TheWiley Blackwell Encyclopedia ofConsumption and Consumer Studies

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The Blackwell Encyclopedia of SociologyEdited by George Ritzer

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TheWiley BlackwellEncyclopedia ofConsumption andConsumer Studies

Edited by

Daniel Thomas Cookand J. Michael Ryan

This edition first published 2015© 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd

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Set in 10/12.5pt Minion by Laserwords, Chennai, India

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Contents

Editors viContributors viiLexicon xvTimeline xxiIntroduction xxvAcknowledgments xxvii

Consumption and Consumer Studies A–Z 1

Index 579

Editors

Daniel Thomas Cook is Professor of Childhood Studies at Rutgers University–Camden, USA. He has published widely on consumer culture, childhood, and theirintersections in culture and history. He is author of The Commodification of Childhood:The Children’s Clothing Industry and the Rise of the Child Consumer (2004), and editorof several books, including The Lived Experiences of Public Consumption (2008). He isco-editor of the journal Childhood.

J. Michael Ryan is Assistant Professor of Sociology at The American University inCairo, Egypt. He has previously taught at Facultad Latinoamericana de CienciasSociales (FLACSO) in Quito, Ecuador, and the University of Maryland, USA. He is co-editor (with George Ritzer) of The Concise Encyclopedia of Sociology (Wiley-Blackwell,2011) and the forthcoming Wiley-Blackwell Encyclopedia of Social Theory (with BryanS. Turner et al.). Before returning to academia, he worked as a research methodologistat the National Center for Health Statistics (which is part of the Centers for DiseaseControl and Prevention) in Washington, DC. His research interests include consumerculture, gender, sexualities, and globalization.

Contributors

Sharad Agarwal, Indian Institute of Management Ranchi, India

Melike Aktas Yamanoglu, Ankara University, Turkey

Veronika A. Andorfer, University of Kassel, Germany

David L. Andrews, University of Maryland, USA

Katsuki Aoki, Meiji University, Japan

Janelle Applequist, Pennsylvania State University, USA

Patricia Arend, Fitchburg State University, USA

Denis G. Arnold, University of North Carolina, USA

Søren Askegaard, University of Southern Denmark, Denmark

Lucy Atkinson, University of Texas at Austin, USA

Minna Autio, University of Helsinki, Finland

Rob Beamish, Queen’s University, Canada

Russell Belk, York University, Canada

Michael M. Bell, University of Wisconsin–Madison, USA

Yaara Benger, Max Planck Institute for Human Development, Germany

Magdalena Bielenia-Grajewska, University of Gdansk, Poland

David B. Bills, University of Iowa, USA

Rebecca Bishop, Independent scholar

David D. Blouin, Indiana University South Bend, USA

Whitney Erin Boesel, University of California, Santa Cruz, USA

Michele Bonazzi, University of Bologna, Italy

Michael Ian Borer, University of Nevada, Las Vegas, USA

Jacqueline Botterill, Brock University, Canada

Gaspar Brändle, Universidad de Murcia, Spain

viii CONTRIBUTORS

Clair Brown, University of California, Berkeley, USA

Nicole Brown, University of Illinois at Urbana, Champaign, USA

Annechen Bahr Bugge, National Institute for Consumer Research, Norway

Thomas C. Burr, Illinois State University, USA

John Edward Campbell, Temple University, USA

Jessica Carbino, University of California, Los Angeles, USA

Vince Carducci, College for Creative Studies, USA

Vander Casaqui, Escola Superior de Propaganda e Marketing, Brazil

Emma Casey, Kingston University, UK

Christopher Chávez, University of Oregon, USA

Katherine K. Chen, City College of New York; Graduate Center, City University ofNew York, USA

