thin-film and printable batteries: 2010€¦ · 1.1.4 thin-film battery chemistries, materials and...

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Thin-Film and Printable Batteries: 2010

Chapter One

April 2010

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Chapter One: Introduction

1.1 Background to this Report

1.1.1 Thin-Film and Printable Batteries: What Are They Good For?

A new class of electronic devices, often associated with the “Internet-of-things” concept, is

emerging and includes RFID tags, electronic shelf labels (ESLs), active cosmetic/drug delivery

patches, low-cost medical diagnostic products, remote sensor arrays, powered smartcards

and smart packaging of various types. Although these devices may be powered to some

extent by an energy harvesting approach or by an inductive field generated by some kind of

reader system, battery power installed in the electronic device itself usually enables such

devices to provide a much higher level of functionality. For example, battery-powered smart

cards can have their own displays for one-time password and other applications—something

that would be hard to achieve any other way.

A variety of small, low-cost batteries have powered electronics for generations and with

considerable success. Today, the power sources used for the devices listed above are mostly

button/hearing aid/coin batteries, or sometimes even larger batteries. In many cases, these

batteries are quite suitable for the task in terms of power output and longevity. They are also

very inexpensive, long-lived, have decent energy densities, and are based on very mature

technology. Given all this, there is—on the face of it—no good reason why anyone should

spend time developing new kinds of batteries for these devices. At least, there is no good

reason why a firm should spend time in this way and expect to make money!

Nonetheless, a growing number of firms are supplying thin-film and printable batteries, which

they claim are better suited to the applications discussed above. Such companies typically

cite the following advantages of their products:

Size: Thin-film (TF)/printable batteries are often better suited by virtue of their form

factor than any other kind of battery for powering the kind of electronic devices listed

above. This is perhaps best illustrated again by the powered smart card, which could

not easily be powered by conventional coin/button batteries. The use of these

conventional batteries would make the card much too thick to easily carry in a wallet.

By contrast, the thin-film batteries now being commercialized are typically just a few

millimeters thick. The bottom line is that while very small by the standards of (say) a

car battery, these traditional batteries (notably button/coin batteries) are still quite

large and bulky compared to what is needed for the large-area/flexible/disposable

electronics sector.

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Shape: These batteries can be formed to fit in almost any shape, depending on the

application.

Flexibility: Potentially, and to some extent actually, TF/printable batteries can be

fabricated on a flexible substrate. This makes them highly suitable for use in medical

patches, smart bandages, smart packaging and smart clothing. In the future, these

new kinds of batteries may be also be used in flexible displays (a product category that

does not really exist as yet).

Environmental and safety superiority: Compared to conventional button batteries,

thin-film batteries (but not printable batteries) are typically entirely solid-state

devices; as a result, these batteries are intrinsically safe and do not pose the risks of

spilling, boiling or gassing associated with traditional batteries. While safety is really

not a major threat with conventional batteries, the exploding laptop battery scare of a

few years back has sensitized the consuming public that batteries can be a threat.

There is also a potential health and safety issue from conventional batteries in that

they often use hazardous chemicals, including lead, mercury, and cadmium. These are

not materials that anyone wants in smart packaging for food or even pharmaceuticals.

Solid-state thin-film batteries are also more likely to be considered environmentally

friendly.

Temperature stability: Most existing rechargeable batteries lose performance at high

temperatures. Several producers of thin-film batteries claim that their technologies

demonstrate superior temperature stability and can operate up to about 150° Celsius.

This makes them suitable for applications/products where high thermal processes—

such as lamination—are used.

Manufacturability: Depending on the specific battery, various kinds of manufacturing

processes are put forward by suppliers of TF/printable batteries as providing

advantages of which the most important is cost savings. Printing batteries is the most

strategically important of these manufacturing strategies and is a key theme

throughout this report.

1.1.2 Cost Problems and Cost Strategies

The product/market strategies of the firms that are discussed in this report all amount to

building a business case for TF/printable batteries around the advantages of these batteries

that are listed above. However, despite all of these advantages, such strategies are subverted

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to some extent by the fact that the current generation of thin-film and printable batteries are

more expensive than existing button/coin batteries. This is because:

There is a need to recapture development costs over a relatively short period of time,

while development costs for conventional batteries have long since been recovered.

The production volumes for button/coin batteries are huge, while for TF/printable

batteries they are very small. Thus for TF/printable batteries, economies of scale

seldom if ever apply; at least not today.

