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DEVELOPING COMMUNICATION SKILLS AMONG THE STUDENTS OF
PROFESSIONAL COURSES FROM RURAL BACKGROUND.
CONTENTS
1) Introduction
2) Developing Listening Skills
3) The role of Television for Learning Listening skills
4) Audiovisual Techniques in the Teaching of English
5) The Internet as a support system for Language Learners.
6) Developing impressive speaking skills
7) A Communication approach to the Teaching of Vocabulary.
8) Patterns of classroom interaction in ESL classes.
9) Developing Reading and Writing Skills
10) Reading strategies for Engineering students
11) A selection of Reading materials for the students
12) Imparting Reading Techniques Among the students
13) Reading comprehension in the classroom
14) Identifying Reading problems in second Language Learners.
15) Developing the ESL writing skills of Engineering students : some
methodological implications.
16) A study of the development of expository writing skills
17) The role of Teachers Feedback in improving students writing skills at B.Tech
level.
18) The teacher as facilitator, A new role for the language teacher.19) The need of English Language Laboratories
20) Lesson planning and class room observation
21) Conclusion.
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CHAPTER - I
Introduction
Communication is the pivot on which the modern globe revolves.The success of every section of a nation historically socially, politically,
commercially, financially is determined by its close association with the
well developed communication system. Relationships among human
beings are established through cordial communication system. Cultural
and technological developments are the direct out-come of the advanced
communication system. Communication is a strategic importance, as it
decides survival and success of trade & commerce nationally and
internationally. With regard to man, communication is oxygen to his
social life, nutrition for economic life and clothing for his thoughts.Absence of communication retards the developmental process of a man
and impairs his social life drastically. Failure to communicate has
resulted in imprisonment of the human personality. The term
Communication is easy to understand because it is a natural
phenomenon, but is difficult to define it as a concept in brief due to
multifarious interpretations made by several linguists and authors. For a
common man, Communication is an exchange of information or ideas
on a particular topic for discussion. Technically it is a process of
transmitting ideas, information and feelings through a channel from the
speaker to another person or a group of persons and receiving feedback
from the transferee. The word Communication originates from a Latin
root Communicate which implies to Share. It is also closely
associated with the English term Common which means sharing by two
or more. In this context it is suitable to define the communication as
sharing ideas or information between two or among more persons.
Dictionary defines it as transmission of message or information from one
person to another. According to Keith Davis, Communication is the
transfer of information and understanding from one person to another
person John Adair opined that communication is essentially the ability ofone person to make contact with another and to make him self or her self
understood about the speakers intention. Communication is the process
by which information is transmitted between individuals or organizations
so that an understanding response result according to Peter Little.
Another scientist, Charles Cooley defines communication as technology.
The mechanism through which all human relations exist and developed
all the symbols of the mind together with means of conveying through
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space and preserving them in time. Thus communication is sharing or
exchange of ideas or information between two or more persons through a
systems of channel.
Communication is as old as human origin. During early years of mansexistence, non-linguistic communication was in practice. During
prehistoric times man communicated through sounds, symbols and
gestures. With the launch of social life, communication through a
systematic channel developed. It provoked man to develop languages.
The advent of culture and civilization made the communication an
essential element for mans comfortable stay. Development of science
and technology, trade and commerce and socio-economic conditions
elevated the status ofcommunication from essential to strategic position.
Today the scientific and economic advancement of a country is measuredin terms of the communication systems. Communication, as a separate
branch of science, attracted the attention of academicians and scholars
from different fields, during early years of 20th century. Gradual progress
in communication systems and mechanism made it a fascinating area for
scholars, researchers and professionals. As per the information provided
by different theories on communication and the encyclopedia, it
developed as a branch of science during 3rd and 4th decades of 20th
century. The last decade of 20th century brought a revolutionary change
into the mans life, which facilitated the communication to expand it into
a giant sector and also an essential concept for the socio-economic
progress. The history of 20th century shows that people have always used
new technologies to communicate faster and better. There is something in
our biological blue print that makes us want to talk to one another and to
share information. National and international trade of today entirely
depended on technically advanced communication systems. For mankind
of third millennium, communication became an essential element, next to
oxygen. Communication is a natural phenomenon. In a broader sense it is
a natural instinct between two living organisms, animals and especially
homo sapiens. Communication is an exchange of thoughts, ideas,feelings, impressions and relations among individuals. Thus at initial
stage it is a natural interaction between a man and a man or man and
environment. In later stages communication is skilled-based, as it requires
language skills, active skills Speaking, writing skills and Passive skills
Listening and Reading which can be imparted through training. In
advanced stage it is technical oriented where it requires technological
efficiency of the communicator in the use of multimedia gadgets like
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telephone, mobile phone, ipod, web phone, computer, internet etc,
communication is inherently a social process. Man, being a social animal
required to interact with men and his environment around him. He could
not survive in isolation, detaching himself from his fellow human beings.Mans progress depend on his social environment. Man could build his
social relations only through communication process. When man learnt to
live in groups, communication might have started and developed along
with his social progress. It satisfied the social needs of man, particularly a
sense of belongingness. Thus it is a social process. Communication is a
science, multidisciplinary in nature, which maintains close relations with
language, psychology and technology. Communication is accepted as
multidisciplinary science supported by systematic knowledge. It is an
exchange of information. Therefore exchange is the basic feature ofcommunication. Exchange takes place between two or more persons or
between man and environment continuously. Information is transmitted
in the form of words, signals, symbols, etc. with a definite purpose.
Communication by its very nature is a process. Transmission of
information is required to pass through different stages to make a
complete communication systems. Primarily communication originates
from a source of information, the sender of the message. The message
enters into a channel, selected by the sender of the message and reaches
the destination, the receiver. From the receiver information flows back
towards the originator of the message in the form of feed back to
complete the communication system. Thus every piece of communication
has to follow from source to the receiver through a channel and from the
receiver to the sender. Communication is an outcome of relations
between two or more individuals or two or more communicators. The
prerequisite to launch communication process by sender, who is also a
creator and establishment of relation with the receiver. If not the
information cannot be transformed in to communication as it fails to
receive the response from the receiver of he communication. All types of
communications are based on and is guided by relations for exchange.Thus communication is a relation based on human activity. Social
environment of a man is designed, framed and built around him
according to his needs and conveniences. Natural environment and its
factory are conveniently converted to make use of them. Social
environment in a broader sense includes political policies, social rules
and restrictions. Economic and legal laws, ethnic groups, religious
beliefs, education, entertainment etc, are social factors which are
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developed around the concept of communication. In the absence of
communication network, none of these elements exist in the social life of
man. Communication contributes significantly for the development of
mans social environment. It plays an effective role to build a globalvillage. Man on the earth at extreme points is separated by thousands of
miles of distance gap. The highly dispersed human race is also separated
by difference in cultural practices languages temperamental characters
and socio economic status and several such factors. Communication is
the most efficient system that links man to another and creates the whole
world a global village. Technically sophisticated communication system
is primarily responsible to create a global village and to establish
international peace. Research studies proved that 90% of human conflicts
are due to communication gaps. Thus this second major function ofcommunication system is to dilute all types of barriers and built a global
village.
