thirsty energy: understanding the linkages between energy ... · plants (coal, nuclear,...

The boTTom line

Population growth and economic development, aggravated by climate change, will increase pressure on energy and water resources. Integrated planning can make the most of these two essential and scarce resources. Thirsty Energy, a World Bank initiative, helps countries address these issues and ensure sustainable development of both resources.

Thirsty energy: Understanding the linkages between energy and Water

Why is this issue important?

Water and energy are equally vital and inextricably linked, and integrated planning is needed to maximize both

Both water and energy are essential for economic activity and to sustain life. And both are scarce. Some 780 million of the world’s people lack access to improved water, while 2.5 billion, more than a third of the world’s population, do not have basic sanitation. Another third (2.8 billion people) lives in areas of high water stress (WWAP 2012). On the energy side, more than 1.3 billion people around the world have no access to electricity, and 1.2 billion have unreliable access (IEA 2012).

Population growth and economic development, aggravated by climate change, will increase pressure on energy and water resources. Integrated planning can make the most of these two essential and scarce resources. Energy (mainly electricity) is needed to pump, treat, transport, and desalinate water. Conversely, significant amounts of water are needed in almost all energy generation pro-cesses. Water is used to generate electricity in hydropower plants, of course, but many people are unaware that almost all thermal power plants (coal, nuclear, solar-thermal, geothermal, biomass, and natural gas combined-cycle) require large amounts of water, especially for cooling purposes. Water is also needed to extract, process, and generate fuels.

This note focuses on the water needs of the power sector.

Do power plants need all that much water?

Thermal power plants need water for cooling, but efficient plants and the right cooling system save water

Largely because of their cooling needs, thermoelectric power plants account for about 40 percent of the freshwater withdrawn each year in the United States and Europe—as much as the agriculture sector (USGS 2005; Rubbelke and Vogele 2011).

About 80 percent of the world’s electricity is generated in thermal power plants (IEA 2013). Most thermal power plants heat water to produce steam to drive the turbines to produce electricity.1 The water is heated using various energy sources (coal, oil, natural gas, uranium, solar energy, biomass, geothermal energy) depending on the type of power plant, but the principle is the same. After passing through the turbine, the steam is cooled, usually with water drawn from a river, lake, or ocean and condensed to start the cycle again (figure 1).

Because most of the water needed in thermal power plants is used for cooling,2 the amount of water withdrawn and consumed by

1 Open-cycle power plants (mainly used as peak power plants) do not use the steam cycle to turn turbines and thus do not require water for cooling. 2 The other processes for which water is required include the steam cycle, ash handling, and flue-gas desulfurization, among others. Although these processes consume relatively little water, their effluents contain pollutants and should be treated before being returned to the water source. From a plant-level economic standpoint, therefore, such processes can incur very significant costs related to wastewater treatment.

Anna Delgado is a technical specialist in water and energy in the World Bank’s Global Water Practice.

Diego J. Rodriguez is a senior economist in the in the Global Water Practice.

Antonia A. Sohns is a water and energy analyst in the Global Water Practice.

A k n o w l e d g e n o t e s e r i e s f o r t h e e n e r g y p r A c t i c e

2015/41

A k n o w l e d g e n o t e s e r i e s f o r t h e e n e r g y & e x t r A c t i v e s g l o b A l p r A c t i c e

Supported by

2 T h I r s T y E n E r g y : U n d E r s T a n d I n g T h E L I n k a g E s B E T W E E n E n E r g y a n d W a T E r

“Largely because of

their cooling needs,

thermoelectric power

plants account for about

40 percent of the

freshwater withdrawn

each year in the United

States and Europe—as

much as the agriculture

sector.”

the power plant depends chiefly on the type of cooling system used (Rodriguez and others 2013).

Once-through cooling, the simplest and cheapest system, requires large amounts of water but consumes a small fraction of it. The water is withdrawn from the water source and run once through the power plant (hence the name) to cool steam. The water is then discharged back into the source a few degrees warmer, which can cause thermal pollution. The withdrawal of large quantities of water can be harmful to fish and other aquatic organisms. Once-through cooling systems are more susceptible than others to drought or extreme heat (van Vliet and others 2012).