Chih-Chin Chen, University of Maryland, USA

Hélène Cherrier, Griffith University, Australia

Elizabeth Chin, Art Center College of Design, USA

Sung-Chang Chun, Mercy College of Ohio, USA

Hannah Clarke, University of Arizona, USA

Bryan C. Clift, University of Maryland, USA

I. Glenn Cohen, Harvard Law School, USA

Daniel Thomas Cook, Rutgers University–Camden, USA

Matteo Corciolani, University of Pisa, Italy

Patricia Cormack, St. Francis Xavier University, Canada

Natalie Coulter, York University, Canada

Patrick Cox, Rutgers University, USA

Linden Dalecki, Kelce College of Business at Pittsburg State University, USA

Adel Daoud, University of Gothenburg, Sweden

Andrea Dassopoulos, University of Nevada, Las Vegas, USA

Piergiorgio Degli Esposti, University of Bologna, Italy

Tim Delaney, State University of New York at Oswego, USA

CONTRIBUTORS ix

Dominique Desjeux, Paris Descartes University, Sorbonne Paris Cité, France

Sara Di Chiazza, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Portugal

Randal Doane, Oberlin College, USA

Paddy Dolan, Dublin Institute of Technology, Ireland

Paul Eisewicht, TU Dortmund University, Germany

Karin M. Ekström, University of Borås, Sweden

Susan Falls, Savannah College of Art and Design, USA

Mark Featherstone, Keele University, UK

Krisztina Fehérváry, University of Michigan, USA

Mary Beth Finch, Northwestern University, USA

Penelope Francks, University of Leeds, UK

Peter N. Funke, University of South Florida, USA

Dustin Garlitz, University of South Florida, USA

John Germov, University of Newcastle, Australia

Kevin Fox Gotham, Tulane University, USA

Maaike Gottfried, DePaul University, USA

Ove Granstrand, Chalmers University of Technology, Sweden

Kent Grayson, Northwestern University, USA

David Grazian, University of Pennsylvania, USA

Kjerstin Gruys, University of California, Los Angeles, USA

Alya Guseva, Boston University, USA

Clara Gustafsson, Lund University, Sweden

Sejung Ham, University of Wisconsin–Madison, USA

Markus Hadler, Macquarie University, Australia

Michael A. Haedicke, Drake University, USA

Hans Peter Hahn, Goethe-Universität, Germany

Benjamin Halligan, University of Salford, UK

Eugene Halton, University of Notre Dame, USA

Christoph Henning, University of St. Gallen, Switzerland

x CONTRIBUTORS

Aaron Hess, Arizona State University, USA

Clare Hinrichs, Pennsylvania State University, USA

Elizabeth C. Hirschman, Rutgers University, USA

Morris B. Holbrook, Columbia University, USA

Marcus Holgersson, University of Gothenburg, Sweden

Kim Humphery, RMIT University, Australia

Eva Illouz, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Israel

Devon Johnson, Montclair State University, USA

Josée Johnston, University of Toronto, Canada

Ellis Jones, Holy Cross College, USA

Annamma Joy, University of British Columbia, Canada

Nathan Jurgenson, University of Maryland, USA

Andreas M. Kaplan, ESCP Europe, France

Douglas Kellner, University of California, Los Angeles, USA

Martha W. King, Graduate Center, City University of New York, USA

Andrzej Klimczuk, Warsaw School of Economics, Poland

Karin Knorr Cetina, University of Chicago, USA

Krzysztof Kubacki, Griffith University, Australia

Kathleen Kuehn, Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand

Kalevi Kull, University of Tartu, Estonia

Chenjerai Kumanyika, Clemson University, USA

Klaus R. Kunzmann, Emeritus, TU Dortmund University, Germany

Craig D. Lair, Gettysburg College, USA

John T. Lang, Occidental College, USA

Beryl Langer, La Trobe University, Australia

Lauren Langman, Loyola University Chicago, USA

Jörgen Larsson, Chalmers University of Technology, Sweden

Stacey J. Lee, University of Wisconsin–Madison, USA

Ming Lim, University of Leicester, UK

CONTRIBUTORS xi

Yu-Wei Lin, University for the Creative Arts, UK

Jan Logemann, University of Göttingen, Germany

Janet A. Lorenzen, Williamette University, USA

Paolo Magaudda, Università degli Studi di Padova, Italy

Amias S. Maldonado, University of Texas at Austin, USA

Lidia K. C. Manzo, University of Trento, Italy

Stephen T. Margulis, Grand Valley State University, USA

Martha A. Martinez, DePaul University, USA

Gary T. Marx, Emeritus, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, USA