Communication is a technological progress. Communication and
science and technology are interdependent concepts. Sophisticated
communication is the direct out put of scientific and technological
development. Technological development is largely determined by the
existing communication system. In the absence of communication
facilities, scientific progress will be very slow and limited to a particular
area unless an invention gets wide publicity and popularity, progress in
that area cannot be possible. Highly developed communication
infrastructure of a country is a testimony of its technological progress and
economic advancement. Countries cannot progress in isolation, due to
unequal distribution of natural resources, human resources and
opportunities to develop markets. Integrated development of the world
economy through balancing these factors is possible through strong
communication links through countries. If not it is impossible to identify
deficit and surplus sectors in different parts of the world. Developed
communication system facilitates free movement of factors of productionglobally. A powerful communication system helps, in building up the
business nationally local, state, region and also develops trade relations
among different nations and promotes international trade. In todays
context international trade entirely designed around communication
system. It also helps to develop tourism among the nations. Tourism
directly depends on the communication system. Efficient communication
system is an ambassador of a countrys tourist resorts. Electronic media
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and mass media have the strong magnetic power to attract the tourists
from all over the world. Tourists, the investigators, research scholars,
expedition and trekking teams are informed about the opportunities
available in a particular country. Tourism and hotel industry are the majorcontributors to foreign exchange. Thus efficient communication system
contributes indirectly to the government revenue and directly to the
tourism industry. For a man communication begins with his birth. Man
being a Social Animal, continues to interact with his fellow human
beings, other living animals, environment and with himself. As per
research results on human behavior, man can survive by isolating himself
from other man, society or environment, but he cannot live without
communication. Meditation and silence are also a type of
communications. When communication of man with himself has brokendown and his communication with others has been damaged, he becomes
neurotic. Thus communication is the core part of mans social life and is
strategic element for his progress. Human mind is a great source for ideas
emotions, feelings, experiences and doubts. It provokes man to publicize
to all. Unless he communicates or shares with his fellow human beings all
these ideas, his emotional urge will not be satisfied therefore one of the
important functions of communications is to satisfy the emotional needs
of the individuals. Absence of ego satisfaction reduces the demand of
communication to a large extent. To satisfy such psychological needs for
belongingness recognition, security etc. Man communicates in different
ways continuously. If not he becomes passive, inactive, dull and static in
his life. communication not only satisfies the emotional needs of a man
but also the physical requirements which are recurring in nature such as
hunger, thirst, shelter, livelihood etc. It is difficult to achieve them in the
absence of any type of communication, verbal or nonverbal. Man is the
most intelligent of all living beings on the planet. He can discover, invent,
create, design, develop and innovate products, process and services.
Mans ability to think progressively in the foundation for scientific and
technological development. Every idea delivered and communicated byman is received by co-intellectuals who critically analyze it and refine it
to make the same the most useful product through continuous
communication among them. If there is no such interactive
communication system, we may be confined to work with a room size
computer system instead of pocket size computer in a short span of mans
active life. Thus, the silent function rendered by communication to an
individual is to enhance his scientific and technological ability and
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improve mental faculties. Another prominent function of communication
to man is that it helps in building strong human relations. Absence of
communication between two individuals expands the psychological gap
though they are living or working under the same roof. Communicationfacilitates an individual to express his confidence and trust. It is the only
concrete bridge that can fill up the distance gap between two individuals.
In this context, man is considered to be the most intelligent and privileged
section on the planet that developed language and powerful
communication system to bind one another happily. Mans economic
activities are designed and developed around the communication as a
very well developed profession, trade, production, international trade or
such economic activities employees of man are possible because he can
communicate and receive information by other communicators. Thereforein todays contemporary world every job demands communication skills
as priority over other academic testimonies. There is no employment
without an oral interview or viva test. They test examinees
communication skills both oral test or written test to recruit employees.
They test the persons abilities in general and communication skills in
particular. Teachers, lecturers, preachers, political leaders, news readers,
reporters, marketing executives, sales persons, investigators, lawyers,
doctors etc. depend on communication skills for individual progress in
their respective professions or occupations. Communication is the fabric
of life. If you were to ask yourself how you have become what you have
mentally, psychologically, socially, culturally, emotionally, and
spiritually, you will realize it is only through communication with other
human beings and reading also plays a vital role in this. Communication
is a process of transmission of ideas or message between two points. One
that generates message or information for communication and the other is
the receiver or destination. Thus every one should have a destination to
create and establish communication process and to build sender
receiver relation. Sender of information may have different levels of
destination i.e., receiver. Depending on the receivers, communicationlevels of different types. They range from personal to public.
Intrapersonal communication is individual and personal communication
where the process takes place within an individual. An individual may be
isolated from others by not communicating with other individuals but
cannot stop communicating with in himself. Communication with one
self is intrapersonal and intra psychic or internal communication like
Shakespeares character Hamlet in drama - Hamlet. Every individual who
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is able to feel, think and use language, communicate with himself
continuously. It is a common practice that before communicating with
others an individual communicates with himself to understand and
estimate the reaction of the receiver. Man is the only animal who talks tohimself all day long. Intra communications is an important part of you,
infact, it is you and it does, indeed behave you to become aware of it and
use it to your benefit. A person who is able to think clearly can write
perfectly and communicates satisfactorily. Inner conversation must be
balanced suitable and adaptable in the environment and with himself. For
intrapersonal communication man uses feelings, symbols and language
which he should be aware of them. It helps him to give a timely feedback
i.e., he should be conscious of his actions. A person with awareness of his
inner conversation can control it and change his attitude totally. Thus psychologists and doctors suggest meditation for quick healing of
problems and diseases. It helps to make the mental faculties strong and
efficient. In this context Dr. Krishna expressed that in a prayer you are
talking to god. In meditation god is talking to you. Experience of
meditation teaches you how to relax, not how to become lethargic, how to
enjoy living and how not to be afraid of dying, how to manage stress, not
how to withdraw from it. Basic human virtues of positive attitude,
forgiveness, compassion, love for human beings are developed. With
positive inner communication that gives a strong support to interpersonal
communication. Interpersonal communication is the next level in which
the communication is between two persons takes the form of a
conversation, other wise known as face-to-face communication. People at
home, at the work place, in public gathering or wherever they encounter,
they exchange greetings routine enquiries and topics of mutual interest.
Interpersonal communication results from human bonds, may be among
family members, colleagues, social relations, neighbors, peer group etc.
interpersonal relations provide basic frame work for building human
relations and a strong society, work environment and conflicts free
organization. The concept of interpersonal relations and different modesof it such as face-to-face conversation, telephone conversation etc. are
discussed in detail. Group communication is an extension of interpersonal
communication. It is a communication process by many people in the
form of conversation among them. Usually, in small groups. Groups may
be formal groups such as committees, board of directors, quality circles,
task force, unions, clubs etc. which are formed internationally by the
authorities or by the members to achieve specific goals, and in formal
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groups are formed to meet social needs of people either in the work place,
public meeting points, entertainment points, and common residential
areas. Media is the life of communication that facilitates communication
process accurately without delay. Communication media is of differenttypes. Increasing communication needs, fast developing technology,
economic and social liberalization, democratic governments expanding
international trade are responsible for introduction of a wide range of
media. For academic discussion, media can be classified on the basis of
communication levels. Inter personal communication uses conventional
media such as delivery by messenger, mail, courier, telegraph, telexes,
electronics media, telephone, pager, fax, cellular phone, and e-mail.
Group media communication uses loud speaker, tape recorders, over head
projectors, slide projectors, mass communication uses tape recorders,over head projectors and hoarding and notice board, public
announcement, press, cinema, radio, television, and internet.
Communicators need not confine to one medium. Depending on the need,
nature of information, distance between the communicator and the
receiver chooses more than one medium to make the communication
effective. It is called media richness. In our country, people have been
learning English since it was first introduced in schools in the first fifty
years, the purpose of learning English was to get government job. But
later it was learnt for 1) studying in foreign countries 2) studying
professional courses like medicine, engineering etc. in our country
3) studying English literature so on.
