key

conflict in society was strictly economic. Today, conflict theorists find social conflict between

any groups in which the potential forinequality exists: racial,gender, religious, political,

economic, and so on. Conflict theorists note that unequal groups usually have conflicting

values and agendas, causing them to compete against one another. This constant

competition between groups forms the basis for the ever-changing nature of society. Critics

of the conflict perspective suggest that it glosses over the complexities and nuances of

everyday life and relationships of power.

3. Functionalism theory

Thefunctionalist perspective, also called functionalism, is one of the major theoretical

perspectives in sociology. It has its origins in the works ofEmile Durkheim, who was

especially interested in how social order is possible or how society remains relatively stable.

Functionalism interprets each part of society in terms of how it contributes to the stability of

the whole society. Society is more than the sum of its parts; rather, each part of society is

functional for the stability of the whole society.

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The different parts are primarily the institutions of society, each of which is organized to fill

different needs and each of which has particular consequences for the form and shape of

society. The parts all depend on each other.

For example, the government, or state, provides education for the children of the family,

which in turn pays taxes on which the state depends to keep itself running. The family isdependent upon the school to help children grow up to have good jobs so that they can

raise and support their own families. In the process, the children become law-abiding,

taxpaying citizens, who in turn support the state.

If all goes well, the parts of society produce order, stability, and productivity. If all does not

go well, the parts of society then must adapt to recapture a new order, stability, and

productivity.

Functionalism emphasizes the consensus and order that exist in society, focusing on social

stability and shared public values. From this perspective, disorganization in the system,

such asdeviant behavior, leads to change because societal components must adjust to

achieve stability.

When one part of the system is not working or is dysfunctional, it affects all other parts and

creates social problems, which leads to social change.

The functionalist perspective achieved its greatest popularity among American sociologists

in the 1940s and 1950s. While European functionalists originally focused on explaining the

inner workings of social order, American functionalists focused on discovering the functions

of human behavior. Among these American functionalist sociologists isRobert K. Merton, who divided human functions into two types: manifest functions, which are intentional and

obvious, and latent functions, which are unintentional and not obvious.

The manifest function of attending a church or synagogue, for instance, is to worship as part

of a religious community, but its latent function may be to help members learn to discern

personal from institutional values. With common sense, manifest functions become easily

apparent. Yet this is not necessarily the case for latent functions, which often demand a

sociological approach to be revealed.

Functionalism has been critiqued by many sociologists for its neglect of the often negativeimplications of social order. Some critics, like Italian theoristAntonio Gramsci, claim that the

perspective justifies the status quo, and theprocess of cultural hegemony which maintains

it. Functionalism does not encourage people to take an active role in changing their social

environment, even when such change may benefit them. Instead, functionalism sees active

social change as undesirable because the various parts of society will compensate in a

seemingly natural way for any problems that may arise.References

Anderson, M.L. and Taylor, H.F. (2009). Sociology: The Essentials. Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth.

CliffsNotes.com. Three Major Perspectives in Sociology. 22 Jun 2011. http://www.cliffsnotes.com/study_guide/topicArticleId-26957,articleId-26837.html.

4. Feminist theory

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Feminist theory is one of the major contemporary sociological theories, which analyzes the

status of women and men in society with the purpose of using that knowledge to better

women's lives.Feminist theorists also question the differences between women, including

how race, class, ethnicity, sexuality, nationality, and age intersect with gender.

Contemporary sociologistPatricia Hill Collins is known throughout the field for

developing, deploying, and popularizing the concept ofintersectionality in her theory and

research.

 Feminist theory is most concerned with giving a voice to women and highlighting the

various ways women have contributed to society.

There are four main types of feminist theory that attempt to explain the societal differences

between men and women:

• Gender Differences: The gender difference perspective examines how women's

location in, and experience of, social situations differ from men's. For example, culturalfeminists look to the different values associated with womanhood and femininity as a reason

why men and women experience the social world differently. Other feminist theorists believe

that the different roles assigned to women and men within institutions better explain gender

difference, including the sexual division of labor in the household. Existential and

phenomenological feminists focus on how women have been marginalized and defined as

the“other” in patriarchal societies. Women are thus seen as objects and are denied the

opportunity for self-realization. To learn more about how this perspective translates to

research and applies to current events, check out these articles:

• Why Breastfeeding in Public is Taboo

• Let's Talk about the Orgasm Gap, Baby

• Gender Inequality: Gender-inequality theories recognize that women's location in,

and experience of, social situations are not only different but also unequal to men's. Liberal

feminists argue that women have the same capacity as men for moral reasoning and

agency, but that patriarchy, particularly the sexist patterning of the division of labor, has

historically denied women the opportunity to express and practice this reasoning. Women

have been isolated to theprivate sphere of the household and, thus, left without a voice in

the public sphere. Even after women enter thepublic sphere, they are still expected tomanage the private sphere and take care of household duties and child rearing. Liberal

feminists point out that marriage is a site of gender inequality and that women do not benefit

from being married as men do. Indeed, married women have higher levels of stress than

unmarried women and married men. According to liberal feminists, the sexual division of

labor in both the public and private spheres needs to be altered in order for women to

achieve equality. To learn more about how sociologists study gender inequality and why it

remains an important area of study, check out these articles: