there are five assumptions about this theory

EducationalPsychologySpring2015

Basic Assumptions of Soc. Cog. Theory

The social cognitive theory is the “theoretical perspective that focuses on how people learn by observing

others and how they eventually assume control over their own behavior” (Ormrod, 2014, p. 299). This

theory has changed and evolved over time. At first the theory was associated with the idea of

behaviorism. This theory has developed

data that proves that learning pertains to experiences individuals have in the different environments they

live, by observing others and learning from what they observe.

There are five assumptions about this theory:

1. People can learn by observing others:

Most of the knowledge we acquire is by trial-error process. The process in which we learn that certain

acts will bring desirable consequences. As we grow up we acquire knowledge, but most of the times we

don’t have to experiment personally, we can learn by observing others. By observing what others do we

can learn what to do and what not to do. An example of this could be a two year old learning how to eat

properly by observing his parents or learn how to make a block tower by observing an older sibling.

2. Learning is an internal process that may or may not be reflected in behavior change:

“Social cognitive theorists view learning as a mental change that may or may not produce a change in

individuals present or future behavior” (Ormrod, 2014). In other words learning is like food; when we

inhere food it goes in our body and our body processes it. No one is able to know exactly what we ate

unless we tell them; but after some time someone else will be able to know if we eat healthy or not

because of our health. An example of this assumption will be that we will never touch fire because we

have learned that it burns, we won’t try it even if we see someone else do it. Another example could be

empathy acts, a child will console her mother if she is sad because he has seen his parents' have empathy

towards others. This is an example of knowledge that is learned, stored and used in the future when it is

needed.

3. Cognitive processes influence motivation as well as learning:

“Cognition and motivation are key ingredients for the process of learning” (Ormrod, 2014). Reasoning is

important in order to retain material and be able to actually learn the material; but to be able to learn

material it is also important to be motivated about learning. Motivation involves self-efficacy; which is

the power we have to believe in ourselves and that we are capable of doing certain things.

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4. People and their environments mutually influence each other:

“In social cognitive theory, environmental, behavioral, and personal variables mutually influence each

other” (Ormrod, 2014, p. 301).

The figure above is a vast explanation of this assumption. This assumption pertains to the idea that

environments influence people that the reverse is also true and this also true with behaviors. We have

learned from many theories that people are influenced by the environments that surround them. For

example Vygotsky theory of cognitive development states that children learn by and are influenced by the

environments. But is also true that people influence their environment by the choices they make, (the

behaviors they have or choose to elect). For example, a child decides to make a bad choice in school and

fights with one of his peers. This behavior has a consequence, a teacher send a note home. This boy and

his behavior have influenced the classroom environment and his home environment.

5.Behavior becomes increasingly self-regulated

As young individuals we have people in our different environments that take decisions for and make

choices but as we grow up this changes. Through time individuals gain experience and begin to take

charge of their behaviors and decisions. As people go through the process of becoming adults they

self-regulate their decisions and their lives. A good example of this will be a high school graduate that

leaves home to go to college. From that time a person will make most of his decisions, regulating its own

life.

Here is a helpful link to a website that can help you better understand social cognitive theory. This

website contains basic information about this theory, as well as examples of the five assumptions of this

theory. It also contains pictures that are related to the five assumptions. In this website you can also

access articles about Education.

http://www.education.com/reference/article/social-cognitive-theory/

Modeling

There are three forms of Modeling:

Live model: A live model is someone who demonstrates or acts a behavior out and students follow

this behavior. An example of a live model is a teacher who decides to eat a candy bar for lunch

instead of a healthy snack. This is an action that students may want to follow because it is a sugary

snack.

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Symbolic Model: This is a model from a movie or book that a person is reading. For example

from the book The Hunger Games, Katniss is a model to girls fighting for what they love and by

volunteering herself for her only sister. A bad model would be from a shooting video game that a

child plays forever.

Verbal Instruction: This model happens when a teacher tells the students what they are

specifically to do for an assignment. Either they are instructions for the students to complete the

task, or they are poor and leave the students in confusion. Verbal instruction can also come from

the home.

There are different behaviors that can be learned through the act of modeling:

Academic Skills: An example of this would be when a teacher shows a problem to work out with

her students step by step. The students, observe, work out the problem with the teacher, and now

have the academic skill of that particular topic. By modeling the academic skill, you are teaching

students to do a certain task as well as the students learning what their thinking process is while

doing the task.

