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These courseware materials are to be used in conjunction with Software Engineering: A Practitioner’s Approach, 6/e and are provided with permission by R.S. Pressman & Associates, Inc., copyright © 1996, 2001, 2005 1

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Software Engineering:Software Engineering:A Practitioner's A Practitioner's Approach, 6/eApproach, 6/e

Part 4Part 4copyright © 1996, 2001, 2005

R.S. Pressman & Associates, Inc.

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when used in conjunction with Software Engineering: A Practitioner's Approach.Any other reproduction or use is expressly prohibited.

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Software Engineering: A Practitioner’s Software Engineering: A Practitioner’s Approach, 6/eApproach, 6/e

Chapter 21Chapter 21Project Management Project Management

ConceptsConcepts

copyright © 1996, 2001, 2005

R.S. Pressman & Associates, Inc.

For University Use OnlyMay be reproduced ONLY for student use at the university level

when used in conjunction with Software Engineering: A Practitioner's Approach.Any other reproduction or use is expressly prohibited.


The 4 The 4 P’sP’s

PeoplePeople — the most important element of — the most important element of a successful projecta successful project

ProductProduct — the software to be built — the software to be built ProcessProcess — the set of framework activities — the set of framework activities

and software engineering tasks to get and software engineering tasks to get the job donethe job done

ProjectProject — all work required to make the — all work required to make the product a realityproduct a reality



PeoplePeople must be must be organizedorganized to to perform software work effectivelyperform software work effectively

Communication with the Communication with the customer must occur so that customer must occur so that productproduct scope and requirementsscope and requirements are understoodare understood

A A processprocess must be selected that is must be selected that is appropriateappropriate for the people and for the people and the productthe product



The The projectproject must be planned by must be planned by estimatingestimating effort and calendar effort and calendar time to accomplish work tasks: time to accomplish work tasks: defining work products, defining work products, establishing quality establishing quality checkpoints, and establishing checkpoints, and establishing mechanisms to monitor and mechanisms to monitor and control work defined by the plancontrol work defined by the plan


Software Software ProjectsProjects

size delivery deadline budgets and costs application domain technology to be implemented system constraints user requirements available resources

size delivery deadline budgets and costs application domain technology to be implemented system constraints user requirements available resources

Factors that influence the end result ...


Project Management Project Management ConcernsConcerns

staffing?

cost estimation?project scheduling?

project monitoring?other resources?

customer communication?

risk assessment?product quality?

measurement?


StakeholdersStakeholders Senior managersSenior managers who define the business issues who define the business issues

that often have significant influence on the project.that often have significant influence on the project. Project (technical) managersProject (technical) managers who must plan, who must plan,

motivate, organize, and control the practitioners motivate, organize, and control the practitioners who do software work.who do software work.

PractitionersPractitioners who deliver the technical skills that who deliver the technical skills that are necessary to engineer a product or application.are necessary to engineer a product or application.

CustomersCustomers who specify the requirements for the who specify the requirements for the software to be engineered and other stakeholders software to be engineered and other stakeholders who have a peripheral interest in the outcome.who have a peripheral interest in the outcome.

End-usersEnd-users who interact with the software once it is who interact with the software once it is released for production use.released for production use.


Software TeamsSoftware Teams

How to lead?

How to organize?

How to motivate?

How to collaborate?

How to create good ideas?


Team LeaderTeam Leader

The MOI ModelThe MOI Model Motivation.Motivation. The ability to encourage (by “push or The ability to encourage (by “push or

pull”) technical people to produce to their best pull”) technical people to produce to their best ability.ability.

Organization.Organization. The ability to mold existing The ability to mold existing processes (or invent new ones) that will enable the processes (or invent new ones) that will enable the initial concept to be translated into a final product.initial concept to be translated into a final product.

Ideas or innovation.Ideas or innovation. The ability to encourage The ability to encourage people to create and feel creative even when they people to create and feel creative even when they must work within bounds established for a must work within bounds established for a particular software product or application.particular software product or application.


Software TeamsSoftware Teams The following factors must be considered The following factors must be considered

when selecting a software project team when selecting a software project team structure ...structure ...

the difficulty of the problem to be solvedthe difficulty of the problem to be solved the size of the resultant program(s) in lines of code or the size of the resultant program(s) in lines of code or

function pointsfunction points the time that the team will stay together (team lifetime)the time that the team will stay together (team lifetime) the degree to which the problem can be modularizedthe degree to which the problem can be modularized the required quality and reliability of the system to be the required quality and reliability of the system to be

builtbuilt the rigidity of the delivery datethe rigidity of the delivery date the degree of sociability (communication) required for the degree of sociability (communication) required for

the projectthe project


closed paradigmclosed paradigm—structures a team along a —structures a team along a traditional hierarchy of authoritytraditional hierarchy of authority

random paradigmrandom paradigm—structures a team loosely and —structures a team loosely and depends on individual initiative of the team members depends on individual initiative of the team members

open paradigmopen paradigm—attempts to structure a team in a —attempts to structure a team in a manner that achieves some of the controls associated manner that achieves some of the controls associated with the closed paradigm but also much of the with the closed paradigm but also much of the innovation that occurs when using the random innovation that occurs when using the random paradigmparadigm

synchronous paradigmsynchronous paradigm—relies on the natural —relies on the natural compartmentalization of a problem and organizes compartmentalization of a problem and organizes team members to work on pieces of the problem with team members to work on pieces of the problem with little active communication among themselveslittle active communication among themselves

Organizational ParadigmsOrganizational Paradigms

suggested by Constantine [CON93]


Avoid Team “Toxicity”Avoid Team “Toxicity” A frenzied work atmosphere in which team members

waste energy and lose focus on the objectives of the work to be performed.