Not that any TF/printable battery firm would want to compete on price alone and many of

them clearly do not have the resources to do so. Most manufacturers of these new kinds of

batteries are relatively small firms and it is a long standing finding of research into business

strategies that smaller firms never do well when they have to compete on price.

There are really three ways to address this price problem, and they are not mutually exclusive:

To essentially route around the pricing problem with the battery company creating its

own high-value-added products in which the batteries are used. Cosmetic patches are

the main example here. The problem with this approach is that firms must develop

new skill sets and acquire new resources if they are to sell the whole of the product,

not just the battery.

To predict and rely on future, major economies of scale that will make the price points

for TF/printable batteries much more comparable with conventional batteries. Every

firm in the TF/printable battery space believes this to some extent, but it is important

to realize that this hope is predicated on some kind of “take-off” application.

To adopt a strategy that consists in searching for lower cost methods for

manufacturing batteries. Often, but by no means always, as we have already noted

these new production modes involve printing.

1.1.3 The Business Case for Printable Batteries

For the purposes of this report, we define printed batteries as any battery that uses printing

technology in its manufacture. Most, if not all, printed batteries today use printing only for

the electrodes and then utilize a liquid electrolyte between the electrodes. (Liquid

electrolytes have a viscosity similar to water and therefore need a solid in which to contain

them; they are typically absorbed into a “separator” material.)

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There are several chemistries currently being used by companies that have developed

printable battery technology, but they are usually zinc manganese dioxide or zinc carbon.

These are relatively low-cost materials when compared with the various lithium chemistries

used in many of the thin-film and conventional batteries. They are formulated into inks, which

are then printed via screen printing onto a variety of substrates.

The argument for printing batteries is mostly the one that is always used for printable

electronics, namely that printing machinery is relatively inexpensive and printing processes

are well understood and not costly in themselves. In addition, it is hoped that the printed

battery manufacturing can be integrated on the same manufacturing line with the device

being powered and on the same substrate, allowing fixed production costs that can be

allocated to both battery and device. The thinking here is best exemplified in the concept of

printed packaging, where batteries could become just another printed layer.

In fact at the current stage of product evolution, none of the advantages of printing have

completely been validated, although there are some encouraging signs from the industry that

printing will have an important role to play in the future of battery manufacture. However,

we also note that printable batteries face special challenges:

In their current form, printable batteries are not solid-state batteries. This means that

they do not offer the benefits that solid state confers, such as the ability to withstand

high temperatures.

In addition, many in the battery industry believe that only a fully printed battery will

be able to compete with conventional batteries. Where they are not entirely printed,

the manufacture of these batteries will obviously not get all the cost benefits

associated with printing.

1.1.4 Thin-Film Battery Chemistries, Materials and Technological Alternatives

There are many technology directions that are being taken to build solid-state thin-film

batteries of the kind discussed above. How these are likely to shape up, which applications

these technologies will ultimately serve and which technologies may ultimately fade away is a

major theme of this report. As applications mature, some of the chemistries and materials

used in thin-film batteries will likely prove to have a certain level of general applicability, some

will find niche applications where special conditions apply (such as in medical implants) and

others will disappear entirely.

Today, the majority of thin-film batteries are lithium based and are fairly similar to the

batteries used in mobile phones and laptop/notebook computers, at least from a chemical

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point of view. The next stage in thin-film battery evolution from lithium-ion is to lithium-ion-

polymer (LiPo), which relies on a solid electrolyte (sometimes gel) instead of a porous

substrate that has been soaked with a liquid electrolyte. These batteries offer improvements

in terms of lower cost manufacturing and robustness, and can be as thin as one millimeter.

Yet other variations of the lithium battery theme that are being commercialized are lithium

metal, lithium manganese dioxide, lithium thionyl chloride and lithium oxygen.

Lithium phosphorus oxynitride (LiPON), which was originally developed by Oak Ridge National

Laboratory, is frequently used as the electrolyte in thin-film batteries today, but other types of

electrolyte are being developed. As well, some companies are developing thin-film batteries

using chemistries other than ones based on lithium. And some of the leading edge

chemistries are much more exotic:

A few researchers have been working on using biomaterials; this is mostly work being

done in universities and research institutes, of course, but Sony is also involved.

Yet another research direction is radioisotope batteries.