Aggression: This behavior can be modeled anywhere. Children that are aggressive tend to have

learned this behavior through someone modeling it. For example, if a student sees their dad

yelling at their mother all of the time, that child might think that it is okay to yell at others to get

their point across. Another example of an aggressive model would be if a student’s favorite video

game includes the act of stealing to win the game, that student may be more prone to stealing than

one who has not played this game.

(The act of aggression can be modeled through any of the three forms of modeling above.)

Characteristics of an Effective Model:

There are three important characteristics that an effective model has and portrays. The first of those

characteristics would be that the model is competent. The children have to be able to understand what is

being taught to them. Students tend to follow the path of the most intelligent students in the class. The

next characteristic would have to be prestige and power. Some examples of a model with prestige and

power would be the president, the softball coach, and etc. Students who aren't in power always look up to

those students who seem to have everything together and hold those powerful positions. The last

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characteristic of an effective model would be behaviors relevant to learners own circumstances. This

means that a boy adopts behaviors that are boy like and girls doing the same. An example would be a boy

playing football and a girl being a dancer.

Conditions for Modeling

Social cognitive theorist believe that there are four conditions that are necessary to successfully learn

from models.

Attention - in order for a student to effectively learn from a model you must pay attention to what is put

in front of you. Proper procedures must be put in place in order for it to flow smoothly.

Retention - After paying attention to the model each student must remember what the model was showing

them. Students are more likely to remember the model if they were able to make more than one

connection. As a teacher you can tell the class step by step what you are doing as well as other ways to

view the big picture.

Motor reproduction - This is where the student repeats the modeled behavior. They will be able to better

demonstrate the behavior if right after they learn the behavior they demonstrate it and get helpful

feedback. But if the student cannot do the activity, then the learning will not happen for that student. It is

important to pick activities or assignment appropriate for all students.

Motivation - The learner must be motivated in order to perform the behavior. If the students do not feel

that behavior is correct for themselves they will not do it. In order for the students to be motivated to do

their work, the teacher needs to be motivated as well with the right styles of teaching.

When all four factors are present this can be a very effective teaching method. (Ormrod, 2014, p. 308).

This is a link to an article titled: Modeling Behavior for Children Has Long-Lasting Effects. This is an

article about modeling and the effects on children. It talks about a recent study done in Australia to

Kindergarteners.

http://psychcentral.com/news/2010/05/27/modeling-behavior-for-children-has-long-lasting-effects/14139.

html

The Big Picture

Social cognitive theory is a theoretical perspective that focuses on how people learn by observing others

and how they eventually assume control over their own behavior (Ormrod, 2014. pg. 299). This

perspective is a combination of early behaviorism and cognitive process theories. We can thank Mr.

Albert Bandura at Stanford University for his large part in developing the social cognitive theory along

with others including Dale Schunk and Barry Zimmerman. Modeling, reciprocal causation, self-efficacy

and self-regulation form the base ideas of the social cognitive theory.

Modeling is demonstrating a behavior for another person or observing and imitating another person’s

behavior (Ormrod, 2014. Pg. 304). Behaviors and skills that can be learned through modeling include

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http://educationalpsychologyspring2015.wikispaces.com//Chapter+10+Social+Cognitive+Views+of+Learning



academic skills, aggression and interpersonal skills. Effective models are living people, real or fictional

characters, or verbal instruction by someone having similar traits such as background, gender or culture.

They also should be competent in the given area. Essential conditions for successful modeling are:

attention to the model, memory of what the model does, capacity for motor reproduction of the modeled

behavior, and motivation to exhibit the modeled behavior. When all four of these factors are combined

modeling can become a very effective learning technique.

Reciprocal Causation is the interdependence of environmental, behavioral, and personal variables in

influencing learning and development (Ormrod, 2014 pg. 301). In the learner’s world these three factors

continuously have an effect directly on each other.

Self-efficacy is belief that one is capable of executing certain behaviors or achieving certain goals

(Ormrod, 2014. Pg. 308). Self-efficacy can be also be described as ones overall sense of themselves in a

specific task or situation. It is not based on feelings like self-esteem or self-concept, but rather judgment.

Teachers and student self-efficacy are both very important in the classroom but it starts with the teacher.

We must believe that our effort and effective instructional strategies will make a difference in our

student’s lives. If we aren't confident in doing so then how can the students be?