The Nature and Function of Language
The word language has a meaning. The Oxford English Dictionary
defines it as the whole body of words and of methods of combination
of words used by a nation , people or race; a tongue which implies that a
language can exist in spoken as well as written forms. Language is nota natural phenomenon, it is a creation of mans social needs. Hence
society depends on language, as it depends on air, water and the earth
around it for its own existence. Language is an extremely complex and
highly versatile code that is used to communicate our thoughts, desire and
experience to other persons. We also use other devices such as gestures,
signs, drawings, sculpture etc. However, these are not affable enough to
replace language. Language and human culture are intimately interrelated
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and the one is indispensable to the other. When mans attention is turning
increasingly towards analyzing his culture, it is natural that he should
attempt to examine in detail the means of communication, which is
essential to his society. Language like society is constantly evolving andis subject to growth and change in much the same way as a living
organism. The uses of the word language are so varied that any attempt at
definition may pose some problems. However, one of the best definitions
of language can be in the words Language is a purely human and non
instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions and desires by
means of a system of voluntarily produced symbols. These symbols are
in the first instance auditory and they are produced by the so-called
organs of speech The implication and value of this statement lie in its
emphasis on language as a specifically common attribute, capable ofexpressing ideas and emotions as well as other fundamental desires which
man may have in common with other animals. The statement stresses that
language operates as a system of symbols of which the spoken form is of
primary importance. Language is a kind of code and so rests on an
essentially arbitrary relationship of symbol and concept. We use
language to communicate our thoughts , feelings, ideas etc. When we
use language to communicate, language then becomes a series of sounds,
usually strung together in groups which convey meaning to listeners.
Then language becomes a system of arbitrary, vocal symbols which
permit all people in a given culture or other people who have learned the
system of that culture, to communicate or to interact. Every language
operates within its system, that is, within its own recurring patterns of
arrangements which are meaningful to its speaker. A system is a group
of related parts working together. Language has various systems within it
and they are systems by themselves. In the systems of sounds, known as
the phonological system, the sounds which are used to form words, which
in turn are used in speech utterances, are always arranged in particular
ways or designs which convey the same meaning to all speakers of the
language. Language is highly organized system in which each unit playsan important part which is related to other parts. English language has
three systems.
They are
I) the systems of sounds, in other words phonology.
II) the system of word order, in other words, syntax and
III) the system of meaning, in other words, semantics.
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The system of sounds or phonological system
Language is used for communication and is made up of sounds.Symbols used in language are in the first instance auditory.
This means, sounds work as auditory symbols in the communication
system. The sounds created by the organs of speech provide the medium
for all spoken forms of human language. The organs of speech are
capable for producing, theoretically, an infinite variety of sounds and the
human ear is capable of distinguishing a wide range of different speech
sounds. No single language however, uses even a small fraction of all the
sounds that the human ear is capable of distinguishing. In fact, most
human languages function with fewer than fifty distinctive units of sound.The English language has forty four distinctive sounds. It has twenty four
consonants sounds and twenty vowel sounds. Of these twenty vowels
sounds we have twelve pure vowels and eight diphthongs. The study of
phonology is concerned with how a language organizes this small number
of units into a system which permits an infinite variety of utterances to be
made. This system is called the phonological system or the sound system
of language. In order to understand what is meant by distinctive units of
sound and their relation to the communication process, we need to
consider what is involved in the transfer of information when
communication takes place. The transmission of information is only
possible if the communication system allows a choice of signals to be
sent. This principle applies to communication in general, not just to
language. The amount of information conveyed is related to the number
of possible signals available. Also the more the voices of signals, the
more the amount of information that can be conveyed. For example, I
like ice cream, conveys a certain amount of information simply because
the communication system being used permits a choice of signals. One
could have said, I do not like ice cream, you like ice cream, or I like
oranges, and so on. At each point in the sentence a choice has been madefrom a number of alternatives. Instead of I one can say, you, they, we,
John, and instead of ice cream one can say, bananas, custard, aero planes,
children etc. Each word in the sentence is meaningful because it
constitutes a choice from a large number of possible alternatives. The
choices/alternatives are concerned with the first segmentation of the
sound sequence into units which we usually call words. We can further
segment these words into speech sounds. Look at the words pin, and
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bin. We recognize them as being different words yet their sounds have a
great deal in common. The difference between them lies simply in the
difference between the initial sounds of each word /p/and /b/ respectively.
Since the contrast between the two sounds can account for the differencebetween the two distinct words, the sound units are said to be distinctive.
The aspirated sound ph as in the word pan and unaspirated /p/in
the word pit, are varieties or variants of the same unit in the sound system
and not representative of different units. Hence /ph/ and /p/ are the
varieties of the sound unit /p/ and this smallest unit in a sound system is
called a phoneme are called allophones. In the phonological system we
have distinctive sounds or phonemes and these distinctive sounds group
themselves into meaningful units to form words, and the units thus
formed are called morpheme. A morpheme is a meaningful sound forexample, the sound /p/ /ae/ /t/ combine to form the morpheme /pat/ or
/pt/.Phonemes combine together to form morphemes. In other words,
sounds form to combine words. Morphemes are two kinds. They are free
morphemes and bound morphemes. Free morphemes are meaningful
units of language structure which can be used independently or in
combination with other morphemes. A word which consist of only one
morpheme must consist of a free morpheme.
(Ex:- Happy, show, kill, can)
Bound morphemes are meaningful units of language structure which
can be used in conjunction with another morpheme.
Ex:- Homely ,happiness , dogs
The underlined units (-ly, -ness, -gs) are bound morphemes.
In short, bound morphemes are affixes. They can be either prefixes or
infixes. For example the in the word unhappy un a bound morphemes is
aprefix.In the word happiness ness a bound morphemes is asuffix. A
bound morphemes can be affixed in the middle of the word. It is called an
infix. This is very rare in English. Unless such changes as foot feet or
sing -sang are considered to types of infixes. Suffixes can be inflexional
and derivational. Plural morphemes on the word like caps, toys areinflexional because the change is simply one of singular to plural.
Whereas the morpheme -ness in likeness or happiness or-ly in quickly
changes the part of speech; such bound morphemes are called
derivational. Another systems of language is the system of word order .
Which is referred to as syntax, It is an important part of the system.
Compare the two sentences , the cat bit the lady and The lady bit
the cat. The forms of the words are exactly the same, but the difference
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in the meaning of these two sentences is great . You can think of some
more examples like the following .
1. The bear killed the man. The man killed the bear
2. The station bus. The bus station3. An awful (ly) pretty hat. A pretty awful hat
Now you have found the difference in meaning and the difference in the
grammatical or functional meaning also. For instance let us take the two
sentences The bear killed the man, the man killed the bear. In terms
of meaning , the difference lies in the performance of the act .In the
first one the performer of the act is the bear whereas in the second one
it is the man who has performed the act . The grammatical or functional
meaning is conveyed by the suffix (d) (spelled ed) on the word kill. (Theman killed the bear). The suffix adds to the meaning that the action
occurred sometime in the past. Now look at the sentence. Colorless
green ideas sleep furiously. This sentence , no doubt fits into the
phonological system and also the syntactic system . But, is there any
meaning ? The sentence has no meaning. That system, of language
which deals with meaning is called the semantic system .So language
must be meaningful. The importance of understanding the language
system in language teaching and learning could be summed up in the
words of cat ford. If we are teaching English, We must familiarize our
students with those contrastive values which are set up in the system of
English and if we want our students to progress beyond the stage of
superficial pattern practice and begin to think in English we must teach
them to categories directly in the terms laid down by the system of
English language. Animal communication differs from human language.