• Closed-loop systems are characterized by cooling towers that often are mistaken for nuclear power plants. Closed-loop systems withdraw much less water but consume most of it through evaporation. These cooling systems are more complex and expensive than once-through systems, but since they withdraw less water, they have fewer environmental effects and are less susceptible to drought.

• Dry cooling systems use air instead of water to cool steam. Their high cost and negative impact on plant efficiency limit their use.

• Hybrid cooling systems combine wet and dry cooling approaches.

Figure 1. The steam cycle in a thermal power plant

Source: Authors.


“The system employed by

the power plant affects

power plant efficiency,

capital and operating

costs, water consumption,

water withdrawal, and

environmental impacts.

Tradeoffs must be

evaluated case by case,

taking into consideration

regional and ambient

conditions and existing

regulations.”

The system employed by the power plant affects power plant efficiency, capital and operating costs, water consumption, water withdrawal, and environmental impacts. Figure 2 illustrates the tradeoffs between various systems. Those tradeoffs must be eval-uated case by case, taking into consideration regional and ambient conditions and existing regulations.

Among plants with the same type of cooling system, the amount of cooling water withdrawn and consumed is determined largely by the plants’ efficiency (Delgado 2012). Figure 3 illustrates the correlation between power plants’ water use and their efficiency (“heat rate”).

Because a new solar thermal power plant equipped with a given cooling system is still less efficient today than a new coal power plant equipped with the same system, it will require more water. However, it will require significantly less water than an old and inefficient coal power plant. This is because as power plants

Figure 3. Correlation between water use and efficiency in thermal power plants

Source: Delgado 2012.

PC = pulverized coal; FGD = flue-gas desulfurization; CCS = carbon capture and storage; NGCC = natural gas combined cycle; IGCC = integrated gasification combined cycle.

Figure 2. Tradeoffs between different types of cooling systems

Source: Authors.

0 15,00010,0005,000 20,000

Heat rate (kJ/kWh)

6,000

5,000

4,000

3,000

2,000

1,000

0

PC FGDPC without FGDPC CCSNGCCNGCC CCSIGCCIGCC CCS


“To compare power

plants in terms of their

water needs without

specifying the type of

cooling system they use

and their efficiency is very

misleading, but this has

not stopped the media

from reporting, for

example, that coal power

plants require more water

than nuclear plants and

less than solar thermal

plants.”

become more efficient, less “waste heat” remains to be dissipated after driving the turbines. This means that the cooling requirements per unit of electricity produced diminish. In figure 4, the yellow arrow becomes bigger and the blue arrow smaller.

To compare power plants in terms of their water needs without specifying the type of cooling system they use and their efficiency is very misleading, but this has not stopped the media from reporting, for example, that coal power plants require more water than nuclear plants and less than solar thermal plants.

What about other types of plants?

other power generation technologies— hydropower, wind energy, and solar photovoltaic (PV)—vary in their water needs

Because hydropower plants use the energy of moving water to turn turbines and generate electricity, hydropower planners have been aware of the linkages between energy and water for a long time. In hydropower plants, water loss is due to evaporation from dammed water upstream from the plant. Evaporation losses vary greatly depending on site location, design, and operation. So-called run-of-river hydropower plants, which store no water, have evaporative

losses near zero. (However, unlike dammed hydropower, a run-of-the-river site cannot be used to generate peak loads or during dry seasons when the flow of the river drops.) Except for losses to evaporation, the water that passes through hydropower plants can be used downstream for other purposes, such as irrigation and urban water supply. Hydropower dams can even increase water availability for downstream users when that water is needed the most, as during periods of drought.

In a world of severe energy shortages and increasing water variability, hydropower dams and their multipurpose water infra-structure will play an expanding role in providing clean energy and in allocating scarce water resources. The careful planning and equitable use of sustainable power and water infrastructure in river basins will be critical in meeting the challenge posed by the linkages between energy and water.

Wind turbines require no water for their operation. Solar PV systems require minimal quantities of water for washing the solar panels (to maintain efficiency), but because most such systems are located in arid places, the water required could be scarce.