Nita Mathur, Indira Gandhi National Open University, India

Cynthia Maurer, Rutgers University, USA

Christopher Mayes, University of Sydney, Australia

Matthew P. McAllister, Pennsylvania State University, USA

Matthew McDonald, Assumption University, Thailand

Octavio Medina, The World Bank, USA

Steven Miles, Manchester Metropolitan University, UK

Candace N. Miller, University of Virginia, USA

Toby Miller, Cardiff University, UK; Murdoch University, Australia

Murray Milner Jr., University of Virginia, USA

Ross Mouer, Meiji University, Japan

Isaac I. Muñoz, University of Dallas, USA

Rolland Munro, University of Leicester, UK

Dhiraj Murthy, Goldsmiths, University of London, UK

Agnes Nairn, EM-Lyon Business School, France

Stephanie O’Donohoe, University of Edinburgh Business School, UK

Cele C. Otnes, University of Illinois, USA

Yok-Fong Paat, University of Texas at El Paso, USA

Madeleine Pape, University of Wisconsin–Madison, USA

Aaron Passell, Furman University, USA

xii CONTRIBUTORS

Georgios Patsiaouras, University of Leicester, UK

Lisa Peñaloza, Kedge Business School, France

Mark Allen Peterson, Miami University, USA

Simone Polillo, University of Virginia, USA

Ethan Prall, Harvard Law School

Harland Prechel, Texas A&M University, USA

Allison J. Pugh, University of Virginia, USA

P. S. Raju, University of Louisville, USA

Silver Rattasepp, University of Tartu, Estonia

David Redmon, University of Kent at Canterbury, UK

Jacqueline Reid-Walsh, Pennsylvania State University, USA

Lucia A. Reisch, Copenhagen Business School, Denmark

Raquel Barbosa Ribeiro, University of Lisbon, Portugal

Petra Riefler, University of Vienna, Austria

Viviane Riegel, Goldsmiths, University of London, UK

George Ritzer, University of Maryland, USA

Alexandra Rodney, University of Toronto, Canada

Chris Rojek, City University, London, UK

Jörg Rössel, University of Zurich, Switzerland

Mark Rubinfeld, Westminster College, Salt Lake City, USA

Joe Rumbo, Texas State University, USA

Julie A. Ruth, Rutgers University–Camden, USA

J. Michael Ryan, The American University in Cairo, Egypt

Michael T. Ryan, Dodge City Community College, USA

Robert W. Rydell, Montana State University, USA

Ethan D. Schoolman, University of Michigan, USA

Juliet B. Schor, Boston College, USA

Jonathan E. Schroeder, Rochester Institute of Technology, USA

Justin L. Schupp, Kenyon College, USA

CONTRIBUTORS xiii

Rachel Schwartz, St. Joseph’s College, USA

Richard Sharpley, University of Central Lancashire, UK

Michael Siciliano, University of California, Los Angeles, USA

Régine Sirota, Université Paris Descartes, France

Leslie Sklair, London School of Economics and Political Science, UK

Don Slater, London School of Economics and Political Science, UK

Alexandra Nutter Smith, University of Washington–Tacoma, USA

Jennifer Smith Maguire, University of Leicester, UK

Isabel Soares, University of Lisbon, Portugal

Anna Sparrman, Linköping University, Sweden

Andre Spicer, City University London, UK

Keith Spiller, Open University, UK

Michael K. Stein, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, USA

Joel Stillerman, Grand Valley State University, USA

Inger L. Stole, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, USA

Per Strömberg, Telemark University College, Norway

Anthony Sullivan, University of the Arts, London, UK

Cass R. Sunstein, Harvard University, USA

Yvette Taylor, London South Bank University, UK

JacobThomas, University of California, Los Angeles, USA

DeborahThorne, Ohio University, USA

Joseph J. Tohill, York University, Canada

Keila Tyner, Texas State University, USA

Koen Van Bommel, Vrije Universiteit, Netherlands