We have been looking at language as system of communication used by
human beings. Do animals have communication systems? Yes. Animals
have communication systems and they communicate in different ways
like barking, mewing etc. They have their own limitations. They cannot
express some concepts like past experiences. Using only a very limitedrange of devices, animals communicate with reference to certain concrete
things of immediate relevance to their own needs and present in their
surroundings. Animal communication is not capable of expressing
abstract concepts. Human language symbolizes thought in sounds or
groups of sounds that are used to signify concepts with which the sounds
themselves have no immediate connection. That is, man alone, has
developed this capacity to use a complex system of symbols to
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communicate. The animal system of communication can produce only a
limited number of messages. Animals cannot produce new combination
of sounds as human beings do. Animal systems are genetically
transmitted where as human language is culture bound and culturallytransmitted.
Aspects and characteristics of human language
An important aspect of language is its Creativity. It is this feature
which enables a speaker to understand and construct sentences which
he has never heard before. Though we use language continuously
throughout our working hours, we rarely use the same sentence twice.Except for a few often used formulaic expressions and idiomatic phrases
and expressions like Good morning, How are you? Where are you
going? etc. much of what we say involves novel sentences , i.e.
sentences we have never heard or uttered before. Many of these sentences
would not even have been uttered by anyone at all at any time whatsoever
during the long history of our language. It is possible for all of us to be
creative in this particular sense in our language because as we see
now there is no limit to the total number of sentences that can be
produced in our language. When we read a sentence like The dear old
lady in a green hat tripped over a porcupine and fell on her nose , we
understand the meaning because we know English and not because
we have read the sentence before. Creativity is an important
characteristic of all stages in human language development. A child in
the earliest stages of development, even when his sentences consist of
only two words, is able to use the language creatively in this sense.
Also ,when the number of distinct sounds that we have in our language
is finite , the fact that we are able to coin an infinite number of words or
utter an infinite number of words or an infinite number of sentences
shows that human language is creative. A second important characteristicof human language is its double articulation or Duality of pattering
or Duality. This term refers to the way in which a stretch of speech can
be cut up into units. For example, a sentence like My sisters new hat is
green can be split up into words My/sisters /new /hat/is green. These
words can be split up into further units , for example into sounds so that
the word green is seen to be made up of the sounds/g/r/ee/n or g/r/:/n
i.e., we reduce meaning into a number of discrete entities
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(morphemes) like hat, green., etc as mentioned earlier which sequences
of a small number of discrete sounds (phonemes) which is one
articulation, and we further reduce these entities into sequences of a small
number of discrete sounds which is the second articulation. These samesounds can of course be used in the construction of other words as
word in the construction of new sentences like The new green hat is
my sisters. Another important characteristic of human language is
arbitrariness. This means that there is no direct connection between
the sound or form of any word and the object which it represents.
We have seen that languages use only a small number of distinct
sounds and these are not generally allowed to directly convey any
meaning. These sounds are used to represent morphemes and it is these
latter entities which are allowed to function as meaningful elements inlanguage . For example , the English word tree corresponds with mara
of Kannada or Vrksha of Sanskrit or maram of Tamil and so on. There
is apparently no natural relational ship between the various sounds that
are used by these languages to these sequences and the meaning that is
denoted by them. We see that the relationship between sounds and
meanings is completely arbitrary . However it is also possible that the
occurrence of certain onomatopoeic words such as wiper will hiss,
murmurs, buzz etc. constitute a remnant of that original situation. It
might be even claimed that the occurrence of an indirect connection
between sounds and meanings must have allowed the sounds and higher
linguistic elements to undergo various kinds of changes rather
independently of one another, hundreds of such changes must have
taken place during the long history of languages. It must be learnt that
the existence of arbitrariness does not imply that a speaker is free to use
whatever sound or sequence of sounds that comes to his mind to
represent a given meaning. Human language has another important
feature which has been called displacement. This enables language to be
used at a time and in places where the context referred to is not present.
That is, the use of language expressions is completely free of anycorresponding stimulus. For example, if a person mentions a bottle of
milk or fish and chips all speakers of English will understand what is
being referred to even if they cannot actually see the articles in question.
In this sense, language can work within its own framework with littile or
no relationship to the meaning or act involved. Language allows its
speakers to name and describe not only the objects that really exist like,
tables and chairs, but also the ones that are unreal, imaginary or even
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improbable. We had seen earlier that language is one of the devices that
we use not only for communicating our ideas, thoughts and desires to
other persons, but also for exposing them to our own awarness or
consciousness. The thoughts and ideas would normally occur in animplicit form in our brains; they would influence our actions and
responses but they would not be open to our awareness or reasoning. This
is the reason why man alone has been considered to be rationale. We have
the ability to encode these thoughts in the form of linguistic expressions
and make them exclusive. The characteristic of a language that permits us
to consciously examine and evaluate its expressions and also the structure
and context of those expressions is called reflexivity. Examining another
feature of the system we find that in English, adjectives dont agree
with nouns. we say the boys are tall and the tall boys and the tallgirls. In our language, changes may occur because of singular or plural.
By now, we must have understood how the various systems of language
function to make language as a whole system of these systems. As
described above, language is a system consisting of two sub-systems.
One is the sub-system of meaningful units and the other is the sub-system
of sounds which have no meaning in themselves, but which from
meaningful units. As language is speech, it is a system of sounds related
to a system of meanings. Language is productive or creative. This means
that with language we can understand and produce any number of
sentences which we might have never heard before. Language is
arbitrary,. The relation between a word and its meaning is a matter of
convention. For instance, why is a chain called so? In other words, there
is no connection between the sounds we use and the objects for which
these sounds stand. Language is a social phenomenon. It is a means of
communication between individuals. It also brings them into contact with
their environment. It is a skill that we acquire as we grow with the
society. Language has one more character called recursion. This means
sentences may be produced with other sentences inside them. For
example, a sentence like. This is the boy that found the man who chasedthe thief who Recursion can be done by using coordinating
conjunctions as in Sita went to the shop (and she) asked for the manager,
(and she) made a complain. (and she) ..
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Language as perceived by linguists
Language is behavior. Behavior can be learned only byintroducing students to behave in other words to perform in the
language. Language is primarily what is said, only secondarily what is
written.. and is a set of habits said Brooks. Language is a symbolic
communication system or in a word a code which is essentially
telegraphic. Language (written) is a symbolization of symbolization, a
reminding system of something said or that might have been said
effective communication is a prerequisite to the academic persons and
professional success of every person. Communication skills essential to
all people include basic speaking, writing and listening skills, the abilityto communicate in a team environment with persons of diverse
backgrounds and when engaged in conflict management. Language
inculcates core life skills in the learner and is an important instrument to
develop desired attitudes and socially acceptable values.