Hydropower, wind, and solar energy plants will not replace ther-mal plants in the near future. Hydropower is location-specific—that is, only certain areas of the world have substantial potential. Wind and solar energy are intermittent and present challenges of integra-tion into the grid. Until electricity storage becomes practical on a grid scale, thermal power plants will be needed to generate dispatchable power (except in some cases where hydropower is plentiful).

What are the challenges?

Water–energy risks will grow over time, but the impacts are already being felt

The private energy sector has already recognized the inherent tension between energy and water resources. In 2012, General Electric’s director of global strategy and planning stated that water scarcity could rule out expansion of coal power plants in China and India (Pearson 2012). A 2013 report on the water risks facing the private sector found that, of the companies surveyed, 82 percent of energy and 73 percent of power utility companies believe that water presents a substantial risk to business operations. Moreover, 59

Figure 4. heat balance of a thermal power plant

Source: Authors.

Electricity

Heat tocooling

Other heat losses

Flue gas

Heatinput


“In a world of severe

energy shortages and

increasing water variability,

hydropower dams and

their multipurpose water

infrastructure will play

an expanding role in

providing clean energy and

in allocating scarce water

resources.”

percent and 67 percent, respectively, had experienced water-related business impacts in the past five years (CDP 2013). The 2012 UN Water Report, which surveyed more than 125 countries, found that nearly half said that the importance of water for energy was high or very high, compared with 9 percent that said that it was not a problem. The World Economic Forum has listed water scarcity as one of the three global systemic risks of highest concern (WEF 2014).

Given the growth of many developing countries we can antici-pate that problems at the nexus of water and energy will increase as population, economic growth, and climate change intensify competition for water resources. In the United States, France, and India, power plants have down owing to the unavailability of water for cooling or to its high temperature (U.S. Department of Energy 2013; Kanter 2007; NDTV 2013). Projects to build thermal power plants have been called into question because of their impact on water resources (Woody 2009). More frequent and longer droughts are challenging the hydropower capacity of some countries (Sirilal and Aneez 2012; Stanway 2011; Stauffer 2013).

What are our options?

The interdependencies of water and energy must be better understood and translated into policies and plans

There are ways to reduce the water requirements of the power sector—among them fostering the use of alternative cooling systems such as dry cooling (Maulbetsch 2004); expanding the role of wind and solar PV energy, which require little or no water for their opera-tion; using alternative water sources for cooling, such as municipal waste water (U.S. Department of Energy 2009); exploring the use of multipurpose dams; improving power plant efficiency; and reusing waste heat (for example, to heat buildings or homes).

At a regional level, there is much to be gained by bringing together two sectors that traditionally have been planned and managed separately, understanding the trade-offs they present, and seeking integrated and efficient solutions consistent with sustainable development.

To make informed decisions and avoid irreversible conse-quences, it will be crucial to improve our understanding of water and

energy interdependencies. In January 2014 the World Bank launched the Thirsty Energy initiative, the aim of which is to help countries address their water and energy challenges by:

• Identifying synergies and quantifying trade-offs between energy development and water use

• Piloting cross-sectoral planning to ensure sustainability of energy and water investments

• Designing assessment tools and management frameworks to help governments coordinate decision-making and to mainstream water requirements into energy planning.

More information on the initiative can be found at: www.worldbank.org/thirstyenergy.

References

CDP (Carbon Disclosure Project). 2013. “ Moving beyond business as usual: A need for a step change in water risk management—CDP Global Water Report 2013.” London. https://www.cdp.net/CDPResults/CDP-Global-Water-Report-2013.pdf.

Delgado, A. 2012. “Water Footprint of Electric Power Generation: Modeling its use and analyzing options for a water-scarce future.” MS thesis, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA. https://sequestration.mit.edu/pdf/AnnaDelgado_Thesis_June2012.pdf.

IEA (International Energy Agency). 2012. World Energy Outlook 2012. Paris.

———. 2013. World Energy Outlook 2013. Paris.Kanter, J. 2007. “Climate change puts nuclear energy into hot water.”

New York Times, May 20. http://www.nytimes.com/2007/05/20/health/20iht-nuke.1.5788480.html?pagewanted=all.