High frustration caused by personal, business, or technological factors that cause friction among team members.

“Fragmented or poorly coordinated procedures” or a poorly defined or improperly chosen process model that becomes a roadblock to accomplishment.

Unclear definition of roles resulting in a lack of accountability and resultant finger-pointing.

“Continuous and repeated exposure to failure” that leads to a loss of confidence and a lowering of morale.


Agile TeamsAgile Teams Team members must have trust in one another. Team members must have trust in one another. The distribution of skills must be appropriate The distribution of skills must be appropriate

to the problem. to the problem. Mavericks may have to be excluded from the Mavericks may have to be excluded from the

team, if team cohesiveness is to be maintained.team, if team cohesiveness is to be maintained. Team is “self-organizing”Team is “self-organizing”

An adaptive team structureAn adaptive team structure Uses elements of Constantine’s random, open, and Uses elements of Constantine’s random, open, and

synchronous paradigmssynchronous paradigms Significant autonomySignificant autonomy


Team Coordination & Team Coordination & CommunicationCommunication Formal, impersonal approachesFormal, impersonal approaches include software engineering include software engineering

documents and work products (including source code), technical documents and work products (including source code), technical memos, project milestones, schedules, and project control tools memos, project milestones, schedules, and project control tools (Chapter 23), change requests and related documentation, error (Chapter 23), change requests and related documentation, error tracking reports, and repository data (see Chapter 26). tracking reports, and repository data (see Chapter 26).

Formal, interpersonal proceduresFormal, interpersonal procedures focus on quality assurance focus on quality assurance activities (Chapter 25) applied to software engineering work activities (Chapter 25) applied to software engineering work products. These include status review meetings and design and products. These include status review meetings and design and code inspections.code inspections.

Informal, interpersonal proceduresInformal, interpersonal procedures include group meetings for include group meetings for information dissemination and problem solving and “collocation information dissemination and problem solving and “collocation of requirements and development staff.” of requirements and development staff.”

Electronic communicationElectronic communication encompasses electronic mail, encompasses electronic mail, electronic bulletin boards, and by extension, video-based electronic bulletin boards, and by extension, video-based conferencing systems.conferencing systems.

Interpersonal networkingInterpersonal networking includes informal discussions with includes informal discussions with team members and those outside the project who may have team members and those outside the project who may have experience or insight that can assist team members.experience or insight that can assist team members.


The Product ScopeThe Product Scope Establish scope: Establish scope: a narrative that bounds the problema narrative that bounds the problem

Context. How does the software to be built fit into a larger system, product, or business context and what constraints are imposed as a result of the context?

Information objectives. What customer-visible data objects (Chapter 8) are produced as output from the software? What data objects are required for input?

Function and performance. What function does the software perform to transform input data into output? Are any special performance characteristics to be addressed?

Software project scope must be unambiguous and understandable at the management and technical levels.


Problem DecompositionProblem Decomposition Sometimes called partitioning or problem

elaboration Once scope is defined …

It is decomposed into constituent functions It is decomposed into user-visible data

objectsor It is decomposed into a set of problem

classes Decomposition process continues until all

functions or problem classes have been defined


The Process Once a process framework has been Once a process framework has been

establishedestablished Consider project characteristicsConsider project characteristics Determine the degree of rigor requiredDetermine the degree of rigor required Define a task set for each software Define a task set for each software

engineering activityengineering activity Software engineering tasksSoftware engineering tasks Work productsWork products Quality assurance pointsQuality assurance points MilestonesMilestones


Melding the Problem and the Process

.

Software Engineering Tasks

Product Functions

Text input

Editing and formating

Automatic copy edit

Page layout capability

Automatic indexing and TOC

File management

Document production

COMMON PROCESSFRAMEWORK ACTIVITIES


The Project Projects get into trouble when …Projects get into trouble when …

Software people don’t understand their customer’s Software people don’t understand their customer’s needs.needs.

The product scope is poorly defined.The product scope is poorly defined. Changes are managed poorly.Changes are managed poorly. The chosen technology changes.The chosen technology changes. Business needs change [or are ill-defined].Business needs change [or are ill-defined]. Deadlines are unrealistic.Deadlines are unrealistic. Users are resistant.Users are resistant. Sponsorship is lost [or was never properly obtained].Sponsorship is lost [or was never properly obtained]. The project team lacks people with appropriate skills.The project team lacks people with appropriate skills. Managers [and practitioners] avoid best practices Managers [and practitioners] avoid best practices

and lessons learned.and lessons learned.