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CHAPTER 2THE PLACE OF
ENGLISH IN INDIA
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In any discussion of the place of a foreign languages in the
educational set-up of a country, terms like first language,
second language and foreign language are often used. These
are to always used to convey precisely the same sense in all the
countries. In the U.S.A. for instance, the instance, the terms
second language and foreign language are used
interchangeably. Teaching English as a Foreign Language:, T.E.F.L.,
is generally synonymous with Teaching English as a Second as a
second language, T.E.S.L., it may be useful, however, to distinguish
between the two as is done in the J.K. the British Council report for
the year 1960-61 brings out this distinction. It has been customary
to speak of teaching English as a foreign language, often merely to
emphasize that this process is by no means the same as teaching it
to those who already have it as their mother tongue. More recently,
the term English taught or language has been employed to describe
English taught or learnt for practical and necessary uses of
communication weather to serve as the language of instruction in
education, for specialized studies, or as a lingua. The distinction is
important: for example, English in France or Germany is still largely
learnt for reasons comparable to those for learning French or
German is Britain as a foreign language, as a humane discipline
and as an introduction to a foreign culture. In many countries,
however, the place of English in education may be more important,
and indeed more fundamentally necessary, because it is either the
medium of education itself or a necessary link with resources
beyond the borders of the country where it is learnt. When it is used
thus s a second language English is not necessarily the vehicle of
distinctively British or American cultural values; it may well be the
means of expressing those of the country where it has been
adopted.
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English as a foreign language refers to a situation where it is
taught for certain specific purposes, viz., reading scientific works,
translation, communication at certain levels and for certain
purposes only. English as a second language refers to a situation
where English is used widely for purposes of administration,
education and as a common link language. Thus English in the
U.S.S.R., where it is taught very competently, is a foreign language
although it is used as a medium of instruction in some of the schools
in cities like Moscow and Leningrad. It is a second language n the
Phillipines where it is used widely for purposes of administration and
education. In France it is a foreign language while in Kenaya,
where it serves as a link language, it is a second language.
In India, until recently, English was a second language. It is
now in the process of acquiring the status of a compulsory third
language. This seems evident from the clarification the Union
education minister, Mr. Nurul Hasan, gave to the parliamentaryconsultative committee for his ministry on August 4, 1976. The
Times of India reported on August 5, 1976, The Union education
ministry has made it clear, in a circular to state governments, that
passing the English Examination is not a must for promotion from
class X, although English would have to be a subject of compulsory
study from class VI to X in all schools. Under the new scheme of
education, also known as the new pattern of education viz.,
ten+two+three, English has virtually acquired the status of L3. This
pattern has already been adopted by most of the states and Union
Territories of India. The Indian deputy minister for education,
D.P.Yadav told the Lok Sabha (the Indian Paliament) on August 16,
1976, that nineteen States and Union Territores had already
adopted the new scheme of education, ten+two+three, seven
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would adopt it within a couple of years, while five were still
considering the matter. A few days earlier J.P.Naik, formerly
education advisor to the Government of India, had told the press
that a national pattern of education might emerge by the end of the
sixty five-year-plan period. This has now emerged. Challenge of
Education. A document deregulated by the ministry of Education,
envisages a uniform policy.
The justification for describing English as L3 in the present
context in India is that it is no longer used as a language of
instruction in a majority of schools and/colleges in the country. Most
colleges and several universities teaching Arts and Commerce
subjects in nonmetropolitan areas have changed over to the
regional media. However, English continues to be the language of
instruction in the faculties of law, medicine, engineering,
technology, agriculture and the like. The Indian railways one of the
major national undertaking, have increasingly been using Hindi in
place of English of English. A committee set up by government is
currently going into the question of still greater use of Hindi on the
railways. In other departments too, such as banking, Hindi is being
used increasingly. The opposition to Hindi in the south has been
weakening over the years except in Tamil Nadu where the
government went to the extent of granting pension to the anti-Hindi
agitators in 1965. If the linguistic misgivings of the south re allayed
Hindi may emerge as Indias linyua franca before long, if not
indeed as one of the U.N.O. languages, as expected by the second
would Hindi convention held at Moka in Mauritius. However, Hindi in
its highly sanskritised form, might not be accepted by one and all.
What may be called Peoples Hindi, it is argued, should be evolved.
It is also sugge4sted that the script be Romanized. There are
sentimental objections to these suggestions which come mostly
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from purists. It would be well to remember in this connection that
both Indonesia, and Turkey Romanized their scripts several decades
ago.
Under the new scheme of education English has acquired the
status of a third language in most States and Union Territories of
India. In Maharastra, for instance, which has adopted the scheme,
Marathi, the regional language, is now L3, Hindi, the Union language,
is L2 and English, the associate link language, is L3. This is the
general pattern for most pupils studying in Marathi-medium schools.
The terms, L1, L2, and L3 and foreign language are indicative of the
range of uses to which languages are put in the if of the speech
community. A language chronologically learned as a secd language,
does not necessarily become L2 in this special sense, if the purpose
fro which it is learned is education L3 is dropped from the
seque3nce. In Maharashtra, for instance, three languages are taught
at the ligher secondary (now Junior College) stage only two at the
latter stage, viz., Standards V to X, while at the languages are
taught, English being the second language at latter stage. This does
not mean that in Maharashtra English is taught as L3 at the
secondary stage and as L2 at the Junior College stage. At both these
stages is put in the life of the community, by and large, is now
restricted. Similarly in Hindi-medium schools in Maharashtra the
pattern of study of languages is Hindi, English and Marathi. This
does not imply that in these schools English is taught as L2 or as a
second language.
The relevant question is which is the dominant language,
comparatively speaking, and not which is the language, learnt or
taught, after the mother tongue has been acquired. Chronology
does not always determine dominance of a language. The terms
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first language, second language and third language are often used
to indicate chronology of learning languages. We may use them to
indicate the relative dominance of languages in the life of a speech
community. It may perhaps be argued that the term, ~ second
language % is hospitable enough to include the teaching of English
as L3. This term certainly is generic. As Gat ford observes, " Most
people-that is all except perhaps am bilinguals-have only one L,, but
they may have a number of L2's, each perhaps being reserved for
one particular purpose, as for instance reading scientific papers,
enjoying a Mediterranean holiday, reading the Scriptures. " Catford
would have us believe that the teaching of English as L2 is not a
fundamentally different problem from the teaching of English as L3.
This has been the view of-most experts. Bilingualism subsumes
rnuitlingualiam. Vildomec commenting on E. Haugen's explanation
of the term bilingualism remarks, ctHaugen explains this practice by
the assumption that the problems involved in bilmgualism do not
seem to be essentially different when a third and or a further
language is added." This seems doubtful.
Pedagogically considered, such a distention between L2 and L3
seems warranted. An active command of a third language is rare.
Michael West is of the view that a bilingual person knowing two or
more languages is a myth flourishing only in England. The point in
the Indian context is whether we can continue to practice.
Second-Language-teaching- methodology in a situation. where
English has acquired the status of a third language. Second -
language teaching methodology relying fast it did on literary
materials with almost equal emphasis on all the four skills
seems unsuited to the emerging situation. The emphasis may
have to shift to the acquisition of passive/receptive skills.
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Epstein uses the following abbreviations which seera more
precise than terms like Foreign language.
i) Lm - Mother tongue
ii) Li - Language learned as first
iii) L2 - Language learned as second etc.
iv) Le - Foreign language (langue estrang ere)
v) Ln - One of the languages spoken by a
multilingual subject,
Stern suggests the term international language for English inIndia which is used for wider communication within the country. It
must be said, however, that the range of communication is getting
severely resricted day by day.
In this book, however, conventional abbreviations like L1=
mother tongues/regional language, L2-Hindi/second Indian language,
L3=English, and "foreign language French, German, Russian,
Spanish etc are used.