Joeri Van den Bergh, InSites Consulting, Netherlands

Jacquelien van Stekelenburg, VU University Amsterdam, Netherlands

Alladi Venkatesh, University of California, Irvine, USA

Luca M. Visconti, ESCP Europe, France

Faye Linda Wachs, California State Polytechnic University, Pomona, USA

xiv CONTRIBUTORS

Randi Wærdahl, Agder Research, Norway

Chris Warhurst, University of Warwick, UK

Stephen L. Wearing, University of Technology, Sydney, Australia

Christine A. Wernet, University of South Carolina, USA

Frederick F. Wherry, Yale University, USA

Jennifer M. Whitmer, University of Nevada, Las Vegas, USA

Wendy A. Wiedenhoft-Murphy, John Carroll University, USA

Lauren T. Williams, Griffith University, Australia

Todd Wolfson, Rutgers University, USA

Newman ChunWai Wong, Midwestern State University, USA

M .J. Xavier, Indian Institute of Management Ranchi, India

Jane Zavisca, University of Arizona, USA

Dennis Zuev, CIES-ISCTE, Portugal

Sharon Zukin, City University of New York, USA

Lexicon

Technology and New MediaApple 19Beauty Industry 38Credit Cards 206Digital-Mobile Consumption and

Marketing 244eBay 251Edutainment 260Facebook 277Generation Y 321Hollywood 353Infomercial 363Infotainment 364Intellectual Property 366Internet, The, and Consumption 368Las Vegas 377Marketing/Marketing Science 389

Mass Culture 407Mass Marketing 410Mass Media 411Methods of Consumer Research 422Music and Consumer Experience 435Obsolescence: Planned, Progressive, Stylistic

451Open Source and Consumption 455Outsourcing 457Peer-to-peer File Sharing 461Popular Culture 467Prosumption 476Simulations 516Social Media 519Visual Consumption 556YouTube 576

GlobalizationAmericanization 12Capitalism 67Coca-Colonization 89Commodification 90Commodity Chains 95Consumer Cosmopolitanism 110Consumer Society 145Culture-Ideology of Consumerism

220Culture Industries 222Disneyization 246Ecotourism 255Fair Trade 280Finance/Financial Markets 293Free Trade Zones/Export Processing Zones

310

Global Justice Movement 328Global Markets 331Globalization and Consumption 333Glocalization/Grobalization 338Green Consumption 346Homogenization and Heterogenization

356Locavorism 387Mass Culture 407Mass Marketing 410Mass Media 411Material Culture Studies 414McDonaldization 416Medical Tourism 418ModernizationTheory 428Nike 445

xvi LEXICON

Occupy Movement 453Outsourcing 457Slow Food Movement 517Starbuckization 524

Sweatshops 534Tourism 549World’s Fairs and International Expositions

571

IdentitiesAfrican Americans and Consumption 10Asian Americans and Consumption 23Beauty Industry 38Behavioral Economics and Consumption

41Body and Consumer Culture 49Brand Loyalty 57Brand Mascots 58Brands and Branding 59Burning Man 65Celebrity 71Children’s Consumer Culture 75Citizenship and Consumption 81Class 86Commodities 93Commodity Racism 99Conspicuous Consumption 101Consumer Activism 103Consumer Behavior 105Consumer Socialization 144Consumer Society 145Consumers, Flawed 154Consumption and Identity 162Consumption, Postmodern 183Consumption Rituals 187Consumption and Sport 191Cosmetic Surgery 202Cultural Capital 209Dandyism 229Diderot Effect 243Do-It-Yourself (DIY) 247

Downshifting 248Education and Consumption 257Emotions, Consumption and 263Fashion 286Femininities 290Flâneur/Flânerie 295Gay and Lesbian/Queer Markets/Marketing

313Gender and Consumer Culture 316Generation Y 321Girl Culture 326Latinos and Consumption 379Lifestyle 383Locavorism 387Masculinity 403Metrosexual 427Mothers/Motherhood 433Narcissism 439Niche Marketing 443Nostalgia 447Pets 462Politics and Consumer Culture 463Popular Culture 467Privacy 473Prosumption 476Quality of Life, Measurements of 481Sexualities and Consumption 501Teens 543Tweens 551Youth Culture(s) 573