Most of the more exotic materials really have no chance of becoming a mainstream battery

technology within the eight-year time frame being considered in this report. They may be at

the very beginning of a development cycle that will not result in mass-market products for

another twenty years. But they could have specialist applications in medical and military

markets well before that time

All of the major chemistries that are currently being commercialized for volume applications

of thin-film batteries have been well researched for many years, so there are unlikely to be

insurmountable barriers to progress in this area. Nonetheless, products at this early stage of

development often encounter teething problems; thin-film batteries are unlikely to be the

exception to the rule. And while the batteries that we focus on in this report are “newbie”

technologies trying to take a share of the battery market from older technologies, there may

also sometimes be other, even newer, battery technologies that represent a challenge to thin-

film batteries. These might include certain kinds of energy harvesting technologies, batteries

that use novel nanomaterials, or even thin-film fuel cells.

1.1.5 TF/Printable Battery Strategies and Changing Applications

So, are the benefits mentioned above really sufficient to make people pay more for their

batteries? And do the current limitations of printable batteries, still allow for their use? In

certain limited cases the answers to these questions already appear to be yes. We expect

these new kinds of batteries to target applications where the current battery technology is

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deficient in some way that is indicated by the list of TF/printable batteries advantages given

above. The main products in which such applications are important were already mentioned

above, although there are others that don’t quite fit into the Internet-of-things concept, such

as certain kinds of computer memory.

Still, the immediately addressable markets for TF/printable batteries are quite small, limiting

the revenues available to the makers of these batteries in the immediate future. Some of

these TF/printable battery manufacturers are, however, capturing value by moving up the

chain and selling complete products—such as cosmetic patches—in which their batteries are

used. This strategy serves both as a way to make some more money in the short term and to

demonstrate the use of the firm’s thin-film technology, which in turn—it is hoped—will lead

to more orders.

Eventually, the prices for TF/printable batteries can be expected to come down and the

market for these batteries will grow. Of considerable importance with regard to this evolution

is the likelihood of:

Improved marketing, leading to larger orders, which in turn will lead to economies of

scale

The development and use of better manufacturing technologies. Printable batteries

are, in a sense, an example of this strategy. So is integrating the manufacture of the

battery with that of the product that it will power, which carries with it obvious cost

savings.

Neither the printable or thin-film battery will ever be a panacea, however. We do not expect

thin-film batteries to represent the next generation of batteries for mobile electronics, for

example. In the distant future, thin-film batteries may have much wider applicability; there

are experiments suggesting they could be used to power cars, for example. But, in this report,

we are not primarily concerned with the more futuristic applications that have been proposed

and at this point they seem more curiosity than money-spinners.

Changes in addressable markets: In the meantime, TF/printable batteries face many

challenges apart from cost. One of these is that many of the applications at which their new

technologies are aimed are themselves new technologies that have generally not done well in

the current recession. Most notable among these is RFID. Not so long ago this was seen as a

“killer app” for TF/printable batteries, but the recession is not likely to be a good time for

retail and wholesale firms and others to implement what is, in effect, major new IT systems.

In addition, RFID is not coming down in price fast enough to really make significant

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penetrations at the item level; at least not as fast as hoped and, of course, most RFID tags

derive their power inductively and don’t need batteries anyway.

With all this in mind, makers of TF/printable batteries have turned elsewhere for first

revenues. Powered smartcards are seen as one good prospect, because they can potentially

provide very high security at a time when ID theft and other forms of abuse cost credit card

companies billions of dollars. NanoMarkets sees this as a better bet than RFID at this point in

time, but it remains an opportunity that is only just beginning to open up. (Smartcards have

been around for many years, but they have been of a type with relatively low functionality

and therefore do not need batteries.)

1.1.6 The Future

The discussion above describes the current state of the TF/printable battery market. It seems

likely that printable battery firms in the future will focus on:

Further developing their battery technology to meet specifications of important

applications and increase energy density

Improving manufacturing processes used to make the batteries, possibly employing

printing for all parts of the battery

Establishing relationships with device manufacturers (customers), especially those that

are developing devices made via printing and especially those that could lead to early

volume production.

More capacity will also need to be put in place to manufacture cells with emerging

chemistries. As we have already mentioned, thin-film batteries are not likely to grow into a

substantial and profitable industry until high-volume production can be justified. But this will

mean a call on equity investors and/or bankers for significant amounts of capital. This will be

especially challenging in the current economic environment, although we note that there has

been some VC money going into the TF/printable battery sector in the past year. Still, so far

investments in this sector have mainly been small and the new generation of batteries

discussed here does not seem to have attracted the attention of the best-known VC firms,

although there are a few important strategic investors in this space.

