Thessalonike: The Imperial Thessalonike: The Imperial City at the Age of ModernityCity at the Age of Modernity

Dr. Stefanos KatsikasDr. Stefanos Katsikas

Director of Modern Greek Studies, Director of Modern Greek Studies, University of Illinois, Urbana-ChampaignUniversity of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign

Definition of ModernityDefinition of Modernity

Historic period beginning Historic period beginning from Renaissance (ca. 14from Renaissance (ca. 14thth century)century)

Characterized by: Characterized by: Move from feudalismMove from feudalism IndustrializationIndustrialization CapitalismCapitalism SecularizationSecularization RationalizationRationalization NationalismNationalism

SelânikSelânik in the Early 19 in the Early 19thth Century Century

Early 19Early 19thth century the Ottoman century the Ottoman Empire redraws its administrative Empire redraws its administrative mapmap

This was due to pragmatism and This was due to pragmatism and pressure by the European Great pressure by the European Great Powers of the time.Powers of the time.

1826: The city which by that time 1826: The city which by that time was the capital of a small was the capital of a small administrative unit (administrative unit (sanjak) became sanjak) became the capital of big administrative unit the capital of big administrative unit ((Vilâyet-i Selânik)Vilâyet-i Selânik)

The The SelânikSelânik villayet consisted of the villayet consisted of the sanjaks of: a) Selanik, b) Siroz sanjaks of: a) Selanik, b) Siroz (Serres), c) Drama and d) Taşoz (Serres), c) Drama and d) Taşoz (Thasos) (Thasos)

The “Auspicious Incident” and the The “Auspicious Incident” and the “Blood Tower”“Blood Tower”

Selânik Selânik was Janissary Strongholdwas Janissary Stronghold

Janissary elite military unit – of non-Janissary elite military unit – of non-Muslim recruited children which were Muslim recruited children which were Islamized and trained accordinglyIslamized and trained accordingly

Since 17Since 17thth century Janissary ceased to century Janissary ceased to function as an elite military unitfunction as an elite military unit

Sultan Mahmud II attempted to Sultan Mahmud II attempted to modernize the Ottoman armymodernize the Ottoman army

He fought the Janissaries. Those who He fought the Janissaries. Those who resisted were imprisoned and put to resisted were imprisoned and put to death by decapitationdeath by decapitation

Most of them in “The Blood Tower” Most of them in “The Blood Tower” (renamed to “White Tower”) since (renamed to “White Tower”) since 19121912

European Influences (I)European Influences (I) Driven by economic growth the city’s Driven by economic growth the city’s

population expandedpopulation expanded

18311831→30,000→30,000

19131913→150,000→150,000

1839 1839 → Period of Political Reforms → Period of Political Reforms (Tanzimat): equality of the Empire’s religious (Tanzimat): equality of the Empire’s religious communities (Hatti Sheriff Gulhane) communities (Hatti Sheriff Gulhane)

18561856→→Hatt-ıHatt-ı Hümâyûnu Hümâyûnu (religious (religious communities self-governing legal entities)communities self-governing legal entities)

Joint Greek and Ottoman naval operations to Joint Greek and Ottoman naval operations to clean the Aegean from piracyclean the Aegean from piracy

Sea trade to Thessalonike increased 5 fold in Sea trade to Thessalonike increased 5 fold in the following decadesthe following decades

As trade increases a new wealthy Greek and As trade increases a new wealthy Greek and Jewish aristocracy emergesJewish aristocracy emerges

European Influences (II)European Influences (II) This new class close commercial and intellectual This new class close commercial and intellectual

connections and under consular protectionconnections and under consular protection

Perikles Hatzilazaros (Greek)Perikles Hatzilazaros (Greek)

Hugo Allatini, Joeseph Misrachi (Jews)Hugo Allatini, Joeseph Misrachi (Jews)

Architects of shift of power from old elites to new Architects of shift of power from old elites to new commercial class commercial class

Regenerators of their own communities and Regenerators of their own communities and transformers of the city’s urban environmenttransformers of the city’s urban environment

Introduce European values, tastes, habitsIntroduce European values, tastes, habits

1836: the first small steamboat, the Levant sent by 1836: the first small steamboat, the Levant sent by British company.British company.

Abdul Mecid established a Ministry of Trade and Abdul Mecid established a Ministry of Trade and a Council of Public Worka Council of Public Work

Abolition of monopolies and freeing up of grain Abolition of monopolies and freeing up of grain trade enforce strong trading linkages with the trade enforce strong trading linkages with the dynamic industrializing economies of Western dynamic industrializing economies of Western and Central Europeand Central Europe

Transport InfrastructureTransport Infrastructure Between 1869 and 1889 the city walls were Between 1869 and 1889 the city walls were

torn down works develop the city’s port.torn down works develop the city’s port.