InequalitiesBankruptcy 28Capitalism 67Citizenship and Consumption 81Class 86Coca-Colonization 89Commodity Chains 95

Commodity Racism 99Conspicuous Consumption 101Consumer Activism 103Consumer Protection Agency 137Consumer Society 145Consumers in Emerging Economies 150

LEXICON xvii

Cooperatives 200Cultural Capital 209Debt 235Diderot Effect 243Economy, Informal 252Elias, Norbert 261Ethical Consumption 268Fair Trade 280Farmers’ Markets 284Finance/Financial Markets 293Flea Markets 296Food Deserts 300Frankfurt School 305Free Trade Zones/Export Processing Zones

310Gay and Lesbian/Queer Markets/Marketing

313Gender and Consumer Culture 316Gifts 324Global Justice Movement 328Green Consumerism 342Green Consumption 346Housing/Housing Markets 357

Leisure and Consumption 381Marketplace Trust 393Markets, Moral Aspects of 395Marx, Karl 397Medical Tourism 418ModernizationTheory 428Needs, True and False 440Needs and Wants 442Obesity 449Occupy Movement 453Open Source and Consumption 455Outsourcing 457Politics and Consumer Culture 463Quality of Life, Measurements of 481Scarcity and Artificial Scarcity 489Slow Food Movement 517Socially Responsible Marketing (SRM)

523Sustainable Consumption 530Sweatshops 534Taxes 541Veblen, Thorstein 555Wal-Mart 559

Key FiguresAdorno, Theodor 1Barthes, Roland 32Baudrillard, Jean 33Benjamin, Walter 42Birmingham School 47Bourdieu, Pierre 51Consumer Activism 103Consumer Movements, Contemporary

128Consumer Protection Agency 137

Consumer Resistance Movements 139Cooperatives 200de Certeau, Michel 230Debord, Guy 233Elias, Norbert 261Frankfurt School 305Marx, Karl 397Veblen, Thorstein 555Warhol, Andy 561Williams, Raymond 569

MovementsAnti-Consumption Tactics 15Boycotts 55Burning Man 65Consumer Movements, Contemporary

128Consumer Resistance Movements 139Cooperatives 200Culture Jamming 226

Do-It-Yourself (DIY) 247Downshifting 248Ecotourism 255Ethical Consumption 268Fair Trade 280Farmers’ Markets 284Gentrification 322Global Justice Movement 328

xviii LEXICON

Marx, Karl 397Occupy Movement 453Open Source and Consumption 455Politics and Consumer Culture 463Recycling 485

Slow Food Movement 517Socially Responsible Marketing (SRM)

523Sustainable Consumption 530

PracticesAdvertising 2Anti-Consumption Tactics 15Arcades 21B2B Marketing 27Body and Consumer Culture 49Boycotts 55Character Licensing 74Christmas 77Consumer Activism 103Consumer Behavior 105Consumer Resistance Movements 139Consumer Socialization 144Consumption and Identity 162Consumption Rituals 187Cosmetic Surgery 202Counterfeiting/Piracy 204Cultural Omnivores 214Culture Jamming 226Dandyism 229Death and Consumption 231Decluttering 238Department Stores 240Diderot Effect 243Do-It-Yourself (DIY) 247Downshifting 248Economy, Informal 252Ethical Consumption 268Experiential Consumption 273Fair Trade 280Farmers’ Markets 284Fashion 286Flâneur/Flânerie 295

Flea Markets 296Food 297Fordism/Post-Fordism 301Franchising 304Gentrification 322Gifts 324Hyperconsumption 360Leisure and Consumption 381Lifestyle 383Locavorism 387Marketing/Marketing Science 389Medical Tourism 418Merchandising 421Metrosexual 427Money 430Music and Consumer Experience 435Open Source and Consumption 455Outsourcing 457Peer-to-Peer File Sharing 461Prosumption 476Public Relations 477Recycling 485Servicescapes 499Shopping 505Socially Responsible Marketing (SRM)