Self –regulation is the process of setting goals for oneself and engaging in behaviors that lead to goal

attainment (Ormrod, 2014, pg. 314). It can easily be described as controlling your actions and dealing

with consequences. Self-regulated behavior components are broken down into before, during, and after

response phases. Starting with self-determined standards and goals as the before response, emotional

regulation, self-instructions, and self-monitoring as the during response, and self-evaluation and

self-imposed contingencies as the after response.

Reciprocal Causation

The “interdependence of environmental, behavioral, and personal variables in influencing learning and

development”. The main idea of this is that environments, behaviors, and individuals can influence each

other reciprocally. This idea involves all of the main things we learned about this chapter; we learn from

environments, we learn by observing others, we do cognitive thinking, make decisions, model what we

think is a good behavior, and then we become part of the environments, we influence environments with

the behavior we decide to adopt, and this way all is connected like a cycle.

For more information on Reciprocal Causation, please watch the video below.

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Here is a link to a page that explains what reciprocal causation is. This page contains videos and models

about reciprocal causation

http://education-portal.com/academy/lesson/albert-bandura-social-cognitive-theory-and-vicarious-learnin

g.html

Self-Efficacy

Self-efficacy is one of the four conditions of motivation. It is the learner’s self-constructive judgment

he/she has about his/her own ability to achieve a specific goal or task (Ormrod, 2014, p. 308). It is simply

ones sense of self ability. When the learner has a high sense of self-efficacy they are more likely to

attempt a new task. Thus self-efficacy plays a role in the learners’ outcome expectations (Ormrod, 2014,

p. 309). When a learner experiences low self-efficacy they are less likely to believe they can attempt a

new task and have success (Ormrod, 2014, p. 308).

Self-efficacy is different than self-concept or self-control. Both are general, broad range, feeling/belief

self-view (Ormrod, 2014, p. 310). (e.g. I am proud of the class and their behavior today.) Self-efficacy is

more specific task or situation and involves judgment (Ormrod, 2014, p. 310). (e.g. I can learn a new song

on the piano.) Learners tend to choose tasks they believe they can accomplish due to past successes and

failures, so someone who believes they can learn a new song on the piano, most likely plays piano and

has learned new songs in the past.

Self-efficacy can have an effect on behavior and cognition in four ways. One’s choices play a major roll

(Ormrod, 2014, p. 310). Choosing activities that will help one learn different specific tasks and goals

changes the outcome of learning. If one chooses to take piano lessons, in due time, they are expecting to

learn how to play the piano. Goal setting is the second step. The learner must believe they can achieve

this goal. Goals often take gender stereotypes such as girls are more likely to pursue a carrier in health,

education, or social services, and boys lean towards math and science (Ormrod, 2014, p. 310). Effort and

persistence, the third, has an effect as well. If a learner has high self-efficacy they tend to pick new tasks

and keep trying to achieve it until they have success. A learner with low self-efficacy tends to give little

effort and gives up easily (Ormrod, 2014, p. 310). Last is learning and achieving. High self-efficacy

learners have a more successful outcome than low self-efficacy learners. When one puts in the time and

effort, one achieves learning successfully, and a higher self-efficacy is achieved.

Low Self-efficacy

Overconfidence can be helpful, as long as it is not excessive. Younger children believe they can do things

that are not practical (e.g. flying like superman), this obviously can be a bad outcome. As children

become older, wiser, and experience successes and failures, they become more realistic in what they can

and cannot do. (Ormrod, 2014, p. 310). When a learner is a bit overconfident, they are more likely to take

risks and learn new things. Within self-efficacy is a two part tear, learning and performance. Self-efficacy

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learning is what one believes he/she can learn, while self-efficacy for performance is what a learner

already has mastered (Ormrod, 2014, p. 311).

There are five factors that affect self-efficacy in a learner.

One, previous successes and failures have the biggest impact on a learner. If the learner tries a specific

task and succeeds, than their self-efficacy raises, and they are more likely to take other new similar tasks.

If the learner experiences a failure their self-efficacy lowers, and they are less likely to try similar new

tasks. The best way a teacher can help raise learners self-efficacy is to give them a variety of tasks in

which they are likely to succeed. Each student is different, so it is important to know their abilities when

giving them tasks. The teacher does not want to set the learner up for failure. Scaffolding is a great way

for teachers to help their learners to reach higher levels of success, and in return they will gain

self-efficacy. (Ormrod, 2014, p. 311). Reliant self-efficacy is a term used when a learner has experienced

success and their self-efficacy is higher than when they experience failure and realize it is a mere set

back, and they keep trying (Ormrod, 2014, p. 312).