Common-Sense Approach to Projects Start on the right foot.Start on the right foot. This is accomplished by working hard This is accomplished by working hard

(very hard) to understand the problem that is to be solved and (very hard) to understand the problem that is to be solved and then setting realistic objectives and expectations. then setting realistic objectives and expectations.

Maintain momentum.Maintain momentum. The The project manager must provide project manager must provide incentives to keep turnover of personnel to an absolute incentives to keep turnover of personnel to an absolute minimum, the team should emphasize quality in every task it minimum, the team should emphasize quality in every task it performs, and senior management should do everything possible performs, and senior management should do everything possible to stay out of the team’s way.to stay out of the team’s way.

Track progress.Track progress. For a software project, progress is tracked as For a software project, progress is tracked as work products (e.g., models, source code, sets of test cases) are work products (e.g., models, source code, sets of test cases) are produced and approved (using formal technical reviews) as part produced and approved (using formal technical reviews) as part of a quality assurance activity. of a quality assurance activity.

Make smart decisions.Make smart decisions. In essence, the decisions of the project In essence, the decisions of the project manager and the software team should be to “keep it simple.” manager and the software team should be to “keep it simple.”

Conduct a postmortem analysis.Conduct a postmortem analysis. Establish a consistent Establish a consistent mechanism for extracting lessons learned for each project. mechanism for extracting lessons learned for each project.


To Get to the Essence of a ProjectTo Get to the Essence of a Project Why is the system being developed?Why is the system being developed? What will be done? What will be done? When will it be accomplished?When will it be accomplished? Who is responsible?Who is responsible? Where are they organizationally located?Where are they organizationally located? How will the job be done technically and How will the job be done technically and

managerially?managerially? How much of each resource (e.g., people, How much of each resource (e.g., people,

software, tools, database) will be needed?software, tools, database) will be needed?

Barry Boehm


Critical PracticesCritical Practices

Formal risk managementFormal risk management Empirical cost and schedule estimationEmpirical cost and schedule estimation Metrics-based project managementMetrics-based project management Earned value trackingEarned value tracking Defect tracking against quality targetsDefect tracking against quality targets People aware project managementPeople aware project management


Why Projects Fail?Why Projects Fail?

an unrealistic deadline is establishedan unrealistic deadline is established changing customer requirements changing customer requirements an honest underestimate of effortan honest underestimate of effort predictable and/or unpredictable riskspredictable and/or unpredictable risks technical difficultiestechnical difficulties miscommunication among project staffmiscommunication among project staff failure in project managementfailure in project management

an unrealistic deadline is establishedan unrealistic deadline is established changing customer requirements changing customer requirements an honest underestimate of effortan honest underestimate of effort predictable and/or unpredictable riskspredictable and/or unpredictable risks technical difficultiestechnical difficulties miscommunication among project staffmiscommunication among project staff failure in project managementfailure in project management


The first 90% of a system absorbs 90% of the The first 90% of a system absorbs 90% of the allotted effort and time, the last 10% takes allotted effort and time, the last 10% takes another 90% of the allotted effort and time.another 90% of the allotted effort and time.

The manner in which progress is accessed is flawed.The manner in which progress is accessed is flawed. There is no way to calibrate progress because There is no way to calibrate progress because

quantitative metrics are unavailable.quantitative metrics are unavailable. The project plan has not been designed to The project plan has not been designed to

accommodate resource required at the end of a accommodate resource required at the end of a projectproject

Risks have not been considered explicitly, and a Risks have not been considered explicitly, and a plan for mitigating, monitoring, and managing them plan for mitigating, monitoring, and managing them has not been createdhas not been created

The schedule is unrealistic or flawedThe schedule is unrealistic or flawed

90-90 90-90 RuleRule


Start on the right footStart on the right foot Working hard to understand the problemWorking hard to understand the problem Setting realistic objects and Setting realistic objects and

expectationsexpectations Giving the team the autonomy, Giving the team the autonomy,

authority, and technology neededauthority, and technology needed Maintain momentumMaintain momentum

Provide incentivesProvide incentives Emphasize qualityEmphasize quality Reduce bureacracyReduce bureacracy

Reel’s Reel’s SuggestionsSuggestions


Track progressTrack progress Track and approve work product Track and approve work product

as part of quality assuranceas part of quality assurance Collect project measures and Collect project measures and

assess progressassess progress Make smart decisionsMake smart decisions

Keep it simpleKeep it simple



Conduct a postmortem analysisConduct a postmortem analysis Establish a consistent mechanism for Establish a consistent mechanism for

extracting lessons learnedextracting lessons learned Evaluate the planned and actual Evaluate the planned and actual

schedulesschedules Collect and analyze software project Collect and analyze software project

metricsmetrics Get feedback from team members and Get feedback from team members and

customerscustomers Record findings in written formRecord findings in written form


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