523Stealth Marketing 526Sustainable Consumption 530Sweatshops 534Waste 563Weddings 566

Race, Gender, Body, and SexualityAfrican Americans and Consumption 10Asian Americans and Consumption 23Barbie 30Beauty Industry 38

Behavioral Economics and Consumption41

Body and Consumer Culture 49Citizenship and Consumption 81

LEXICON xix

Commodity Racism 99Consumption and Identity 162Consumption and Sport 191Cosmetic Surgery 202Cultural Capital 209Emotions and Consumption 263Fashion 286Femininities 290Gay and Lesbian/Queer Markets/Marketing

313Gender and Consumer Culture 316

Girl Culture 326Global Justice Movement 328Latinos and Consumption 379Lifestyle 383Masculinity 403Metrosexual 427Mothers/Motherhood 433Nike 445Sexualities and Consumption 501Warhol, Andy 561Weddings 566

Situated ConsumptionAmericanization 12Arcades 21Authenticity 25Big-Box Stores 45Bricolage 63Burning Man 65Carnivals/Carnivalesque 69Children’s Consumer Culture 75Cities, Visual Consumption of 79Commodities 93Commodity Fetishism 97Consumers in Emerging Economies 150Consumption in Africa 157Consumption in China 159Consumption in India 167Consumption in Japan 170Consumption, Landscapes of 173Consumption in the Middle East/Arab World

174Consumption in Postcommunist Countries

179Consumption in the United States 195

Dandyism 229Department Stores 240Economy, Informal 252Ecotourism 255Farmers’ Markets 284Flea Markets 296Food Deserts 300Free Trade Zones/Export Processing Zones

310Global Markets 331Las Vegas 377Locavorism 387Medical Tourism 418Occupy Movement 453Servicescapes 499Shopping Malls 509Supermarkets 528Tourism 549Wal-Mart 559Whole Foods Market 567World’s Fairs and International Expositions

571

TheoriesAdorno, Theodor 1Authenticity 25Barthes, Roland 32Baudrillard, Jean 33Behavioral Economics and Consumption

41Benjamin, Walter 42Birmingham School 47

Bourdieu, Pierre 51Commodification 90Commodity Fetishism 97Commodity Racism 99Conspicuous Consumption 101Consumer Culture, History of 118Consumer Culture Theory (CCT) 124Consumer Movements, History of 133

xx LEXICON

Consumer Socialization 144Consumer Society 145Consumers, Flawed 154Consumption and Identity 162Consumption, Postmodern 183Consumption, Spectacles of 189Coolhunting 199Cultural Capital 209Cultural Studies 216Culture Jamming 226Culture-Ideology of Consumerism 220de Certeau, Michel 230Debord, Guy 233Disneyization 246Elias, Norbert 261Ethical Consumption 268Experiential Consumption 273Failing Consumption 279Fashion 286Fordism/Post-Fordism 301Frankfurt School 305

Gender and Consumer Culture 316Gifts 324Glocalization/Grobalization 338Governmentality and Consumer Culture

339Homogenization and Heterogenization

356Hyperconsumption 360Just-in-Time Production 373Marx, Karl 397Material Culture Studies 414McDonaldization 416Methods of Consumer Research 422ModernizationTheory 428Needs and Wants 442Needs, True and False 440Semiotics 492Starbuckization 524Symbolic Exchange 536Symbolic Value 538

Timeline

YEAR EVENT4000 bc Bartering is common method of trade500 bc – ad 400 Greek agoras dominate Mediterranean commercial life210 bc – ad 1450s The Silk Road is an important trade route between Europe,

Africa, the Middle East, and Asia100 bc – ad 476 Roman Forums are leading centers of commercial activityad 600s Paper money becomes common in China during the Tang

Dynasty1400s Markets become centerplace of trading, including a number of

prominent souks in the Middle East1602 The Dutch East India Corporation was founded, progenitor of

the modern corporation1760s – 1840s The height of the Industrial Revolution1780s Palais-Royal opens in Paris as first arcade1786 First advertising agency – William Taylor – opens1844 French Industrial Exposition of 1844 is predecessor to World’s