This sequence works well in States like Maharashtra, Gujarat,
and Karnataka where Hindi is not L1,. In States like the U.P. where
Hindi is L3 English happens to be L2, while Sanskrit may be L3. In
these States although English may be L1, formally speaking, it does
not, have the status of a 'second language in the sense in which it
has 'second' language status in countries like the Philipines and
Kenya, It may perhaps be advisable to use the abbreviations, Li9 L2,
and L3 to indicate chronology of learning and the terms, first
language, second language and third language to indicate their
status (dominance) in a speech community. Until such a distinction
comes to be accepted these two sets of terms will continue to be
used synonymously. (For a fuller discussion of this topic see Stern),
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One of the most controversial issues in Indian education today
is the place of English in our educational set-up. From "Angrezs
Hatao" (Mown with English'), at one extreme, to English as "the
sole medium of education" at the other, there have been varying
shades of opinion about its place and function. A positive and
unequivocal national consensus which leaves no room for
misgivings about its place in our educational system has not yet
emerged and although, under the new pattern of education, we
seem to be moving towards such a consensus, there are certain
mental reservations on the part of some of our educational thinkers
about the place English ought to have in our education. The
decision of the Government of Maharashtra to teach science and
mathematics through the English medium is an instance of this
lack of a consensus. While some regret the fact that English is
taking an unconscionably long time a-dying others seem inclined to
if! preserve it as it is even under conditions of artificial respiration.
Most educationists it seems, would agree that English cannot
be easily dispensed with. In countries where it was dispensed
with unceremoniously it has come back and has been rehabilitated
on acceptable terms. In Shri Lanka (Ceylon) and in South East Asian
countries', there has now been a growing realization that English
has a place and that it would be unwise Ho throw the baby with
the bath water, Egypt which de-emphasized English in 1956,
after the Suez crisis, has now upgraded its secondary school
instruction in the subject. Burma too has had second thoughts on
the subject. Even Colonel Gadaffi of Libya who summarily closed all
university departments of English on political grounds is reported to
be reconsidering his decision. It is because there is a lack of
consensus that we have a mushroom growth of English medium
schools in the country. Mr. P. V. Narasimha Rao, the human resource
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development minister, told the Lok Sabha recently that there was a
mushrooming of English schools at the primary and pre-primary
levels even in rural areas. He also informed the house that
government had not issued any directive to states on what should
be the medium of instruction at this stage. He however added that
Government was looking into the problem of making mother-tongue
medium schools more attractive.
It is equally clear that the hey-day of English in India is
now over. It should be obvious to all that Hindi, before long, will be
our lingua franca. The late Prime Minister, Indira Gandhi, in a
message to the second world Aindi convention held in Mauritius,
said, "India is a multilingual country where the use of Hindi
as a link language is increasing rapidly. In commerce and trade
and in politics it is being used on a much larger scale than before.
Though it is the mother-tongue of most of our millions many
non-Hindi-speaking people too can read, write and understand it."
(The Times of India, August 28, 1966). Presenting the awards of the
Uttar Pradesh Hindi Sansthan, Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi said in
Novembtr 1985 that Hindi was the best possible link language in
a nation of diverse tongues. Most of our regional languages too have
grown well enough to handle some of die abstract concepts
pertaining to disciplines which until recently used English and
English terminology. We have now a growing body of 'literature of
knowledge' in these languages. Most of our Universities, as many as
90, out of 140 are using one or more regional languages as the
medium of instruction. But all this is too inadequate to replace
English. English, therefore, may have to continue as our vehicle of
knowledge for an indefinitely long period of time^ although its role
would be less impressive in times to come. It is at this transitional
stage that we need to define its place as clearly as we can. A clear
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definition of its place, keeping in view the purposes for ' which it is
required, is a pre-requisite of a sane and practicable policy of
teaching English. Motivation for learning it will come only from these
felt needs and not from any fancied notions about its importance
past or future. The history of languages shows that language, like
any form of life, is subject to growth and decay. A language that has
no positive role to play in the life of a community decays, however
brilliant its role in the past. Latin is an example of this. Here at
home, the partial failure of the 'Three-language formula'in Hindi-
speaking areas is an instance in point. The 'Three-language formula
'sought to establish equality with regard to the study of languages
between Hindi and non-Hindi speaking areas by recommending that,
as against the third language, Hindi, which pupils in the non-Hindi
areas have to learn, another Indian language (besides Hindi and
English) should be studied by pupils in the Hindi-speaking areas This
was not a practicable proposition since there was hardly any
motivation for learning a third language, viz,, one of the modern
Indian languages, in the Hindi-speaking areas. Nobody, except the
linguist, will ever learn a language if it has no practical use for him.
The Education Commission's comments on the difficulties in
implementing the 'Threelanguage formula' are revealing: "In
practice, the implementation of the Three-language formula has led
to several difficulties and it has not been very successful. Several
factors have contributed to this situation. Among these are the I
general opposition to a heavy language load in the school
curriculum; the lack of motivation far the study of an additional
modern Indian language in the Hindi areas,. (author's italics) the
resistance to the study of Hindi in some nonHindi areas... .The
situation was made worse by defective planning and by the half-
hearted way in which the formula was implemented. As a result of
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these developments, considerable resources have been wasted
Over what may be regarded as an unproductive programme of
implementation. As far as the third language is concerned, the
students in many areas have gained very little because of the
unreal situation in which most of them studied it and the inadequate
facilities that were provided for it"5.
A similar fate might overtake the teaching of English if the
syllabi and the teaching and testing procedures cease to have any
relevance in the context of our educational needs today. This has
been evident to the perceptive for well over a century. Commenting
on this irrelevance an anonymous Englishman wrote in The Times of
India more than a century ago:
"Indian universities have the quaintest notions of setting
subjects for the study of their undergraduates, and the Madras
University is no exception to the rule. For the first examination in
arts during 1884, one of the subjects set in the English examinationwas "The Princess'* while in the course for the B. A. degree we have
the Frankeleyne's and Monke's Tales; and for the M. A. degree
Chaucer's Toilus and Cresside, Shakespeare's Troilus and Cressida
and Shelley's Alastor. This is truly a wonderful collection of subjects.
Why on earth a poem so unmeaning as The PrincessT a.id one so
completely removed from all eastern lines of thought, should be
chosen it is hard to see; and it is as difficult to guess why Alastor
should have been selected from among the poems of Shelley. But
at any rate, these poems have this the educational process
by means of 'bazzar guides* and whose incipient interest in the
culture conveyed by English is effectively killed." Quirk refers to the
experience a young American teacher, John B. Shaw, who taught
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English in one of the universities in South India, and who rightly
asks:
'Why must these young men and women of Tamil Nad read
turgid late 19th-century essays, packed with trivial allusions to
London streets, Victorian dress, and English birds, and written in a
prose style as difficult to read as it is useless to emulate?.....
Will the University not do its students, and the future citizens of
India, a more significant service if it teaches them English
language?" (A Report on English Teaching in India, University
College London, June 1963).
A year later three distinguished British Halliday, Mcintosh and
Strevens8 made similars8 arises on the ELT situation in India : "In
countries such as, India the pattern of education has been
exported so successfully from British school and university
practice that syllabuses exist which are "nowadaysplus royaliste
que le roi. From such countries students come to Britain for training
that will fit them to join the teaching profession in their home
country and teach English literature or rather a version of literary
history and criticism); yet in many cases it is painfully clear that
there are many among them whose command of English as a
language is not sufficient to enable them either to discuss and teach
great works of literature or fully to understand or appreciate them.