1871: railway Thessalonike to Pristina1871: railway Thessalonike to Pristina

1879: The first tram service started1879: The first tram service started

1888 the railway network is connected with 1888 the railway network is connected with that of Serbia and through Serbia with that of Serbia and through Serbia with Central EuropeCentral Europe

1888: 30,000 citizens cheered the arrival of 1888: 30,000 citizens cheered the arrival of the first train to the city from Paristhe first train to the city from Paris

A second railway connects Thessalonike with A second railway connects Thessalonike with Monastir in 1893 and a third with Istanbul in Monastir in 1893 and a third with Istanbul in 1896.1896.

In 1908 the city streets were illuminated with In 1908 the city streets were illuminated with electric lamp postselectric lamp posts

Changes in Social LifeChanges in Social Life 17681768→100 European citizens→100 European citizens

End of 19End of 19thth century more than century more than 10,000, most of which live to the 10,000, most of which live to the postpost

New tastes in the city’s social life, New tastes in the city’s social life, e.g. Cercle de Salonique (cross-e.g. Cercle de Salonique (cross-confessional upper class club (Jews, confessional upper class club (Jews, Greeks, Italians, Turks, Armenians, Greeks, Italians, Turks, Armenians, Europeans)Europeans)

Secular education – Primary School Secular education – Primary School children from 1500 in 1874 to 2,000 children from 1500 in 1874 to 2,000 in 1900 and 3,900 by 1912in 1900 and 3,900 by 1912

Example of Ali Riza and his wife Example of Ali Riza and his wife ZZübeyde over how to educate übeyde over how to educate Mustafa (their son)Mustafa (their son)

Political ModernizationPolitical Modernization 1869: second city after Istanbul to 1869: second city after Istanbul to

have municipal councilhave municipal council

Established following the French Established following the French model and was equipped with powers model and was equipped with powers to expropriate property for public goodto expropriate property for public good

1869: Sabri Pasha (modernizer) 1869: Sabri Pasha (modernizer) previous governor or Izmirprevious governor or Izmir

May 1898: First street names appearedMay 1898: First street names appeared

1869: appearance of newspapers. The 1869: appearance of newspapers. The first was the weekly gazette first was the weekly gazette SelânikSelânik in in four languagesfour languages

Turkish weekly Rumeli; Jewish La Turkish weekly Rumeli; Jewish La Epocha, Greek ErmisEpocha, Greek Ermis

Class Division and Urban Class Division and Urban EnvironmentEnvironment

1890s tramline eastwards out of the 1890s tramline eastwards out of the city, beyond the White Towercity, beyond the White Tower

The municipality lined this avenue with The municipality lined this avenue with acacias and provided a police stationacacias and provided a police station

Gradually the city’s wealthiest families Gradually the city’s wealthiest families moved there.moved there.

At the avenue’s end stood the imposing At the avenue’s end stood the imposing Villa Allatini behind its part of pinesVilla Allatini behind its part of pines

Kalamaria with its “marble palaces” Kalamaria with its “marble palaces” was the preserve of the richwas the preserve of the rich

The railway lines on the other side of The railway lines on the other side of the city poor areas: refugees and the city poor areas: refugees and peasants arrived from villages in the peasants arrived from villages in the interiorinterior

Macedonian QuestionMacedonian Question 1890: 118,000 people (55,000 Jews; 1890: 118,000 people (55,000 Jews;

26,00 Muslims; 16,000 Greek Orthodox; 26,00 Muslims; 16,000 Greek Orthodox; 10,000 “Bulgarians”; 2,500 Roma and 10,000 “Bulgarians”; 2,500 Roma and 8,500 others8,500 others

Bulgarian Self-consciousness: a) Pan-Bulgarian Self-consciousness: a) Pan-Slavism; b) mistreat by Church officials; Slavism; b) mistreat by Church officials; c) German-inspired nationalismc) German-inspired nationalism

1870: Establishment of Bulgarian 1870: Establishment of Bulgarian ExarchateExarchate

Battle between Patriarchists and Battle between Patriarchists and ExarchistsExarchists

Initially “Bulgarian”= Exarchist, then Initially “Bulgarian”= Exarchist, then Bulgarian nationalBulgarian national

1893: IMRO – terrorist acts, eg. 1903 1893: IMRO – terrorist acts, eg. 1903 blowing up of the French steamer blowing up of the French steamer GuadalquivirGuadalquivir

Young Turk RevolutionYoung Turk Revolution Start of the 20Start of the 20thth century Salonica hive of century Salonica hive of

plotting against Abdul Hamidplotting against Abdul Hamid

1896 Émigré Ottoman constitutionalist 1896 Émigré Ottoman constitutionalist committee “Union and Progress” foundedcommittee “Union and Progress” founded