1.2 Objectives and Scope of this Report

The main goal of this report is to determine in which applications a substantial business case

can be made for thin-film and printable batteries. In order to reach this goal we have:

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Analyzed and quantified the opportunities for TF/printable batteries in a broad range

of applications for which they are claimed to be suited. For each of these applications,

we examine the requirements for power sources and compare current and future

performance of TF/printable batteries with the other power sources that may be used

for each application.

Examined critically, the business case “stories” being told by the leading

manufacturers of TF/printable batteries to ascertain the degree to which they jibe with

market realities

Analyzed the likely evolution of materials and battery chemistries used in the novel

batteries discussed in this report. This analysis covers both the electrodes and

electrolyte. We have also reviewed the progress being made with manufacturing

processes.

This report brings together NanoMarkets’ deep experience in the thin-film, organic and

printable electronics sector with its analysis of the latest developments in the battery field

including new products, technology breakthroughs, new licensing, financial and marketing

arrangements and recent M&A activity. And while the main objective of this report is to focus

on the evolving opportunities in TF/printable batteries, it will also seek to explain where there

have been apparent failures and analyze why these have occurred.

Applications and technologies covered: In terms of applications, in this report we have

looked primarily at RFID, smart packaging and labels, smartcards, biometric ID, point-of-

presence displays, sensors, medical diagnostic devices, medical implants and drug delivery

systems, games and novelties, cosmetic devices, battery backed-up computer memory and

embedded chips. We have given special attention to RFID and powered smartcards because

these seem to be getting widespread attention in the TF/printable batter sector. However, a

few firms have settled on a somewhat different focus, such as specialized computer memory,

and there is substantial discussion of the more niche-like areas as well.

In addition to the technologies that clearly belong in the thin-film or printable categories—

that is the main battery chemistries—we have also discussed some of the other novel small-

scale storage technologies that are emerging at this time and which either compete or

synergize with thin-film batteries.

Companies profiled: In this report, we have presented an account of the roles and strategies

of important firms in the market and their apparent successes and failures. It is far too early

in the evolution of the thin-film battery market to begin to talk about “market shares.”

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However, where a firm has some kind of current dominance in a market covered, we have

identified it as such. We believe that this report profiles all of the major firms currently

producing or close to producing thin-film or printable batteries.

It is important to note that the focus of this report is on batteries designed to power mostly

thin-film and disposable electronics, not mobile electronics. A somewhat different group of

companies and technologies are focusing on the mobile power space, although the issues in

both sectors overlap and there is some discussion of powering mobile electronics contained in

this report. Mobile electronics can cope with much larger footprints for batteries, however,

and have very different power requirements.

Geographies covered: The report is based on a worldwide view of the market, and we have

not favored companies from any particular geographic region. We strive to cast as broad a net

as possible in our efforts to research the information for this report both in terms of

applications and in terms of the national origins of the technologies being reviewed.

1.3 Methodology of this Report

As with all NanoMarkets’ reports, our assessment of the business prospects for TF/printable

batteries is based on analysis of the underlying needs for the features and capabilities that

thin-film batteries can potentially offer. We therefore believe it is vital to understand where

the actual demand will come from and what type of capabilities the market is looking for.

We have used both primary and secondary research in this report to determine where

TF/printable battery technology is headed:

The primary research came from NanoMarkets’ ongoing interview program in which

we conduct regular interviews with key executives throughout the entire thin-film,

organic and printable electronics value chain—including manufacturers of equipment

and materials and of devices and subsystems themselves. As part of that process we

have interviewed many of the main firms offering printable and thin-film batteries.

The secondary research drew on the World Wide Web, commercial databases, trade

press articles, government reports, SEC filings and other corporate literature to fill out

what is going on in this sector. NanoMarkets’ researchers have also been frequent

attendees and speakers at important trade shows and conferences of relevance to this

study.

The forecasting methodology is discussed more fully in the main body of this report.

However, it is based largely on our expectation of penetration of the important application

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sectors by TF/printable batteries. In making that assessment, we have taken into

consideration current expectations for both TF/printable battery technology and the

applications into which they will fit. This includes the likely impact of the current recessionary

environment. In the forecasting section, we have also discussed how our projections may

vary under various scenarios and how likely those scenarios are to occur.