Maulbetsch, J. 2004. “Comparison of Alternate Cooling Technologies for U.S. Power Plants: Economic, Environmental, and Other Tradeoffs.” Electric Power Research Institute, Palo Alto, CA, USA.

NDTV. 2013. “Maharashtra: Parli power plant shuts down after severe water crisis.” February 17. http://www.ndtv.com/article/india/maharashtra-parli-power-plant-shuts-down-after-severe-water-crisis-331952.

http://www.worldbank.org/thirstyenergy

https://sequestration.mit.edu/pdf/AnnaDelgado_Thesis_June2012.pdf

https://sequestration.mit.edu/pdf/AnnaDelgado_Thesis_June2012.pdf

http://www.ndtv.com/article/india/maharashtra-parli-power-plant-shuts-down-after-severe-water-crisis-331952




Pearson, Natalie Obiko. 2012. “Asia Risks Water Scarcity Amid Coal-Fired Power Embrace.” Bloomberg Business. http://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2012-09-09/asian-water-scarcity-risked-as-coal-fired-power-embraced.

Rodriguez, Diego J., Anna Delgado, Pat DeLaquil, and Antonia Sohns. 2013. “Thirsty Energy.” World Bank, Washington DC. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/16536.

Rubbelke, D., and S. Vogele. 2011. “Impacts of climate change on European critical infrastructures: The case of the power sector.” Environmental Science Policy 14: 53–63.

Sirilal, R., and Shihar Aneez. 2012. “Sri Lanka extends daily power cut as Chinese plant fails again.” Reuters, August 13. http://in.reuters.com/article/2012/08/13/srilanka-power-idINDEE87C0AC20120813.

Stanway, D. 2011. Reuters, “ China power crunch to worsen as drought slashes hydro.” Reuters, May 25. http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/05/25/us-china-drought-hydropower-idUSTRE74O1BK20110525.

Stauffer, C. 2013. “Worst drought in decades hits Brazil’s Northeast.” Reuters, January 4. http://www.reuters.com/article/2013/01/04/us-brazil-drought-idUSBRE9030HM20130104.

UN Water. 2012. “Status Report on The Application of Integrated Approaches to Water Resources Management.” http://www.un.org/waterforlifedecade/pdf/un_water_status_report_2012.pdf.

U.S. Department of Energy. 2009. “Use of Non-Traditional Water for Power Plant Applications: An Overview of DOE/NETL R&D Efforts.” http://www.netl.doe.gov/File%20Library/Research/ Coal/ewr/water/Use-of-Nontraditional-Water-for-Power- Plant-Applications.pdf.

———. 2013. “U.S. Energy Sector Vulnerabilities to Climate Change and Extreme Weather.” http://energy.gov/sites/prod/files/2013/07/f2/20130710-Energy-Sector-Vulnerabilities-Report.pdf.

USGS (United States Geological Survey). 2005. “Estimated Use of Water in the United States in 2005.” http://pubs.usgs.gov/circ/1344/pdf/c1344.pdf.

van Vliet, M., J. Yearsley, F. Ludwig, S. Vögele, D. Lettenmaier, and P. Kabat. 2012. “Vulnerability of US and European electricity supply to climate change,” Nature Climate Change 9: 676–681.

Woody, T. 2009. “Alternative Energy Projects Stumble on a Need for Water.” New York Times, September 29. http://www.nytimes.com/2009/09/30/business/energy-environment/30water.html?pagewanted=1&_r=2.

WWAP (World Water Assessment Program). 2012. “The United Nations World Water Development Report 4.” UNESCO, Paris.

WEF (World Economic Forum). 2014. “Global Risks 2014. Ninth Edition.” http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_GlobalRisks_Report_2014.pdf.

The authors thank Rikard Liden, senior hydropower specialist in the World Bank Group, for his contributions to the hydropower section.

make fURTheR connecTions

Live Wire 2014/18. “Exploiting Market-Based Mechanisms to Meet Utilities’ Energy Efficiency Obligations,” by Jonathan sinton and Joeri de Wit.