Invigorated with the discontent of the Third Invigorated with the discontent of the Third Army Corps (Salonica) – loss of Greece, Army Corps (Salonica) – loss of Greece, Bulgaria, Serbia, BosniaBulgaria, Serbia, Bosnia

Restoration of 1876Restoration of 1876

Spring 1908 assassinations. Sultan sent Spring 1908 assassinations. Sultan sent senior intelligence officer from Istanbul to senior intelligence officer from Istanbul to investigate rumours of plottinginvestigate rumours of plotting

Major Ahmed Niyazi fearing discovery Major Ahmed Niyazi fearing discovery marched 200 followers to Istanbul marched 200 followers to Istanbul demanding restoration of constitutiondemanding restoration of constitution

July 24 1908 Abdul Hamid restored July 24 1908 Abdul Hamid restored constitutionconstitution

Socialist Workers FederationSocialist Workers Federation June 1908 Jewish June 1908 Jewish Féderation Socialiste Féderation Socialiste

OuvrièreOuvrière

Avraam Benaroya, Jew from BulgariaAvraam Benaroya, Jew from Bulgaria

Conceived Federation of separate sections Conceived Federation of separate sections each representing the four main ethnic each representing the four main ethnic groups (Jews, Turks, Greeks and Bulgarians)groups (Jews, Turks, Greeks and Bulgarians)

Published its literature in the languages of Published its literature in the languages of these groupsthese groups

Militant Sephardic Jews main associates and Militant Sephardic Jews main associates and by 1910 comprised 14 syndicates and 1912 by 1910 comprised 14 syndicates and 1912 mobilized about 12,000 workersmobilized about 12,000 workers

Its activities continued after Salonica became Its activities continued after Salonica became a Greek territory.a Greek territory.

In 1915 general elections two MPs in the In 1915 general elections two MPs in the Greek parliamentGreek parliament

The Balkan WarsThe Balkan Wars Formation of the Balkan League Formation of the Balkan League

(spring 1912)(spring 1912)

October 1912 First Balkan War – October 1912 First Balkan War – ended in May 1912ended in May 1912

8 November 1912 (26 October 1912) 8 November 1912 (26 October 1912) Greek Army entered the cityGreek Army entered the city

The Bulgarian army arrived with 8 The Bulgarian army arrived with 8 hour differencehour difference

March 18 1913 assassination of King March 18 1913 assassination of King George suspicions to Jews and George suspicions to Jews and Muslims but the culprit a person with a Muslims but the culprit a person with a history of mental disturbance. history of mental disturbance.

Second Balkan War (16 June 1913-July Second Balkan War (16 June 1913-July 1913)1913)

The Aftermath of the Balkan Wars The Aftermath of the Balkan Wars (I)(I) Constantine Raktivan (new civilian Constantine Raktivan (new civilian

governor general of Macedonia)-governor general of Macedonia)-declared equality of all citizensdeclared equality of all citizens

No direct rail link between old Greece No direct rail link between old Greece and Salonicaand Salonica

Ottoman currency, law, weights and Ottoman currency, law, weights and measures continued to be used until measures continued to be used until 19151915

International Financial Control which International Financial Control which supervised Greek money issue since supervised Greek money issue since bankruptcy of 1897 permitted the bankruptcy of 1897 permitted the National Bank of Greece to issue National Bank of Greece to issue drachmasdrachmas

Dressing habits change, abolition of fez Dressing habits change, abolition of fez

Greek official language and Greek Greek official language and Greek citizenship compulsorycitizenship compulsory

The Aftermath of the Balkan Wars The Aftermath of the Balkan Wars (II)(II)

Census after the Balkan Wars: Census after the Balkan Wars: 157,000 157,000

40,000 Greeks; 45,867 Ottomans 40,000 Greeks; 45,867 Ottomans (Muslims); 61,439 (Jews)(Muslims); 61,439 (Jews)

The upper town predominately The upper town predominately Muslim, much of the lower town Muslim, much of the lower town nearest the sea between 60% and 90%nearest the sea between 60% and 90%

Greeks traditional quarters on Eastern Greeks traditional quarters on Eastern and Western sidesand Western sides

No ghettos in Salonica, only few No ghettos in Salonica, only few neibhorhoods belonged only to one or neibhorhoods belonged only to one or the other religionthe other religion

First World War IFirst World War I King Constantine convinced of King Constantine convinced of

the superiority of German arms – the superiority of German arms – wanted Greece to remain neutralwanted Greece to remain neutral

Eleftherios Venizelos convinced Eleftherios Venizelos convinced that Entente would triumph that Entente would triumph argued in favour of the argued in favour of the intervention alongside the British intervention alongside the British and Frenchand French

British and French naval attack to British and French naval attack to Istanbul failed and sent troops Istanbul failed and sent troops through to Gallipoli peninsulathrough to Gallipoli peninsula