In such cases the superstructure is more weighty than the
foundations can support, and the only sensible solution is to repair
and strengthen the foundations." These authors seem to have
probed deeply into the possible reason why English continues to be
taught as it is and conclude, "The reasons why this should be so are
complex, but one factor that recurs frequently is that the whole
teaching of English is often in the hands of people whose training is
in literature alone, and who sense a danger to their livelihood, or at
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least to their prestige and influence, if a new generation of teachers
is inducted into their profession who have mastered another and
different aspect of English studies." ( The Linguistic Sciences and
Language Teaching. E. L. B. S., 1970, page 184.)
An indiscriminate literary course for one and all. whatever the
level at which English is taught, is hardly calculated t o serve
^the needs of India. This is being increasingly realized even
by those who are not involved in the business of teaching
English. The Maharashtra Academy of Sciences, for instance, of
which Dr. PL N. Sethna, Chairman, Atomic Energy Commission,
happens to be the president, has made the following suggestion:
Language must be taught as a means of communication
rather than as a mere study of literature. By the time the student
passes class XII he should really have acquired the facility to
express himself clearly and I concisely in English and in a regional
language as well as ' comprehend without difficulty books and
journals published in English in the disciplines of interest to him.
This unfortunately is not the case today and it is essential to
have a fresh look into the manner in which languages are taught at
various levels." (Restructuring Education at the +3 Level; Second
Report of the Education Committee, Maharashtra Academy of
Sciences, November 1976.) The New Education Policy set out in the
document, Challenge
of Education, does not spell out language policy in any detail, It
is therefore presumed that status quo would be maintained in
the teaching of English.
Our needs today, by and large, are of an institutional kind ;
English for engineers, English for students of law, English for
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students of agriculture and the like. Writing a course for these
'consumers' is a challenging job which requires expertise. This may
perhaps be another reason why syllabi which bear no relevance to
national needs continue to be prescribed. It is heartening 10 note in
this connection that the Tamil Nadu Agricultural University has
evolved new syllabi to suit the needs of its students. The Times of
India, dated July 22, 1976, reports: "The age-old practice of
prescribing a fixed number of 20th century literary essays and
a fixed number of lines of poetry for the under-graduate courses has
been given up by the university and revised syllabi have been
drawn up in terms of relevant language objectives (skills and
abilities) and thematic objectives (socio-scientific values, themes
and attitudes.) "To meet the special needs of students the
university has drawn up four courses. The 'first course is for the
university entrants and comprises English grammar and usage in
relation to the needs of science and technology. The second course
entitled, 'A course in reading and listening' gives orientation in
library reading and practice in listening. The third course called 'A
course in productive English' trains the students in selecting
information and organizing camps in relation to particular needs of a
given audience like the laymen, educated groups and scientists. The
fourth course known as *A course in thesis writing and popular
writing' is meant for post-graduate students. The Times of India
reports further that 'This teaching of language by objectives has
been evolved after studies carried out in the university and it is
claimed that a systematic approach introduced since 1973 has
helped in solving the problems faced by students." This is a
significant step in the context of teaching English in India
today. The Tamil Nadu Agricultural University's experiment will
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be watched with great interest by most other Universities which
see.
The ELT situation in India is currently undergoing a
significant change. Under the new scheme of education English for
most students is L3. The implications of this change in the status
of English are scarcely perceived yet by our course designers
and curriculum framers. The revised syllabi for standards V to
X, in Maharashtra, for instance, are the same old syllabi for
English as L2 only watered down to suit the supposed needs of
the L3 learner. A syllabus for English as L3 cannot be designed
mechanically by reducing the number of structures and
vocabulary items prescribed for English as L2. Yet Maharashtra
has done precisely this. Presumably other States and Union
Territories have done the same.
Theoretically considered, the distinction between L2and L3 has
more serious implications for teaching than that between L1 and L2.The learner learning L3, finds himself in a bilingual situation, while
the learner learning L1, finds himself in a multilingual situation. The
L2 learner is capable of containing the interference stemming from
L3, without great difficulty. But in the acquisition of L3 the
cumulative interference stemming from both L, and L2not to
mention other factors like analogical creation, intra-lingual
interference and generalization from previous linguistic experience
etc. which are equally serious-is likely to cause grave difficulties to
the learner. It is not that interference is merely doubled. It never is
since language learning is not a straight business. It may be mixed
in diverse ways and may show itself in different forms and in
different places. In framing the syllabus, therefore, attention has to
be paid to all the factors that may impede learning. This is not an
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easy job. It calls for research in these areas. Dilution of the L2
syllabus can hardly meet the needs of the L3 learner.
It is sometimes contended that in a happen to be similar.
Gujarati and Hindi in Gujarat, Marathi and Hindi Li Maharashtra,
Bengali and Hindi in I West Bengal and the like are cited as
instances, them This it is argued that the learner learning his L3
does not start I with any serious linguistic handicap since his L3 is
similar I to his L1, and therefore easy to learn. This is a fallacious
argument. Two languages which resemble each other, according to
M. Weinreich9 and others who have studied | this problem, present
greater difficulty than two languages I which are dissimilar, although
the beginning of their study may be easier. If the second language
is known passively I it may not seriously interfere with the learning
of the third language. But in India in the non-Hindi speaking areas
Hindi will be known actively, first because it may soon become the
lingua franca and secondly because there will be greater exposure
to Hindi and greater need for learning it actively.
It is difficult for the average student to know more than
two languages actively. Michael West10 and others are of the view
that a multilingual who can handle more than two languages
effectively is very rare. The sheer logic of events will farce us to
teach Elfish for certain restricted purposes.
These complications in the teaching/ learning situation are got
to be taken into account in defining our objectives of teaching
English as L3, In an L3 situation emphasis may largely have to be on
the acquisition' of passive/receptive skills, particularly the skill of
reading. Writing and speaking, especially the latter, may receive
comparatively less emphasis. The theoretical linguist may not agree
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with such a reordering of priorities but the practical teacher may.
The irony of circumstances is that in an L2 situation we taught
English as it was L1 now that English is L3 we tend to teach it as L2.
A word with regard to L3 may not be out of place at this
juncture. Although English is now a compulsory third language it
does not have the status of a 'foreign' language like French or
Russian. We may propose a few rough and ready and absolutely
tentative criteria for distinguishing a foreign language from a
compulsory third language: (i) In countries where foreign languages
are taught effectively as in the U. S. S. R., for instance, one
foreign language is compulsory. It may not necessarily be English.
The pupil is free to choose any one of the foreign languages for the
teaching of which facilities exist in the country. In India English, by
and large, is a compulsory language. This element of compulsion
marks it off from other foreign languages which are taught
optionally.
In India there is an appreciable body of literature in English
known as Indo-Angiian literature. Indian creative spirit even today
finds free expression in English. English literature has also helped
the flowering of the Indian Renaissance. As Prof. Gokak has put it, it
is no exaggeration to say that it was in the English classroom that
the Indian literary Renaissance was born". There is no such parallel
literary tradition it any foreign language in this country. Although
French is taught in India, there is no Indo-French literary
tradition comparable with the Indo-Angiian literary tradition. This
has given English a special place in our education, (iii) It would
seem that foreign languages are generally learnt for certain
specific purposes. German, for instance, is learnt in India by
advanced students of physical sciences for purposes of
comprehension of scientific literature in that language. Courses like
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''Spoken French", ''English for tourists" etc. in countries where these
exist, point to the restricted use of these languages. In India English
is still used freely in several walks of life. This again marks it off
from other foreign languages, (iv) English continues to be used at
higher levels of administration and education. It is still. The
language of the intelligentsia and an important language of all
India competitive examinations. However in the latter sphere
languages mentioned in the Eighth Schedule to the Constitution are
making steady progress. Experts are of the view that a subject like
aesthetics, for instance, can very will be taught in Marathi, one of
the regional languages. In, this connection the remarks of the
Education Commission/seem pertinent ''English will continue to
enjoy a high status so long as it remains the principal medium of
education at the university stage, and the language of
administration at the Centre and in many of the States. Even after
the regional languages become media in higher education, a
working knowledge of English will be a valuable asset for all
students and a of reasonable proficiency in the language will be
necessary for those who proceed to the university.