Live Wire 2014/26. “doubling the share of renewable Energy in the global Energy Mix,” by gabriela Elizondo azuela and Irina Bushueva.

Live Wire 2014/36. “supporting hydropower in the developing World: an Overview of World Bank group Engagement,” by William rex, Julia Bucknall, Vivien Foster, rikard Liden, and kimberly Lyon.

Live Wire 2015/38. “Integrating Variable renewable Energy into Power system Operations,” by Thomas nikolakakis and debabrata Chatopadhyay.

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1 T r a c k i n g P r o g r e s s T o w a r d P r o v i d i n g s u s T a i n a b l e e n e r g y f o r a l l i n e a s T a s i a a n d T h e Pa c i f i c

THE BOTTOM LINE

where does the region stand

on the quest for sustainable

energy for all? in 2010, eaP

had an electrification rate of

95 percent, and 52 percent

of the population had access

to nonsolid fuel for cooking.

consumption of renewable

energy decreased overall

between 1990 and 2010, though

modern forms grew rapidly.

energy intensity levels are high

but declining rapidly. overall

trends are positive, but bold

policy measures will be required

to sustain progress.

2014/28

Elisa Portale is an

energy economist in

the Energy Sector

Management Assistance

Program (ESMAP) of the

World Bank’s Energy and Extractives

Global Practice.

Joeri de Wit is an

energy economist in

the Bank’s Energy and

Extractives Global

Practice.

A K N O W L E D G E N O T E S E R I E S F O R T H E E N E R G Y & E X T R A C T I V E S G L O B A L P R A C T I C E

Tracking Progress Toward Providing Sustainable Energy

for All in East Asia and the Pacific

Why is this important?

Tracking regional trends is critical to monitoring

the progress of the Sustainable Energy for All

(SE4ALL) initiative

In declaring 2012 the “International Year of Sustainable Energy for

All,” the UN General Assembly established three objectives to be

accomplished by 2030: to ensure universal access to modern energy

services,1 to double the 2010 share of renewable energy in the global

energy mix, and to double the global rate of improvement in energy

efficiency relative to the period 1990–2010 (SE4ALL 2012).

The SE4ALL objectives are global, with individual countries setting

their own national targets in a way that is consistent with the overall

spirit of the initiative. Because countries differ greatly in their ability

to pursue the three objectives, some will make more rapid progress

in one area while others will excel elsewhere, depending on their

respective starting points and comparative advantages as well as on

the resources and support that they are able to marshal.

To sustain momentum for the achievement of the SE4ALL

objectives, a means of charting global progress to 2030 is needed.

The World Bank and the International Energy Agency led a consor-

tium of 15 international agencies to establish the SE4ALL Global

Tracking Framework (GTF), which provides a system for regular

global reporting, based on rigorous—yet practical, given available

1 The universal access goal will be achieved when every person on the planet has access

to modern energy services provided through electricity, clean cooking fuels, clean heating fuels,

and energy for productive use and community services. The term “modern cooking solutions”

refers to solutions that involve electricity or gaseous fuels (including liquefied petroleum gas),

or solid/liquid fuels paired with stoves exhibiting overall emissions rates at or near those of

liquefied petroleum gas (www.sustainableenergyforall.org).

databases—technical measures. This note is based on that frame-

work (World Bank 2014). SE4ALL will publish an updated version of

the GTF in 2015.

The primary indicators and data sources that the GTF uses to

track progress toward the three SE4ALL goals are summarized below.

• Energy access. Access to modern energy services is measured

by the percentage of the population with an electricity

connection and the percentage of the population with access

to nonsolid fuels.2 These data are collected using household

surveys and reported in the World Bank’s Global Electrification

Database and the World Health Organization’s Household Energy

Database.

• Renewable energy. The share of renewable energy in the

energy mix is measured by the percentage of total final energy

consumption that is derived from renewable energy resources.

Data used to calculate this indicator are obtained from energy

balances published by the International Energy Agency and the

United Nations.

• Energy efficiency. The rate of improvement of energy efficiency

is approximated by the compound annual growth rate (CAGR)

of energy intensity, where energy intensity is the ratio of total

primary energy consumption to gross domestic product (GDP)

measured in purchasing power parity (PPP) terms. Data used to

calculate energy intensity are obtained from energy balances

published by the International Energy Agency and the United

Nations.