Fairs1851 The Crystal Palace is constructed as part of the Great

Exhibition of 18511852 Bon Marché opens in Paris as world’s first department store1859 A&P opens in the United States as first chain store1867 First industrial assembly line is used by the meatpacking

industry in Chicago1893 World Columbian Exposition held in Chicago, making use of a

“midway” and “anchor” exhibits as forerunners of shoppingmalls and amusement parks

1911 Hollywood produces its first film shot by Nestor MotionPicture Company

1913 First Bollywood film produced – Raja Harishchandra byDadasaheb Phalke

1916 Market Square opens in Chicago

xxii TIMELINE

YEAR EVENT1923 Country Club opens in Kansas City, Missouri

The Frankfurt School, associated with the Institute for SocialResearch, is established in Germany

1924 A&W opens first food service franchise1936 First issue of Consumer Reports is published1940s Hotel-casinos being to appear on “strip” in Las Vegas1945 End of WWII1946 Levittown founded on Long Island, New York1947 Northgate opens in Seattle, Washington1949 Diners Club issues first universal credit card1954 Northland opens outside Detroit, Michigan1955 McDonald’s begins franchising

Disneyland Resort opens in Anaheim, California1956 Southdale opens in Edina, Minnesota as world’s first enclosed

shopping mall1957 First superstore opens as predecessor to Toys ’R Us1959 First Barbie doll sold

First free trade/export processing zone in the world establishedin Ireland

1962 SamWalton opens Walmart Discount City in Rogers, Arkansas1964 Center for Contemporary Culture Studies founded at

University of Birmingham (UK) by Richard Hoggart1964 Nike begins operations as Blue Ribbons Sports1967 First international McDonald’s open in Canada and Costa Rica1967 Journal of Consumer Affairs launched1970 First outlet mall opens outside Reading, Pennsylvania1971 First Starbucks opens in Seattle, Washington1974 Journal of Consumer Research launched1976 Apple founded1980 Whole Foods Market opens first store in Austin, Texas1981 West Edmonton Mall opens in Canada1985 Home Shopping Network is launched1986 First Burning Man event held in Black Rock desert of Northern

Nevada1986 Slow Food Movement founded by Carlo Petrini to promote

traditional and regional cuisine1988 First Wal-Mart Supercenter opens1989 Adbusters is founded as an anti-consumerist organization in

Vancouver, Canada1992 Mall of America opens in Bloomington, Minnesota

TIMELINE xxiii

YEAR EVENT1992 First Buy Nothing Day is held in Canada as an international

day of protest against consumerism1993 Consumer Research Network of European Sociological

Association begins1995 amazon.com begins operations1995 eBay begins operations1996 Wal-Mart opens first cybermall1996 Celebration, Florida opens as example of new urbanism1997 Ericsson introduces the first device known as a "smartphone"1997 Consumption, Markets, and Culture (journal) launched1998 Google founded1998 PayPal founded as online payment processing and money

transfer service1999 Easton Lifestyle Center opens phase I in Columbus, Ohio1999 Battle for Seattle protests break out over WTO in Seattle,

Washington1999 Napster begins operating as a peer-to-peer file sharing service2001 The first iPod is released by Apple, Inc.2001 Journal of Consumer Culture launched2003 iTunes store opens2004 Child and Teen Consumption biennial international

conference launched2004 Facebook begins operations2005 YouTube begins operations2006 Consumer Culture Theory annual conference and consortium

launched2006 Twitter begins operations2009 The Dubai Mall, currently the largest shopping mall in the

world by total area, opens in the United Arab Emirates2011 Occupy Movement takes off2012 Sociology of Consumers and Consumption Section of the

American Sociological Association launched2015 Wiley Blackwell Encyclopedia of Consumption and Consumer