The Education Commission, however, envisage the study of
English as a 'library language' in the not too distant future. Once
English is reduced to the status of a 'library language' it will cease to
be L3 and may rank as one of the important foreign languages. A
'library language' tends to acquire the status of a foreign language.
Prof. V. V. John, however, is of the view that the Education
Commission in using the term 'library language' did not intend to
give English a new status. According to him the teaching of English
as a 'library language' involves the teaching of all the four skills. "It
is with reference to English as a means of access to modern
{knowledge that the Education Commission invented the phrase."
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(Reading Comprehension at the College Level; . R. Narayanswamy:
C.I.E,F.I. monograph 8, 1973, age 179-Notes and References). The
implication that nglish as a 'library language' will acquire a new
status present in the following paragraph of the Education
commission's Report
'"It is true that English will be the most important library
language to be studied at this stage (Lower Secondary Stage:
Standards VIIIIX). We, however, think that it is also necessary to
encourage the study of other important library languages like
Russian, German, French, Spanish, Chinese or Japanese. Facilities
for their study should be provided in a few selected schools in each
State and it should be open to the students to study them, either in
addition to or in lieu of English or Hindi." This virtually implies that
English may have the same status as the other foreign languages. If
and when this conies about English will have ceased to be L3.
Although English has the status of a compulsory third, language
today and may continue to have it for a fairly long- time to come the
likelihood of its becoming a foreign language cannot be ruled out. It
is against such a background that we have to formulate our
objectives of teaching English today. As stated earlier the New
Education Policy does not contain any explicit statement on
language polity. It shows great concern for the creation of an overall
environment for development;
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CHAPTER 3
OBJECTIVES OFTEACHING ENGLISH
IN INDIA
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In any teaching situation three considerations would seem tobe vital: (i) Objectives of teaching- the subject (ii) Appropriatemethods and materials to achieve these objectives and (iii) Periodictesting to ascertain whether these objectives have actually beenachieved. These three thinge are interdependent. Unless theobjectives are defined clearly we cannot proceed to formulateproper methods of teaching, nor prepare suitable materials to helpachieve these objectives. Testing or evaluation may end up as anempty ritual unless we know what objectives to test. The evidenceof having achieved these objectives is to be found in thecompetencies or "behavior" of the learner whom we are going toexamine. Testing, which comes last, forces us to have a look at theobjectives, which are expected to- be realized by the learner. As Dr.Walker Hill1 puts it, in a sound system of university education the
objectives, the learning experiences provided in the college and theprocesses of evaluation are closely related, they areinterdependent."This is true of education at all levels.
One of the serious shortcomings of the ELT situation in India
particularly at the undergraduate and postgraduate Klevels-is the
lack of definite statement of objectives of teaching English. At
school level the objectives are stated more or less clearly in terms
of linguistic structures and vocabulary items. These objectives atthe school level seem 3 be far too ambitious judged by the
competence of pupils, but that is a different point altogether. At
college and postgraduate levels hardly any statement of
objectives exists. Beyond listing a number of text-books the Univer-
sity syllabi state nothing. As Brutons has pointed out, "But the real
problem and difficulty lie in the fact that from syllabuses and
examinations it is usually impossible to discover what the objectives
of teaching English are. Here again there is a marked difference to
be found between school and University practice and belief. Most
school syllabuses contain some sort of statement of what the
objectives are supposed to be but at the later stage, no such
statement is usual although it would be possible to deduce from
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examinations that the objective is to teach the subject matter of a
certain text and a few irrelevant tricks with the language."
A clear statement of objectives is fundamental to all serious
teaching endeavor. Teaching and-testing become erratic arbitrary.
and wayward if we have no objectives a to guide us. Most
undergraduate and postgraduate teaching in English seems to lack
direction owing to this shortcoming At the school level where
such a statement of objectives exists it seems hopelessly
ambitious judged by pupil achievement. We expect our S. S. G.
student to master about 200 odd structures and about 2000 vocabu-
lary items when the average S.S.C. can hardly use about 100
structures and 1000 vocabulary items effectively. K. P. Thakur and
D. P. Thakur3 have reported that at the beginning of a P. U. C.
course, the Bihar student has. on an average, the recognition
knowledge of only 1393 words. They further report that (i) ''60% of
the students who took the vocabulary test" (administered by them
to P. U. G. students) 'had the recognition knowledge of only 942
words out of the total of 4619 words in our list "(ii) onIy 10% of the
students had the recognition knowledge of about 3000 words as
suggested by the Shrinagar Conference of English Teachers held in
1961". This incompetence may be due to several extra-academic
reasons, like undeserved promotions, over-crowding, untrained
teachers etc. Yet he (the pupil) is our only evidence of
achievement of objectives. It is no use displaying grand
objectives when their realization is hardly possible. To quote
Dr.Walker Hill again, "Since any meaningful objective of
education implies some change in the characteristics or
competencies of students, it is to the students that we must look
for evidence of its achievement. And in order to find such
evidence, we must know what we are looking for. We must
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determine what characteristics we should expect to find in students,
in whom the objective is terms, we can plan learning experiences
which seem likely to lead to development of these characteristics.
And we can devise means of assessing the extent to which they
have been developed."
Of late the ELT situation in India has been changing so fast
that we need to look at it periodically and take stock of the situation
and reorientate ourselves in consonance with the changing times.
Retrospectively speaking it would seem, that the teaching situation,
as far as English! is concerned, was fairly stable until
Independence Wei may venture to state that for several decades
preceding Independence our syllabi, teaching methods and
testing procedures had remained fairly stable inspire of the fact
that standards of attainment in English were deteriorating judging
from examiners' reports on the performance of candidates. The
relevance of objectives in teaching English began to be questioned
only in the fifties. This long period of comparative stability in the
teaching situation made teachers complacent and conservative.
Michael West would have us believe that teachers by their very
nature are conservative creatures. They are apt to do as they are
done by Add to this, in India, the prolonged period of stability
during which the teaching situation remain almost unchanged. The
syllabi, the teaching methods a Testing procedures came to be
regarded as sacrosanct. This rigidity has been the bane of teaching
English in India today. The Indian teacher of English inherited this
tradition from his British predecessor. The teaching of English as Li
in an L2 situation was presumably due to the lead driven by the
first generation of British teachers who taught English in India
exactly as they did in the U.K. Wilga Rivers comments on such a
teaching situation as follows "Frequently such teachers teach as
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they were taught, by teachers who taught as they were taught,
and techniques appropnate in another era are perpetuated. From
time to time such teachers add a few techniques which they have
seen demonstrated or of which they have read, but their
approach to their lessons remains fundamentally unchanged. Their
students may not find the lessons particularly interesting or
exciting, but if they pass examination of a traditional type their
teachers are satisfied. Sueh teachers continue to conduct their
classes as they have always codueted them, unaware of the
fact that objectives in foreign language teaching may be
changing around them and that their teaching may have become
anachronistic and irrelevant to the young people who pass
through cheir classes. With the passing of time, new
situations arise for a nation and its people and these
establish pri