2 Solid fuels are defined to include both traditional biomass (wood, charcoal, agricultural

and forest residues, dung, and so on), processed biomass (such as pellets and briquettes), and

other solid fuels (such as coal and lignite).

1 T r a c k i n g P r o g r e s s To wa r d P r o v i d i n g s u s Ta i n a b l e e n e r g y f o r a l l i n e a s T e r n e u r o P e a n d c e n T r a l a s i a

THE BOTTOM LINE



energy for all? The region

has near-universal access to

electricity, and 93 percent of

the population has access


despite relatively abundant

hydropower, the share

of renewables in energy

consumption has remained

relatively low. very high energy

intensity levels have come

down rapidly. The big questions

are how renewables will evolve

when energy demand picks up

again and whether recent rates

of decline in energy intensity

will continue.

2014/29

Elisa Portale is an

energy economist in

the Energy Sector




Global Practice.

Joeri de Wit is an

energy economist in


Extractives Global

Practice.



for All in Eastern Europe and Central Asia




(SE4ALL) initiative


All,” the UN General Assembly established three global objectives

to be accomplished by 2030: to ensure universal access to modern

energy services,1 to double the 2010 share of renewable energy in

the global energy mix, and to double the global rate of improvement

in energy efficiency relative to the period 1990–2010 (SE4ALL 2012).






















the GTF in 2015.



Energy access. Access to modern energy services is measured

by the percentage of the population with an electricity connection

and the percentage of the population with access to nonsolid fuels.2

These data are collected using household surveys and reported

in the World Bank’s Global Electrification Database and the World

Health Organization’s Household Energy Database.

Renewable energy. The share of renewable energy in the energy

mix is measured by the percentage of total final energy consumption

that is derived from renewable energy resources. Data used to

calculate this indicator are obtained from energy balances published

by the International Energy Agency and the United Nations.

Energy efficiency. The rate of improvement of energy efficiency is

approximated by the compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of energy

intensity, where energy intensity is the ratio of total primary energy

consumption to gross domestic product (GDP) measured in purchas-

ing power parity (PPP) terms. Data used to calculate energy intensity

are obtained from energy balances published by the International

Energy Agency and the United Nations.

This note uses data from the GTF to provide a regional and

country perspective on the three pillars of SE4ALL for Eastern




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for practitioners inside

and outside the Bank.

It is a resource to

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counterparts.”

1 U n d e r s t a n d i n g C O 2 e m i s s i O n s f r O m t h e g l O b a l e n e r g y s e C t O r

Understanding CO2 Emissions from the Global Energy Sector

Why is this issue important?

Mitigating climate change requires knowledge of the

sources of CO2 emissions

Identifying opportunities to cut emissions of greenhouse gases

requires a clear understanding of the main sources of those emis-

sions. Carbon dioxide (CO2) accounts for more than 80 percent of

total greenhouse gas emissions globally,1 primarily from the burning

of fossil fuels (IFCC 2007). The energy sector—defined to include

fuels consumed for electricity and heat generation—contributed 41

percent of global CO2 emissions in 2010 (figure 1). Energy-related

CO2 emissions at the point of combustion make up the bulk of such

emissions and are generated by the burning of fossil fuels, industrial

waste, and nonrenewable municipal waste to generate electricity

and heat. Black carbon and methane venting and leakage emissions

are not included in the analysis presented in this note.

Where do emissions come from?

Emissions are concentrated in a handful of countries

and come primarily from burning coal

The geographical pattern of energy-related CO2 emissions closely

mirrors the distribution of energy consumption (figure 2). In 2010,

almost half of all such emissions were associated with the two

largest global energy consumers, and more than three-quarters

were associated with the top six emitting countries. Of the remaining

energy-related CO2 emissions, about 8 percent were contributed

by other high-income countries, another 15 percent by other

1 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, Greenhouse Gas Inventory

Data—Comparisons By Gas (database). http://unfccc.int/ghg_data/items/3800.php

middle-income countries, and only 0.5 percent by all low-income

countries put together.