1.4 Plan of this Report

Chapter Two of this report analyzes the main technology trends in the TF/printable battery

space, while Chapter Three provides an account of the many markets in which thin-film

batteries compete and where the novel battery types that we discuss in this report are likely

to generate money. Chapter Three also includes NanoMarkets eight-year forecasts for

TF/printable batteries. In Chapter Four, we provide profiles of the leading technology

developers and suppliers of TF/printable batteries.

Table of Contents Executive Summary E.1 Introduction: Power sources for the "Internet of Things" E.2 Making the business case for thin-film and printable batteries E.2.1 RFID E.2.2 Other retail/wholesale automation applications E.2.3 Powered smart cards E.2.4 Sensors E.2.5 Medical devices E.2.6 Semiconductor and computer applications E.3 Thin-film/printable battery chemistries of the future: opportunities for materials firms? E.4 Innovations and opportunities in thin-film manufacturing E.5 Thin-film/printable battery companies and strategies to watch E.6 Where will the funding for thin-film/printable battery companies come from? E.7 Summary of eight-year forecasts of thin-film and printable battery markets Chapter One: Introduction 1.1 Background to this report 1.1.1 Thin-film and printable batteries: What are they good for? 1.1.2 Cost problems and cost strategies 1.1.3 The business case for printable batteries 1.1.4 Thin-film battery chemistries, materials and technological alternatives 1.1.5 Thin-film/printable battery strategies and changing applications 1.1.6 The future

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1.2 Objectives and scope of this report 1.2.1 Applications and technologies covered 1.2.2 Companies profiled 1.2.3 Geographies covered 1.3 Methodology of this report 1.4 Plan of this report Chapter Two: Evolution of Thin-Film and Printable Battery Technology 2.1 What are thin-film batteries? 2.2 Thin-film battery chemistries 2.2.1 Lithium chemistries for thin-film batteries 2.2.2 LiPON electrolyte for thin-film batteries 2.3 Evolution of manufacturing technology for thin-film and printable batteries 2.3.1 Deposition and sputtering 2.3.2 The Joys and challenges of printing batteries 2.3.3 Printable battery chemistries 2.4 Comparative performance assessment of existing thin-film /printable batteries 2.4.1 Form factor and weight 2.4.2 Charge retention and charge times 2.4.3 Power density and generation capabilities 2.4.4 Substrate flexibility 2.4.5 Operating temperature 2.4.6 Lifetime 2.4.7 Safety and environmental friendliness 2.5 Technological alternatives to thin-film/printable batteries 2.5.1 Button and coin batteries: Today's alternative 2.5.2 Induction: competition at the margin 2.5.3 Organic and thin-film photovoltaics 2.7.4 Thin-film and printable fuel cells 2.7.5 Energy harvesting as an alternative to thin-film batteries 2.8 Biomaterials, nanomaterials and future batteries 2.8.1 Biothermal energy 2.8.2 Radioisotope batteries 2.9 Key Points from the chapter Chapter Three: Applications and Forecasts for Thin-Film Batteries 3.1 Introduction: No killer apps for "thin" batteries 3.2 "Thin" power for RFID, smart packaging and other retail industry applications 3.2.1 Active RFID 3.2.2 Semi-active/BAP RFID 3.2.3 Printable batteries and printable RFID 3.2.4 Powering smart packaging with "thin" batteries 3.2.5 Eight-year forecasts of thin-film and printable batteries for RFID and smart packaging 3.2.6 Electronic shelf labels/smart shelves and "thin" batteries