Second,Current emotional state is a factor that can affect the development of self-efficacy. The learners

mood can take a turn for the worst (anxious, stress, depression) causing a low self-efficacy (Ormrod,

2014, p. 313).

The third is messages from others which can contribute to the development as well. It can take a toll of

the learners ability to develop a lowering self-efficacy when others say negative remarks and put downs.

It can also contribute to raising one’ self-efficacy if the remarks are positive. Teachers can remind

students of past successes to boost their self-efficacy and encourage them to keep trying (Ormrod, 2014,

p. 313).

Four, seeing others have success is another way learners develop self-efficacy. Have you ever said, “If

they can do it, then so can I.” You probably would not be sitting in college today if you did not know

someone who succeeded in getting a college degree. Learners develop a higher self-efficacy when they

see success modeled in their peers (Ormrod, 2014, p. 313). On the other hand, when learners see others

fail at a task, they are less likely to try it themselves.

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Lastly, Collective self-efficacy is when a learner has confidence is succeeding when they are in a group

setting or with the help of others (Ormrod, 2014, p. 313). Many colleges have a success class that one

must take as part of their prerequisite courses. These courses teach students that two brains is better than

one. In writing classes professors encourage students to have many people look over your writing before

turning it in. This helps learners to become successful writers. This Wiki project is a form of Collective

self-efficacy.

It is most important for teachers to encompass a high self-Efficacy for themselves. Students will model

what they see. Collective self-efficacy is used among teacher groups. Within a school system, teachers

divide up their strengths so that they can be more confident in what they are teaching. Students feel the

confidence level, and enthusiasm from their teachers. When a teacher has high-efficacy they tend to: put

more effort into their teaching, be more willing to help struggling students, be more willing to experiment

with new concepts, and set higher standards for themselves and their students (Ormrod, 2014, p. 313).

Teachers must be careful not to have too much self-efficacy because this can turn the students off, and

create an unreachable atmosphere for the students.

This page contains awesome information about self-efficacy and children. It explains the importance of

self-efficacy on children and how this influences their creativity. It also has link to other pages about

self-efficacy.

http://artfulparent.com/2012/01/guest-post-self-efficacy-and-childrens-creativity.html

Self-Regulation

This is many different behaviors put into one overall category. Overall this is controlling your actions and

dealing with the consequences.

Self- Determined Standards and goals: Each individual determines the goals and standards they set for

themselves. When they set these this effects the choices they make. Typically these goals and standards

are set based on other people that these children model. This may be a mother, father, friends and even

famous people they look up too. When you are surrounded by many of your peers you tend to have the

same aspirations. In high school if you surround yourself with friends that want to make the best grades

and go to the best college you will want to do the same usually.

When an individual chooses their own goals they are more motivated to achieve them. One way to boost

self-regulation is to give students the opportunity to set their own goals. This may be as simple as what

book they will read for a book report. As a teacher we need to encourage students to set realistic goals yet

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ones that will provide a challenge. At this time we must make it clear to the students that “perfection” is

not realistic. In order to learn you must make mistakes and learn from them. (Ormrod, 2014, p. 317).

Emotion Regulation: As a part of self-regulation we regulate our emotions in the same way. We control

what emotions we let others see. We do this because we do not want a negative outcome prompted by

emotion. They may also reinterpret events where they have a positive end. Typically children who can

control their emotions are more likely to have more friends and above average social skills. On the other

hand there are those children who struggle to control their emotions and this can lead to depression. These

children also have a higher risk of being bullied. (Ormrod, 2014, p. 317).

Self-Instructions: These are five steps that teach individuals how to appropriately act in certain

situations. This teaches them how to have a little reminder in their head of what the right thing to do is.

1. Cognitive modeling – The teacher repeats instruction aloud while carrying out the activity.

2. Overt, external guidance – The teacher repeats instruction while the students preform the activity.

3. Overt self-guidance – The learner repeats the instructions aloud while preforming the activity.

4. Faded, overt self-guidance – The learner/student whispers instruction while doing the activity.

5. Covert self-instruction – The learner thinks about the instructions while doing the activity.

When teaching self-instruction this can benefit students who exhibit behavioral problems. This can be a

helpful way to work with them. For some learners this may also advance their athletic skills. (Ormrod,

2014, p. 317).