Studies publishedJ. Michael Ryan

Introduction

The academic interest in consumption and consumer studies has its primary origins inthe interwar period in Europe. The social importance of consumption to everyday lifeand politics, however, dates back to the beginnings of permanent settlements amonghumans. From the early days of bartering, to the Greek agoras, to the Roman Forums,to McDonald’s, Wal-Mart, and the internet, the exchange of goods and services andtheir relevance as markers of individual social identity and engines of large-scale socialchange has, in many ways, been at the heart of human sociality.Although consumption was once arguably more of a necessary practice to obtain

needed goods and services (something it still is today), it has now also become a formof social diversion, entertainment, and lifestyle among those of us who are privilegedenough to be able to take part in what somemight see as its excesses.The appearance ofshopping malls, the spread of local and international franchises, the appearance of thecredit card, and,more recently, the internet have all pushed consumption from themar-gins to the center in the everyday lives ofmany.This push to the center has also occurredwithin the academy, where a growing number of institutions now offer courses, majors,and even departments devoted to the study of consumer culture.The social-cultural study of consumers and consumption stands today as a robust

area of scholarly inquiry, growing largely since the end of the last century and contin-uing apace as the landscapes of various consumer cultures arise and transform. Overthe last two decades, scholars from around the world have produced influential the-ories and substantive empirical research on consumers and consumption that touchupon virtually all key aspects of social life and social thought. Recent scholarship drawsupon and speaks to key questions and problems claimed within the social and culturalsciences, broadly speaking – for example, power, inequality, social differentiation andidentity, ecological impact, meaning, structure and agency, and the relations betweenmicro-interactions and large-scale patterns.In this light, we have curated the Wiley Blackwell Encyclopedia of Consumption

and Consumer Studies (ECCS) as an accessible and focused reference, suitable forinstructors, seasoned researchers, and students alike. It is a tool and resource for thosewho seek thoughtful yet to-the-point discussions of key concepts, issues, and figuresin this growing, expansive field. The distinctive feature of the ECCS is the diversityof voices, paradigms, and disciplines it brings to bear on the study of consumers andconsumption. Renowned and emergent scholars from sociology, communication,consumer behavior, marketing, psychology, and a variety of other fields offer a breadthof perspectives and approaches to the topics they address in their respective entries.This volume has benefited not only from the fresh perspectives of advanced graduate

xxvi INTRODUCTION

students and early-career scholars from a variety of disciplines, but also from theexpertise of well-established experts in the field of consumption. As well, we includeauthors from countries around the world, including Brazil, Canada, Egypt, France,Greece, Israel, Italy, the Netherlands, Norway, Peru, Sweden, the United Kingdom, andthe United States, among others.Assembling such texts from such a wide range of fields and varying national contexts

into a single compact volume has proven both challenging and rewarding, with gapsand omissions of people and concepts unavoidable. We, as co-editors, have made noattempt to reconcile the perspectives and paradigms offered by the different authors,preferring to allow each to speak for her- or himself. As a reference text, the ECCS isnotmeant to be read cover to cover for ideological or theoretical consistency, but to offerperspectives on an open and dynamic area of inquiry. In that way, we hope to make theECCS an open resource available for a plethora of uses and needs and another step inhelping to coalesce this dynamic field of inquiry.We hope you find the Wiley Blackwell Encyclopedia of Consumption and Consumer

Studies to be both enjoyable as well as practical, at once handy and engaging.

Daniel Thomas CookRutgers University–Camden, USA

J. Michael RyanThe American University in Cairo, Egypt

Acknowledgments

This project is the result of the hard work of not only the editors but also the manycontributors, the publishers, and the unnamed others who have been involved in itsproduction. The primary thanks belong to the dedicated contributors who took thetime and energy to write the outstanding entries that make up this work. We were trulyimpressed by the caliber of scholarship among them, a feature which certainly madeour jobs as editors much easier. It is to them that the quality of this project is trulyattributable.We would also like to thank the outstanding team at Wiley Blackwell for their

support and dedication to this project. Justin Vaughan, our publisher, has been a realsource of encouragement in helping make the dream we had of producing this kindof resource into a reality. Ben Thatcher has also been an invaluable support throughhis attention to detail, his patience, and for being always willing to offer guidance andassistance.