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3.2.7 Eight-year forecasts of thin-film and printable batteries for electronic shelf labels 3.3 "Thin" batteries for smartcards and security applications 3.3.1 Smartcards and battery power 3.3.2 Biometric ID and other access devices 3.3.3 Batteries for powered cards 3.3.4 Eight-year forecast of thin-film and printable batteries for smartcard sector 3.4 Thin-Film and printable batteries in sensing and related applications 3.4.1 Wireless sensor networks 3.4.2 Large-area sensors 3.4.3 Military sensors 3.4.4 Labs-on-a-chip and diagnostic devices 3.4.5 Eight-year forecast of thin-film and printable batteries for sensor networks 3.5 "Thin" batteries for medical and cosmetic devices 3.5.1 Implantable devices 3.5.2 Patches, bandages and batteries 3.5.3 Eight-year forecast of thin-film/printable batteries for medical applications: implants and patches 3.6 "Thin" batteries in semiconductor and computer industry applications 3.6.1 Battery-back-up computer memory and clocks 3.6.2 Eight-year forecast of thin-film and printable batteries for semiconductor/computer applications 3.7 "Thin" batteries in greetings cards, games, toys and other novelties 3.8 A note on thin-film batteries and electric cars 3.9 Eight-year forecast of thin-film/printable battery market by application 3.10 Eight-year forecast of thin-film and printable battery-powered products 3.11 Eight-year forecast of thin-film and printable batteries by chemistry 3.11 Key points made in this chapter Chapter Four: Profiles of Leading Thin Battery Firms 4.1 Thin-film battery producers 4.2 Biophan 4.2.1 NanoMarkets' perspective on Biophan 4.3 Blue Spark Technologies 4.3.1 Company background: Early printable battery technologies 4.3.2 Blue Spark, RFID and beyond: Applications for Blue Spark's batteries 4.3.3 NanoMarkets' perspective on Blue Spark 4.4 Cymbet 4.4.1 Company background: More than $50 Million in investment so far 4.4.2 EnerChip: Thin-film with integrated energy management 4.4.3 Applications: ICs and sensors mostly 4.4.4 Alliances and funding: Some big names in the mix 4.4.5 NanoMarkets' perspective on Cymbet 4.5 Enable IPC 4.5.1 Company background: IP licensing 4.5.2 Enable IPC's microbatteries: Focus on nano-cathodes 4.5.3 Applications and the need for partners

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4.5.4 NanoMarkets' perspective on Enable IPC 4.6 Enfucell 4.6.1 Company background: Paper batteries and low levels of funding 4.6.2 SofBatteries: Batteries on paper 4.6.3 Applications Targeted: The usual stuff 4.6.4 NanoMarkets' Perspective on Enfucell 4.7 Excellatron 4.7.1 Company background: It's all about manufacturing 4.7.2 Types of batteries produced: PECVD and lithium air diversification 4.7.3 NanoMarkets' assessment of Excellatron 4.8 Front Edge Technology 4.8.1 Company background: Government orientation 4.8.2 Types of batteries produced: Fast charging and LiPON 4.8.3 Customers and partners 4.8.4 Applications targeted 4.8.5 NanoMarkets' assessment of Front Edge 4.9 Geomatec 4.9.1 NanoMarkets' assessment of Geomatec 4.10 Infinite Power Solutions 4.10.1 Company background: Flexible batteries 4.10.2 Types of batteries produced: Thinergy 4.10.3 Customers and partners: Lockheed, In-Q-Tel and others 4.10.4 NanoMarkets' assessment of IPS 4.11 ITN Energy Systems 4.11.1 Types of batteries produced: PowerFiber 4.11.2 NanoMarkets' assessment of ITN 4.12 NanoEner 4.12.1 NanoMarkets' assessment of NanoEner 4.13 NEC 4.13.1 Company background: Organic electrodes 4.13.2 Types of batteries produced 4.13.3 NanoMarkets' assessment of NEC 4.14 Oak Ridge Micro-Energy 4.14.1 Company background: improvements on ORNL 4.14.2 Types of batteries produced 4.14.3 Applications targeted 4.14.4 NanoMarkets' assessment of Oak Ridge Micro-Energy 4.15 Planar Energy Devices 4.15.1 Company background 4.15.2 Types of batteries produced: PowerBlade 4.15.3 Customers, partners and applications 4.15.4 NanoMarkets' assessment of Planar Energy Devices 4.16 Power Paper and Power ID 4.16.1 Company background: Batteries and patches 4.16.2 Type of batteries produced and applications targetted 4.16.3 Customers and partners

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4.16.4 Power ID: BAP RFID 4.17 prelonic technologies 4.17.1 Company background: Display focus 4.17.2 Types of batteries produced and printing technology used 4.17.4 NanoMarkets' assessment of prelonic technologies 4.18. Rocket Electric 4.18.1 Company background 4.18.2 Type of batteries produced and printing technology used 4.18.3 NanoMarkets' assessment of Rocket Electric 4.19 Solicore 4.19.1 Company background 4.19.2 Types of batteries produced 4.19.3 Customers and partners 4.19.4 Applications targeted 4.19.53 NanoMarkets' assessment of Solicore 4.20 Ultralife 4.20.1 Company background 4.20.2 Types of batteries produced 4.20.3 Applications targeted and assessment of business strategy 4.21 Varta and the GREENBAT project 4.22 VoltaFlex 4.23 Printable battery and fuel cell development at VTT 4.23.1 Printable batteries 4.23.2 Fuel cells

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