Coal is, by far, the largest source of energy-related CO2 emissions

globally, accounting for more than 70 percent of the total (figure 3).

This reflects both the widespread use of coal to generate electrical

power, as well as the exceptionally high CO2 intensity of coal-fired

power (figure 4). Per unit of energy produced, coal emits significantly

more CO2 emissions than oil and more than twice as much as natural

gas.

2014/5

THE BOTTOM LINE

the energy sector contributes

about 40 percent of global

emissions of CO2. three-

quarters of those emissions

come from six major

economies. although coal-fired

plants account for just

40 percent of world energy

production, they were

responsible for more than

70 percent of energy-sector

emissions in 2010. despite

improvements in some

countries, the global CO2

emission factor for energy

generation has hardly changed

over the last 20 years.

Vivien Foster is sector

manager for the Sus-

tainable Energy Depart-

ment at the World Bank

([email protected]).

Daron Bedrosyan

works for London

Economics in Toronto.

Previously, he was an

energy analyst with the

World Bank’s Energy Practice.

A K N O W L E D G E N O T E S E R I E S F O R T H E E N E R G Y P R A C T I C E

Figure 1. CO2 emissions

by sector

Figure 2. energy-related CO2

emissions by country

Energy41%

Roadtransport

16%

Othertransport

6%

Industry20%

Residential6%

Othersectors

10%China30%

USA19%

EU11%

India7%

Russia7%

Japan 4%

Other HICs8%

Other MICs15%

LICs0.5%

Notes: Energy-related CO2 emissions are CO2 emissions from the energy sector at the point

of combustion. Other Transport includes international marine and aviation bunkers, domestic

aviation and navigation, rail and pipeline transport; Other Sectors include commercial/public

services, agriculture/forestry, fishing, energy industries other than electricity and heat genera-

tion, and other emissions not specified elsewhere; Energy = fuels consumed for electricity and

heat generation, as defined in the opening paragraph. HIC, MIC, and LIC refer to high-, middle-,

and low-income countries.

Source: IEA 2012a.

1 T r a c k i n g P r o g r e s s To wa r d P r o v i d i n g s u s Ta i n a b l e e n e r g y f o r a l l i n e a s T e r n e u r o P e a n d c e n T r a l a s i a

THE BOTTOM LINE



energy for all? The region

has near-universal access to

electricity, and 93 percent of

the population has access


despite relatively abundant

hydropower, the share

of renewables in energy

consumption has remained

relatively low. very high energy

intensity levels have come

down rapidly. The big questions

are how renewables will evolve

when energy demand picks up

again and whether recent rates

of decline in energy intensity

will continue.

2014/29

Elisa Portale is an

energy economist in

the Energy Sector




Global Practice.

Joeri de Wit is an

energy economist in


Extractives Global

Practice.



for All in Eastern Europe and Central Asia




(SE4ALL) initiative


All,” the UN General Assembly established three global objectives

to be accomplished by 2030: to ensure universal access to modern

energy services,1 to double the 2010 share of renewable energy in

the global energy mix, and to double the global rate of improvement

in energy efficiency relative to the period 1990–2010 (SE4ALL 2012).






















the GTF in 2015.



Energy access. Access to modern energy services is measured

by the percentage of the population with an electricity connection

and the percentage of the population with access to nonsolid fuels.2

These data are collected using household surveys and reported

in the World Bank’s Global Electrification Database and the World

Health Organization’s Household Energy Database.

Renewable energy. The share of renewable energy in the energy

mix is measured by the percentage of total final energy consumption

that is derived from renewable energy resources. Data used to

calculate this indicator are obtained from energy balances published

by the International Energy Agency and the United Nations.

Energy efficiency. The rate of improvement of energy efficiency is

approximated by the compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of energy

intensity, where energy intensity is the ratio of total primary energy

consumption to gross domestic product (GDP) measured in purchas-

ing power parity (PPP) terms. Data used to calculate energy intensity

are obtained from energy balances published by the International

Energy Agency and the United Nations.

This note uses data from the GTF to provide a regional and

country perspective on the three pillars of SE4ALL for Eastern




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