Sent troops to Thessalonike with Sent troops to Thessalonike with the secret consent of Venizelosthe secret consent of Venizelos

National SchismNational Schism The King asked the Entente allies to leave The King asked the Entente allies to leave

otherwise he would order Bulgarian to otherwise he would order Bulgarian to invadeinvade

Constitutional dispute to issue of national Constitutional dispute to issue of national sovereigntysovereignty

Bulgarian and German troops were allowed Bulgarian and German troops were allowed to take Greek border fortifications without to take Greek border fortifications without fight in Northern Greecefight in Northern Greece

30 August 1916: Pro Entente revolution – 30 August 1916: Pro Entente revolution – National DefenceNational Defence

Greece two governments and two armiesGreece two governments and two armies

Provisional government 200,000 recruits to Provisional government 200,000 recruits to the frontthe front

January 1916 Venizelos government January 1916 Venizelos government international recognitioninternational recognition

The Fire of the 1917 (I)The Fire of the 1917 (I) August 18 1917August 18 1917

Hot and sunny dayHot and sunny day

Started in the north-western corner of Started in the north-western corner of the upper townthe upper town

More than ¾ of the old city was More than ¾ of the old city was destroyed.destroyed.

Most of the Christian Orthodox Most of the Christian Orthodox churches escaped with the exception churches escaped with the exception of St. Demetrius (only the church’s of St. Demetrius (only the church’s walls remained)walls remained)

Ninety-five hundred buildings were Ninety-five hundred buildings were destroyeddestroyed

The Fire of 1917 (II)The Fire of 1917 (II) The Jewish community worst affected by The Jewish community worst affected by

fire – it consumed the city’s historic fire – it consumed the city’s historic headquartersheadquarters

Most of its 37 synagogues, libraries, Most of its 37 synagogues, libraries, schools, club building and officesschools, club building and offices

Homeless people in tents, huts and sheds Homeless people in tents, huts and sheds around the city, others migrated inside or around the city, others migrated inside or outside Greece.outside Greece.

Soup kitchens fed 30,000 dailySoup kitchens fed 30,000 daily

Fire created chance to build a new Fire created chance to build a new Salonica, showpiece of business and Salonica, showpiece of business and commercecommerce

Expropriation of the whole affected city Expropriation of the whole affected city centre and rebuilt the area on a new centre and rebuilt the area on a new basis.basis.

The Fire of 1917 (III)The Fire of 1917 (III) Fire: “a gift of divine providence”, Fire: “a gift of divine providence”,

VenizelosVenizelos

British architect Thomas Mawson chair British architect Thomas Mawson chair of a committee of Greeks, French and of a committee of Greeks, French and

Thomas Mawson was instructed to Thomas Mawson was instructed to regard the city as a blank slateregard the city as a blank slate

The city was “unworthy of the The city was “unworthy of the progressive and modern nation they progressive and modern nation they wished Greece to become”wished Greece to become”

Before: “unhygienic old town” – Now: Before: “unhygienic old town” – Now: “broader and straighter streets, larger “broader and straighter streets, larger squares”squares”

Industrialized zone established behind Industrialized zone established behind the port/ open slopes beyond the eastern the port/ open slopes beyond the eastern walls became parklands and a campus walls became parklands and a campus for a new university was created.for a new university was created.

The Fire Burns the “Poor” and The Fire Burns the “Poor” and Many of the Original PlansMany of the Original Plans

The government compensated the The government compensated the owners with certificates for buying lands owners with certificates for buying lands when availablewhen available

The wealthiest benefited the mostThe wealthiest benefited the most

Those who lacked the funds or sold the Those who lacked the funds or sold the certificates early were pushed to the certificates early were pushed to the outskirts of the city.outskirts of the city.

Many of the original plans abandoned Many of the original plans abandoned (governmental instability, lack of funds, (governmental instability, lack of funds, other priorities etc)other priorities etc)

Mawson’s original plan to unify the Mawson’s original plan to unify the railway into one grand new station was railway into one grand new station was abandoned.abandoned.

Plateia Aristotelous (Aristotle Square) Plateia Aristotelous (Aristotle Square) finished only in the 1950s and 1960sfinished only in the 1950s and 1960s

The 1923 Compulsory Greco-The 1923 Compulsory Greco-Turkish Population ExchangeTurkish Population Exchange

1923 compulsory Greco-Turkish 1923 compulsory Greco-Turkish population exchangepopulation exchange

30,000 Muslims obliged to leave 30,000 Muslims obliged to leave the city and Greeks majority of the city and Greeks majority of the population for the first time the population for the first time since the Byzantine era.since the Byzantine era.

160,00 Greek Orthodox deported 160,00 Greek Orthodox deported from the former Ottoman Empire from the former Ottoman Empire settled in the citysettled in the city

1928 75% of the population 1928 75% of the population Greeks (236,000)Greeks (236,000)