Self-monitoring: When you observe yourself in action you are demonstrating self-monitoring or some

know this as self-observation. When you set a goal and are working toward it you must see the progress

you are making. If there is a student who is continuously off task you may make them a chart to see how

many times they go off task. Then this student may realize how much time they are wasting and decide to

change their behavior. You may sweeten this up be offering a small reward at the end of each week if

they are doing what they are suppose to majority of the time. In some cases you can video record them

and show them how they look in the eyes of everyone else. This may help control some behaviors if not

much else has seemed to help. (Ormrod, 2014, p. 318).

Self-evaluation: You not only have to monitor your behavior but you must ask place judgment on them.

You can do this by using one or all of these strategies: (Ormrod, 2014, p. 318).

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Have a daily or weekly journal that students will write in talking about the strengths and

weaknesses on past performance either at school or at home.

Create small groups in which they will discuss each other’s work and how they feel about it.

Each student can keep a portfolio of their best work and write a self-evaluation on it. This would

include what they think they did well on the assignment, what they did not do so well with and

what they will do differently next time.

Self-imposed contingencies: When you give oneself reinforcement and punishment for their behavior.

When you achieve something you have been working very hard at you reinforce that by consciously

giving yourself a pat on the back. Then when you do not do so well you feel bad so you are punishing

yourself. (Ormrod, 2014, p. 319).

Self-regulated learning: Learners must direct and monitor their learning. There is a process which

involves meta-cognition (Ormrod, 2014, p. 320).

Goal Setting – Self-regulating learners know what they what to accomplish when they read or

study. They may want to learn certain facts or just a basic understanding to pass the exam.

Planning – Self-regulating learners determine ahead of time how best to use the time and

resources they have available for learning task.

Self-motivation – self-regulating learners typically have high self-efficacy regarding their abilities

to accomplish a learning task successfully. They use a variety of strategies to keep themselves on

task.

Attention control –Self-regulating learners try to focus their attention on the subject matter at hand

and to clear their minds of potentially distracting thoughts and emotions.

Flexible use of learning strategies – Self-regulating learners choose different learning strategies

depending on specific goals they hope to accomplish.

Self-monitoring – Self-regulated learners continually monitor their progress toward their goals for

studying. Ex. When you are reading a book and continuously stop and make sure you are

understanding what you are reading.

Appropriate help-seeking - Truly self-regulating learners don’t necessarily try to do everything on

their own. On the contrary, they recognize when they need other people’s help and actively seek it

out.

Self-evaluation – Self-regulating learners determine whether the things they've learned have

helped them meet their goals. Ideally they also use their self-evaluations to adjust their use of

various learning strategies on future occasions.

Promoting self-regulated learning: We must teach students the different kinds of cognitive processes

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that prompt learning. Here are some suggested strategies: (Ormrod, 2014, p. 322).

Encourage students to set their own goals and monitor their progress toward them.

Let the students work without teacher direction. They need to have both individual work and

small-groups. When working in groups this allows them to learn from one another and figure it

out using their previous knowledge.

Every once in a while assign things that give students the freedom to choose their goals and

determine the use of their time.

Teach them time management skills. You can give them example they can do at home on their

own but you can also practice this in the everyday classroom.

Continuously ask students to evaluate their work performance. You may also compare these to the

teacher assessment.

Self-regulated problem solving: Directing one’s effort to overcome a difficult task. This contains some of

the same components as self-regulated learning. Here are some steps that may be taken to deal with

problem solving.

1. Identify the problem

2. Come up with possible solutions

3. Predict the likely outcome of each possible solution

4. Choose the best solution

5. Describe the steps required to carry out the solution

6. Preform required steps

7. Evaluate and record the results

These steps help in many interpersonal problems. Another choice could be peer mediation. This is where

students help one another come to the right solution only using positivism. When you use peer mediation

there are five helpful questions that should be answered by each side.

1. Define the conflict (problem).

2. Explain their own perspective and needs.

3. Explain the other person’s perspective and needs.

4. Identify at least 3 possible solutions to the conflict.

5. Reach an agreement that addresses the needs of both parties.

When students practice this over and over again they will become more likely to solve problems on their

own using the help of a mutual friend. (Ormrod, 2014, p. 322).

This a link to a Scholastic self-regulation article. This article explains the basics of self-regulation and

children, how to deal with stress and how self-regulation matures among age.

http://teacher.scholastic.com/professional/bruceperry/self_regulation.htm

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